Materials Science and Engineering A 390 (2005) 326333

Inuence of alloying elements on as-cast microstructure and strength of gray iron

W. Xua,b , M. Ferryb, , Y. Wanga
b a Department of Materials Science and Engineering, Xian University of Technology, Xian, PR China School of Materials Science and Engineering, University of New South Wales, Sydney, NSW 2052, Australia

Received 27 February 2004; received in revised form 5 August 2004

Abstract Casting experiments were carried out to produce gray cast irons with compositions in the range (wt.%): Fe3.2CwCuxMoyMnzSi, where w = 0.781.79, x = 0.111.17, y = 0.682.34 and z = 1.412.32. These key elements were varied systematically during sand casting into 30-mm diameter bars to assess their inuence on the development of microstructure and mechanical properties. It was found that microstructures ranging from fully pearlitic to an intimate mixture of retained austenite and bainitic ferrite, termed ausferrite, were produced and a reasonable linear correlation was observed between ausferrite volume fraction and strength. The optimum combination of mechanical properties was achieved in an alloy of approximate composition Fe3.2C1.0Cu0.7Mo0.55Mn2.0Si, which generated 100% ausferrite without alloy carbides. This alloy has a microstructure and mechanical properties comparable to austempered gray iron without many of the problems associated with austempering. 2004 Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved.
Keywords: Gray cast iron; Microstructure; Casting; Ausferrite

1. Introduction Gray iron is a broad class of ferrous casting alloys normally characterised by a microstructure of ake graphite in a ferrous matrix. It is essentially a FeCSi alloy containing small quantities of other alloying elements, and the most widely used casting alloy with an annual production worldwide in the order of 6 million tons, which is several times that of other metal castings [1]. The microstructure of gray iron usually consists of ake graphite and a matrix of pearlite and/or ferrite, which its mechanical properties, machining performance, etc. mainly depend on. Conventional gray irons have a pearlite matrix and a tensile strength ranging from 140 to 400 MPa. The principal means of improving the mechanical properties is to decrease the carbon equivalent, which reduces the percentage of graphite and increases that of pearlite. Table 1 shows the

Corresponding author. Tel.: +61 2 9385 4436; fax: +61 2 9385 5956. E-mail address: m.ferry@unsw.edu.au (M. Ferry).

commercial grades of gray iron and the associated mechanical properties. In order to improve the properties of gray iron, research on the development of the ausferrite microstructure has been carried out for over 40 years [26]. A particularly important improvement in properties is a result of the development of austempered gray iron [37]. Austempered gray irons offer the engineer alternatives to conventional material/process combinations [7]. Due to austempering, the matrix of ferritic or pearlitic gray iron changes to an acicular microstructure, consisting of 7080% bainitic ferrite without carbide and 2030% retained austenite. Such a structure has been termed ausferrite [6]. It has been shown that such a matrix structure produces gray iron with a unique combination of high strength, wear resistance, vibration and/or sound damping and fracture toughness [6,7]. A conventional austempering heat treatment of gray iron involves austenitising at a temperature 840900 C, holding for several hours depending on composition and casting thickness, followed by austempering at 230425 C [6,7].

0921-5093/$ see front matter 2004 Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved. doi:10.1016/j.msea.2004.08.030

W. Xu et al. / Materials Science and Engineering A 390 (2005) 326333 Table 1 Composition and mechanical properties of various classes of gray iron [8] Class 20 25 30 35 40 50 60 Total carbon (wt.%) 3.403.60 3.103.30 2.953.15 2.703.00 2.502.85 Total silicon (wt.%) 2.302.50 2.102.30 1.702.00 1.702.00 1.902.10 Tensile strength (MPa) 152 179 214 252 293 362 431 Transverse load on test bar (kg f) 839 987 1145 1293 1440 1633 1678

327

Hardness (HB) 156 174 210 212 235 262 302

While this heat treatment schedule generates gray iron with an excellent range of properties, it requires considerable energy, production space, and may cause environmental pollution, as well as oxidation and cracking of components. These problems have restricted the widespread production of austempered gray iron, thereby instigating research into the development of ausferritic gray iron by direct casting [5]. The present work is intended to show how systematic variations in alloying additions to a conventional gray iron during casting can generate an alloy exhibiting an austeniticbainitic ferrite (ausferritic) microstructure with mechanical properties comparable to austempered gray iron.

75Si25Fe alloy. For metallographic samples, moulds were made from resin-bonded dry silica sand with moulds for mechanical test samples also produced with dry silica sand but clay-bonded and painted with a water-base graphite paint. Both types of mould generated the same cooling characteristics during casting as well as the same microstructure [9]. The casting temperature was 13801420 C. Following casting, all moulds containing the samples were air-cooled to room temperature. 2.2. Metallography and mechanical properties Cylindrical bars of 120 mm 30 mm and 350 mm 30 mm were cast for metallographic examination and mechanical testing, respectively, with the latter used for the determination of transverse fracture stress (TFS) and Charpy impact testing [9]. Specimens for determining the ultimate tensile stress (UTS) were machined from the bottom half of each fractured transverse specimen. For a given composition, three specimens were cast and the microstructure and mechanical properties were determined. Following casting, samples for optical metallography were sectioned normal to the long axis of the cylindrical bars and, following mechanical testing, fracture surfaces were examined using Hitachi S4500 eld emission gun scanning electron microscope (FEGSEM). Volume fraction measurements of the matrix microconstituents (ferrite, pearlite, ausferrite, martensite and graphite) were carried out using Adobe Photoshop 6.0 coupled with optical microscopy using a Nikon Epiphot 200 attached with a Nikon digital camera DXM 1200. For each sample, six random elds were analysed at 100 magnication with the volume fraction of microconstituents determined by quantitative metallography.

2. Experimental 2.1. Materials and casting procedure The principal aim of the present work was to determine the inuence of key alloying elements on microstructural development of gray iron and its effect on mechanical properties. Casting experiments were carried out using a base alloy composition produced from master alloys (Table 2) and by the systematic variation of major alloying elements: Mo, Mn, Si and Cu. The base composition shown in Table 2 corresponds to a class 35 alloy (Table 1). Table 2 also shows how Mo, Mn, Si and Cu were systematically varied from this base composition. The base gray iron was melted in an induction furnace at a temperature of 1500 C, in which master alloys were added to the melt to generate a desired composition. Following thorough mixing at a temperature in the range 14801520 C, a portion of the melt with the required composition was poured into a ladle where it was inoculated with 0.5 wt.% of
Table 2 The range of alloys used in this work (wt.%) Element Base alloy composition (wt.%) Composition of control alloys (wt.%) C 3.2

Mo <0.005 1.0Cu 0.55Mn 2.0Si 0.111.17a

Mn 0.55 1.0Cu 0.32Mo 1.80Si 0.682.34a

Si 1.41 1.0Cu 0.32Mo 1.05Mn 1.412.32

Cu <0.005 0.32 and 0.53Mo 0.55Mn 2.0Si 0.781.79

Alloying element concentration range added to the control alloys (metallographic samples)

The base alloy composition is given in row 2; the control alloys given in row 3, and alloying elements varied in these control alloys is given in row 6. a Range of compositions for mechanical testing samples was 0.641.54% Mo and 01.04% Mn.

328

W. Xu et al. / Materials Science and Engineering A 390 (2005) 326333

3. Results and discussion 3.1. Inuence of alloying elements on microstructural development 3.1.1. Molybdenum For a constant base composition (wt.%) Fe3.2C1.0Cu0.55Mn2.0Si, Mo was added to melt in the range x = 0.111.17 (wt.%). The inuence of Mo on microstructural development is given both in Table 3 and Fig. 1a, where it can be seen that greater than 0.62% Mo generates a matrix microstructure of 100% ausferrite (bainitic ferrite, B , + austenite, ) without changing the graphite morphology. Representative optical and SEM micrographs of an alloy containing 0.62% Mo are given in Fig. 2 showing the uniform distribution of type E ake graphite (Fig. 2a) in a matrix of B and (labelled in Fig. 2b). For low Mo contents, pearlite is produced in a lamellar morphology similar to pearlite in steel, while for higher Mo levels, ausferrite is produced as an acicular distribution of ferrite in a matrix of austenite. A Mo content in excess of 0.95% was found to generate molybdenum carbides at eutectic cell boundaries. 3.1.2. Manganese and silicon 3.1.2.1. Fe3.2C1.0CuyMnzSi. Limited casting experiments were carried out on a Mo-free alloy by increasing either Mn or Si up to 2.75 and 2.9%, respectively [9]. In the absence of Mo, ausferrite was not generated during casting and a pearlitic microstructure was produced with a low volume fraction of martensite. 3.1.2.2. Fe3.2C1.0Cu0.32MoyMnzSi. For this alloy, the effect of both Mn and Si in the range 0.682.34 and 1.412.32%, respectively, on the formation of the ausferrite microstructure are given in Table 4 with the effect of composition on microstructure shown in Fig. 3. The results indicate that, in the presence of 0.32% Mo, both Mn and Si promote the formation of ausferrite and Mn and Si contents greater than 1.02 and 1.41%, respectively, were required to produce a matrix microstructure consisting of 95% ausferrite
Table 3 Effect of Mo (wt.%) on as-cast microstructure of Fe3.2C1.0Cu xMo0.55Mn2.0Si Mo (%) Microstructure of matrix (%) Austenite 0.11 0.22 0.31 0.40 0.51 0.62 0.73 0.95 1.17 0 0 0.8 3.8 21.1 27.8 28.7 31.9 31.3 Bainite 0 0 4.7 16.0 50.9 68.2 69.0 68.1 68.7 Pearlite 100 100 94.5 80.2 28.0 5.0 2.3 0 0 Graphite akes Type E E E E E E E E E Percentage 7.5 8.2 7.9 7.5 6.8 6.5 6.7 6.4 6.1

Fig. 1. Inuence of Mo in Fe3.2C1.0Cu0.55Mn1.8Si on: (a) phases present in the as-cast microstructure and (b, c) mechanical properties. The vertical dashed line corresponds to a composition exhibiting the optimum combination of mechanical properties.

and 5% martensite. Fig. 4 shows the as-cast microstructure of gray iron containing 1.25% Mn and 2.0% Si, showing 95% ausferrite, 5% martensite (the dark gray region in the central area of Fig. 4) and free type E graphite akes. It is likely that martensite regions, such as that shown in Fig. 4, is a result of segregation in the as-cast alloy whereby soluterich regions are unable to transform to bainitic ferrite during cooling but decompose to martensite. For a given Si level (1.412.32%), Mn levels greater than 1.52% generated lower bainite, martensite and some retained austenite (Table 4).

W. Xu et al. / Materials Science and Engineering A 390 (2005) 326333

329

Table 4 Alloying additions and phases present in metallographic samples of Fe3.2C1.0Cu0.32MoyMnzSi Mn (%) 0.68 Si (%) 1.41 1.63 1.85 2.10 2.32 1.41 1.63 1.85 2.10 2.32 1.41 1.63 1.85 2.10 2.32 1.41 1.63 1.85 2.10 2.32 1.41 1.63 1.85 2.10 2.32 2.10 2.32 Austenite (%) 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 5.7 14.6 20.5 20.3 21.1 10.2 22.2 22.1 22.6 23.0 17.0 16.5 10.0 9.4 9.5 6.7 7.4 Bainite (%) 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 13.1 40.0 50.4 61.6 68.7 23.0 65.4 68.0 68.4 69.9 50.2 50.5 55.6 56.4 57.2 0 0 Pearlite (%) 98 98 98 98 98 98 98 98 98 98 78.0 41.2 27.3 15.8 8.7 61.3 7.5 5.6 4.8 1.7 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 Martensite (%) 12 12 12 12 12 12 12 12 12 12 3.1 4.2 1.8 2.3 1.5 5.5 4.9 4.3 4.2 5.4 22.8 33.5 34.4 34.2 22.3 93.3 92.6

0.88

1.02

1.21

1.52

2.34a

Fig. 2. (a) Optical and (b) SEM micrograph of as-cast gray iron containing 0.62 wt.% Mo showing the distribution of graphite akes and a fully ausferrite matrix.

All alloys contain type E graphite akes. a This level of Mn generates a martensitic microstructure containing a small fraction of retained austenite. The data are incomplete and are omitted in Fig. 3.

Fig. 3. Effect of both Mn and Si on the volume fraction of ausferrite in ascast gray iron (0.32 wt.% Mo and 1.0 wt.% Cu). For clarity, the data points for 2.34 wt.% Mn are not included (which corresponds to no detectable ausferrite).

Fig. 4. Optical micrograph showing the ausferrite microstructure in Fe0.32Mo1.0Cu1.25Mn2.0Si showing a martensitic (dark etching) region.

330

W. Xu et al. / Materials Science and Engineering A 390 (2005) 326333

3.1.3. Copper For a constant base composition (wt.%) Fe3.2C0.55Mn2.0Si, Mo was added to melt in the concentration of either 0.32 or 0.53% with Cu subsequently varied in the range w = 0.781.79 (wt.%). The inuence of Cu on microstructural development is given in Table 5 where it is clear that a low Mo content (0.32%) does not generate ausferrite whereas 0.53% Mo is sufcient to generate an increasing volume fraction of ausferrite (095.9%) with increasing Cu content. These trends are, in general, similar to the other alloying elements. 3.2. The morphology of ausferrite Ausferrite has been shown to form during direct casting of gray iron by controlling the alloying additions Mo, Mn, Si and Cu. This constituent usually consists of a coarse, feathery-type phase, usually termed bainitic ferrite (B ) [37], embedded within prior austenite ( ) grains (Fig. 2). It has been shown using X-ray diffraction and transmission electron microscopy [9] that B is a carbide-free, body-centred cubic phase. Furthermore, high-resolution electron backscatter diffraction (HR-EBSD) in an FEGSEM [11] has shown that B and in the ausferrite are crystallographically related by the KurdjumovSachs orientation relationship: {1 1 1} //{0 1 1} and 0 1 1 // 1 1 1 which has the same crystallographic characteristics as the ausferrite that forms in austempered ductile iron [12]. 3.3. Mode of austenite decomposition Several workers (e.g. [2,5]) have shown that alloying additions to gray iron drastically alter the transformation sequence to generate a range of microstructures. For example, Hayrynen et al. [5] varied both Mo and Cu in FeCSi gray iron and showed that a fully ausferritic microstructure can be produced in small-section sizes which, in principle,
Table 5 Effect of Cu on as-cast microstructure of Fe3.2CwCuxMo0.55Mn 2.0Si Mo (%) 0.32 Cu (%) 0.91 1.26 1.40 1.48 1.65 1.72 0.78 0.98 1.05 1.14 1.36 1.75 1.79 Austenite (%) 0 0 0 0 0 0 2.6 12.3 13.4 19.2 23.5 23.0 27.8 Bainite (%) 0 0 0 3.0 4.1 3.2 10.9 48.6 55.0 58.6 65.0 68.2 68.1 Pearlite (%) 100 100 100 97.0 95.9 96.8 86.5 33.8 31.6 22.3 11.5 8.8 4.7 Graphite (%) 6.8 6.5 6.6 7.1 7.5 7.8 6.3 6.2 6.7 6.9 7.3 7.1 7.8

eliminates the need for austempering. The present work has also shown that systematically varying the Mo, Mn, Si and Cu levels during casting can produce a wide range of as-cast microstructures (fully pearlitic, ausferrite or martensitic with high alloying levels also generating alloy carbides). The general transformation sequence in as-cast gray iron during continuous cooling to ambient temperature is likely to be similar to that generated by austempering. Nevertheless, microstructures produced by the latter process are markedly affected by: (i) austenitising conditions (austenitising temperature and holding time), and (ii) the temperature (and time) at which austenite subsequently decomposes to bainite, etc. [13]. Hence, the nal microstructure of austempered gray iron is dependent on a number of variables which makes it difcult to directly compare with the present work. The decomposition of austenite in as-cast gray iron may readily be interpreted using continuous cooling transformation (CCT) diagrams. However, these diagrams are difcult to generate during casting of large (30 mm)-diameter ingots as the cooling rate does not vary greatly (100200 C/min in the temperature range 300600 C). A schematic CCT diagram for a hypereutectic gray iron is given in Fig. 5 which shows the expected mode of austenite decomposition as a function of alloying content (Mo in this diagram). For low levels of Mo, the following transformations are expected [2,5]: L + L + Gf + P +Gf
eutectic eutectoid

However, larger amounts of alloying elements such as Mo will tend to shift the diffusional transformation product region to longer times without altering the bainite region appreciably [5], thereby allowing ausferrite to form L + L + Gf + B +Gf
ausferrite

0.53

Fig. 5. Schematic CCT diagram of inuence of alloying additions (such as Mo) on the position of the transformation product region of ferrite, pearlite, ausferrite and martensite (adapted from Ref. [5]).

W. Xu et al. / Materials Science and Engineering A 390 (2005) 326333

331

The type of bainite that forms within the austenite phase during continuous cooling will be affected by the concentration and type of alloying additions and may vary from upper bainite to lower bainite [13]. For low Mo levels (<1.0%), the matrix microstructure is expected to consist of carbidefree bainitic ferrite and carbon-enriched residual austenite [5,9,13]. Large concentrations of alloying elements such as Mn will also increase the hardenability of the alloy to such an extent that some martensite will be generated during continuous cooling (as shown in Fig. 6a). Certain alloying elements also have a strong tendency to segregate to various sites in the microstructure as well as form alloy carbides. Segregation and carbide formation have a deleterious effect on mechanical properties of gray iron, as discussed in Section 3.4.

3.4. Inuence of microstructure on mechanical properties The standard Class 35 gray iron is fully pearlitic with a nominal UTS and TFS of 252 and 475 MPa, respectively [2]. The base experimental alloy given in Table 2 was found to have an UTS and TFS of 285 and 530 MPa, respectively, despite this alloy also exhibiting a fully pearlitic microstructure. The improvement in mechanical properties is probably the result of the addition of 1.0 wt.% Cu which is known to be a reasonable solid solution strengthener of ferrite and also acts to rene the pearlite spacing [2]. Selected examples of the effect of alloying additions on mechanical properties of gray iron are given in Figs. 1b and c and 6b and c. Fig. 1b shows that, for Fe3.2C1.0Cu0.55Mn2.0Si, an increase in molybdenum results in almost a two-fold increase in both UTS and FTS together with a substantial improvement in Charpy impact resistance and ductility during transverse bending (Fig. 1c). It can be seen that the optimum combination of mechanical properties is achieved for an alloy with a molybdenum level of 0.7 wt.% which corresponds to 100% ausferrite matrix microstructure. At higher molybdenum levels, however, there is a slight degradation in mechanical properties which is likely to be a result of segregation of molybdenum to eutectic cell boundaries during casting and also due to the formation of molybdenum carbides in these regions. For Fe3.2C1.0Cu0.32Mo2.0Si, an increase in manganese to 1.1% also improves UTS and TFS (Fig. 6b) and impact resistance and ductility (Fig. 6c), but to a lesser extent than molybdenum. In this alloy, the optimum combination in mechanical properties was associated with a matrix microstructure containing 27% pearlite, 70% ausferrite and 3% martensite (Table 4). At higher Mn levels, there is a substantial degradation in mechanical properties (particularly Charpy impact resistance) which is likely to be a result of segregation of Mn to eutectic cell boundaries together with an increasing tendency to form martensite in the microstructure (Table 4). Fig. 7 illustrates how UTS and TFS are affected by the amount of ausferrite present in the microstructure for alloys given in Section 3.1. There is a reasonably linear correlation between ausferrite fraction and strength. The scatter in the data is likely to be a result of the inuence of a given alloying element on: (i) solid solution strengthening of a particular phase; (ii) its propensity to partition and segregate to various phases and boundaries; (iii) its carbide forming tendency; and (iv) its inuence on hardenability [10]. The relative fractions of phases (pearlite, ausferrite and martensite) in a given microstructure together with the type of bainite that forms and austenite/bainite ratio in ausferrite are also likely to be factors contributing to the scatter. Nevertheless, Fig. 7 clearly shows that an increase in ausferrite results in a substantial increase in mechanical properties. An examination of the fracture surfaces of TFS specimens showed that fracture initiated by cleavage of the graphite

Fig. 6. Inuence of Mn in Fe3.2C1.0Cu0.32Mo2.0Si on: (a) phases present in the as-cast microstructure and (b, c) mechanical properties.

332

W. Xu et al. / Materials Science and Engineering A 390 (2005) 326333

Fig. 7. Inuence of volume fraction ausferrite in the as-cast microstructure on UTS and FTS.

akes at low stress levels, which generated microcracks (Fig. 8a). Failure appears to have occurred by the propagation of microcracks through both the graphite and matrix where, for a given graphite morphology, the fracture stress is a function of the strength and toughness of the matrix. Compared with a pearlitic microstructure (Fig. 8b), crack propagation through austenite is arguably more difcult due to the high work hardening rate of this phase together with its transformation to martensite during deformation, a phenomenon termed TRansformation-Induced Plasticity (TRIP) [10]. Furthermore, the austenite/bainite phase boundaries, coupled with the good ductility of bainite [5], require considerable energy for crack propagation. In combination, these factors result in an overall higher strength and toughness [6,7,14] of ausferritic gray iron compared with conventional pearlitic grades. The present results have shown that alloying additions strongly inuence both the type and distribution of microconstituents in an as-cast gray iron. An alloy with approximate composition Fe3.2C1.0Cu0.55Mn0.7Mo2.0Si generated a matrix microstructure containing 100% ausferrite, with this alloy showing an excellent combination of properties: UTS 530 MPa, TFS 920 MPa, Charpy impact energy 16 J/cm2 and deection of 6 mm during transverse testing (dashed line in Fig. 1). It is pertinent to note that Mo in excess of 0.7% promotes the formation of molybdenum carbide at eutectic cell boundaries with a concomitant reduction in mechanical properties. Since alloy carbides also have a deleterious inuence on the machinability of cast iron [2], Mo additions in excess of 0.7% should therefore be avoided.

Fig. 8. Scanning electron micrographs showing the fracture surface of ascast (a) ausferrite gray iron and (b) conventional pearlitic gray iron.

4. Conclusions The alloying additions Mo, Mn, Si and Cu during sand mould casting of an ASTM type 35 gray cast iron of base composition (wt.%) Fe3.2C0.55Mn1.41Si were found to generate a wide range of microstructures and mechanical properties. It was found that: 1. Regardless of the amount and type of alloying addition, type E graphite forms in all alloys. 2. For Mo-free gray iron, various combinations of Mn, Cu and Si do not promote the formation of a microstructure containing an intimate dispersion of austenite and bainitic ferrite (termed ausferrite) but a fully pearlitic alloy containing graphite akes was produced. 3. An ausferrite matrix was generated in an alloy containing 0.32% Mo by the addition of greater than 1.02% Mn for all Si levels or, for a constant Mn level of 1.21%, greater than 1.41% Si. At high levels of Mn (2.34%), a martensitic microstructure containing a small fraction of retained austenite is generated. 4. There is a reasonably linear correlation between the volume fraction of ausferrite that forms and strength with

W. Xu et al. / Materials Science and Engineering A 390 (2005) 326333

333

some scatter in the data as a consequence of the propensity of a given alloying element to segregate and form alloy carbides during casting. 5. The optimum combination of mechanical properties was produced in an as-cast gray iron of approximate composition Fe3.2C1.0Cu0.7Mo0.55Mn2.0Si which exhibited a carbide-free, 100% ausferrite microstructure containing type E graphite akes. This alloy has a microstructure and mechanical properties comparable to austempered gray iron without many of the problems associated with austempering.

References
[1] American Foundry Society web page: http://www.afsinc.org, 2002. [2] H.T. Angus, Cast Iron: Physical and Engineering Properties, 2nd ed., Butterworths, 1976.

[3] B.V. Kovacs, J.R. Keough, AFS Trans. 101 (1993) 283. [4] M.D. Vanmaldegiam, K.B. Rundman, AFS Trans. 94 (1986) 249. [5] K.L. Hayrynen, D.J. Moore, K.B. Rundman, AFS Trans. 106 (1998) 665. [6] C.-H. Hsu, Y.-H. Yu, S.-C. Lee, Mater. Chem. Phys. 63 (2000) 75. [7] K. Brandenberg, K.L. Hayrynen, J.R. Keough, Gear Technol. 18 (2001) 42. [8] Standard Specication for Gray Iron Castings, ASTM A48-94a (1994) 16. [9] W. Xu, M.Sc. Thesis, Xian University of Technology, China, 1991. [10] R.W.K. Honeycombe, H.K.D.H. Bhadeshia, Steels Microstructure and Properties, 2nd ed., Edward Arnold, London, UK, 1995. [11] M. Ferry, W. Xu, Mater Charact., in press. [12] T.J. Marrow, H. Cetinel, N. Wardman, I. Brough, H. Bolyan, Proceedings of the 20th ASM Heat Treating Society Conference, St. Louis, USA, 2000, p. 491. [13] H.K.D.H. Bhadeshia, Bainite in Steels, 2nd ed., Institute of Materials, London, UK, 2001. [14] W. Xu, M. Ferry, Y. Wang, Scripta Mater. 51 (2004) 709.