1.

0 Introduction:
The sudden, imperceptible sinking or gradual downward settling of land with little or no hazard motion or lowering of land surface over subterranean voids is the subsidence. It may affect small (few square meters) or large (thousand meter square). Subsidence is caused by loss of subsurface support which may result from number of natural and human caused occurrences including subsurface mining or pumping of oil or ground water. Land subsidence event, depending on where they occur, can pose significant risk to health and safety or interruption to transportation and other services.

2.0 GENESIS, CHARACTERISTICS AND SUB-TYPES: 2.1 Genesis

Subsidence (land surface shrink) occurs in many part of the world particularly in density populated deltaic regions such as tectonic motion and see level rise from man induced caused such as the heavy withdrawal of ground water, geothermal fluids, oil and gas or the extraction of coal, sulphur, gold and the other solids through mining, or underground construction (tunneling) or from other mixed causes, such as hydro compaction of loosely deposited sediments, oxidation and shrinkage of organic deposits or the development of sinkholes in karstic terrain. Mine subsidence is the collapsed of the ground surface over areas where coal or mineral ores were removed. Subsidence causes ground surface deformation resulting in range of problems from deep holes with vertical sides that pose physical threat to the people. Land subsidence is an environmental geological phenomena of regional ground elevation reduced, caused by the soil of surface crust compression under natural

and man made factor and it is a permanent loss of environment and resources which is non-compensated

2.2 SUBSIDENCE CHARACTERISTICS

Subsidence is characterized by; 1. Exhibit spatial and temporal variation depends on corresponding variation of ground water extraction. 2. Coupled with characteristic of sedimentary layers and building loads above it. 2.3 TYPES OF SUBSIDENCE: There are two types of subsidence. Pit subsidence creates a hole 6 to 8 feet deep and 2 to 40 feet across (although most are less than 16 feet in diameter). Sag subsidence create a depression over a broad area up to several hundred feet long and a few hundred feet wide

2.3.1 NATURAL OCCURAING SUBSIDENCES; 1. Land subsidence caused by consolidation of alluvial soil and tectonic subsidence. 2. Land subsidence due to fast rainfall infiltration through fractures in to unsaturated zone. 3. Land subsidence associated with intense erosion zone. 4. Subsidence induced by geothermal fluid. 2.2.2 HUMAN INDUCED SUBSIDENCES; 1. Subsidence induced by hydrocarbon production, due to decrease in pore pressure in the reservoir which caused the reservoir to compact.

2. Subsidence due to gas extraction. The compaction of the soil is due either, to water or gas extraction from under ground layer. 3. Land subsidence due induced by back fill mining metals mine. 4. Subsidence induced by load construction( i.e. settlement of high compressibility soil) 5. Land subsidence due related with geological and geochemical processes. 6. Land subsidence caused by shield construction. 7. Subsidence caused by change in thickness of compacting sediment, abrupt changes in stratigraphy. 3.0 EFFECT OF SUBSIDENCE (PRIMARY AND SECONDARY) 3.1 PRIMARY EFFECTS OF SUBSIDENCE Produces uplift at ground surface. The uplift is of two types, 1. A gentle up warping and bending of surface sediment producing a regional high called Tiptonville Dome. 2. A more localized raised area which is the dome called Tiptonville. Deep areal liquefaction (DAL) induced vibratory ground motion over a large area caused the soil to compact, densify, settle and subside so much as 20 feet. Produces violent flooding. Loss of homes, business and land. Largest social effects are expected by subsidence over areas of fluid withdrawal Especially in coastal areas where widespread subsidence leads to flooding or increase the possibility of potential flooding i.e. loss of land due to inundation, flooding during period of high winter. Retrograde motion of the river Create temporary dams that lead to water falls.

3.2 SECONDARY EFFECTS OF SUBSIDENCE Hydrologic impact(ground water and surface water) Formation of open cracks fissures or pit. If connected either directly or indirectly to surface water (stream, lakes ponds) may lead to partial loss of water. Result to impact overlying strata. Depletion of the aquifer. 4.0 MEASUREMENT AND INSTRUMENTATION I. II. Persistent scatter Interferometer (PSI) is the power satellite- based remote teqnique used to measure and monitor surface deformation. Interferometer of satellite radar data collected are used to determine the location, extent and magnitude of land subsidence associated with ground water level decline. PS inSAR : Technology that measure the change of ground level. Global positioning system (GPS) is used to measure subsidence. It collects data. The subsidence is correlated with parameters responsible for subsidence Wells are equipped with markers measurements and data are require on yearly bases on number of wells. In situ compaction

III. IV.

V. VI.

5.0 PROTECTION MEASURES OF SUBISEDNCE Land use and resource extraction must be regulated. Management of non renewable resources, mining, water and gas withdrawal. The oil and gas industry is requested to report consistently on its sustainability due to environmental awareness with particular reference to potential subsidence problem. Ground water level and should be monitored by considerable monitoring wells. Pumping control to recovered ground water

 Monitoring system is important for sustainable used of ground water, oil and gas extraction. Every company involved in such activities of gas and oil exploration has to summit a production plan which considers potential land subsidence issues for approval to the authorities. The plan provides contour maps of the subsidence to be expected. Monitoring formation compaction by use of Fiber Optics Sensor that determine formation compaction and how much volume of compaction. You can evaluate when subsidence occurs. 6.0 PREDICTION AND MONITORING TOOLS AND APPROACHES Prediction can be make by a) Maps E.e. in mined areas, estimation of future subsidence may be made if information is available in: - Distribution of under ground cavities - Thickness of roof rocks - History of subsidence of similar cavities E.g. in ground water areas - Area affected declining hydraulic head can be outlined. - Nature of underlying sediments known b) Areal predictions - Maps showing relative risk of future subsidence - Map derived by combination of: Relationship between distribution of existing subsidence areas and depth to mining works Combustion areas (occurred/occurring) - Greatest subsidence risk

 Infrared areal photography vegetation patterns- disruption in ground water system caused by presence of cavities. Comprehensive Predictions: Difficult
Try to specify scale area, timing of future subsidence

7.0 Case studies: 7.1 Subsidence case study in Nakuru area of Central rift valley/ Kenya Several areas of Nakuru Town and its environs often undergo subsidence along the parallel fault zones and often heavy rainfalls. During the rainy season when most of subsidence occurs, the overlying unconsolidated volcanoclastic sediments become over saturated with water. The water reduces the shear strength of the sediments and also introduces extra loading through saturation leading to subterranean erosion along fault. The unconsolidated sediments collapsed in to the subsurface water channels, which closely follow the fault zone. The ground subsidence in the study area, have caused several fatalities, destroyed settlement and physical infrastructure. Mitigation measures including control, channelizing of drainage, proper engineering practices and appropriate land use are suggested 7.2 Case study of subsidence in interstratified sedimentary bedrock in parking garage/ Ethiopia The case study illustrated the investigation of subsidence on multilevel Posttension cast-in-pace concrete parking garage that was constructed at the crest and over side of gentle sloping. A comprehensive investigation was conducted to determine the cause of the subsidence. The investigation included core boring through the underlying bedrock and the use of a down hole camera to determine the rock conditions. It was concluded that the subsidence was caused by the collapsed of a large cavity underlying the sandstone. A grunting program was performed to reduce the potential subsidence in the future.

7.3 Case study for subsidence in Kerman/ Iran: Uncontrolled withdrawal of water in recent years has caused numerous problems such as subsidence due to the falling of subsurface water table. This case studying, deals with harmful effects of subsurface water withdrawal in the City of Kerman, and practical monitoring of the subsidence and make prediction of land subsidence. The artificial neutral network has been used for modeling the result and prediction of the land subsidence. The artificial surveying network with more than 500 installed benchmark in an area of 334 km2 has been used to measure of the city area. The resulting model showed that the subsidence varies between zero to 15cm per year in different part of the city, which depend on the subsidence -layered soil, their compressibility, and the manor of subsurface withdrawal. 8.0 Conclusion: With respect to subsidence and hydraulic impact underground hard rock metals mine, underground hard rock causes surface, subsurface and hydraulic impact that negatively impact environment. As the ultimate result for subsidence is damage and lose of properties, it is recommended that the mitigation measures are very important to be imposed on the companies or industrial companies that invest on the exploitation of natural resources that are responsible for subsidence hazards to occur, as well as world is increasing population, the exploitation of the mentioned activities increases therefore, special monitoring procedures is needed.

List of contents:

Page

1.0 Introduction1 2.0 Genesis, characteristics and subtypes..1 2.1 genesis1 2.2 Subsidence characteristic....2 2.3 Types of subsidence..2 2.3.1 Natural occurring subsidence..2 2.3.2Human induced subsidence..2 3.0 Effect of subsidence...3 3.1 Primary effect.3 3.2 Secondary effect3 4.0 Measurement and instrumentation.4 5.0 Protection measures..4 6.0 Prediction and monitoring....5 7.0 Case studies..6 7.1 Case study in Nakuru/Kenya.6 7.2 case study / Ethiopia..6 7.2 Case study in Iran.6 8.0 Conclusion....7

UNIVERSITY OF NAIROBI
DEPARTMENT OF GEOLOGY
SGL 508: ENVIRONMENTAL GEOLOGY Assignment On Subsidence Hazards:

Genesis, characteristics, subtypes, effect of hazards, measurement of hazards, protection measures, prediction and monitoring tools and approaches and case studies of subsidence.
Compiled By:

Dhieu Bec Ater Kcuol- I56/63299

LECTURER
Dr. D.O. Olago
25th Jan 2011

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