Unit V

Integrated Circuits

An Integrated Circuit (IC) is an electronic circuit in which

devices like transistor, diodes, resistors and capacitors (i.e.
active and passive devices) are fabricated on a tiny single chip of
silicon.

Advantages of ICs over Discrete Components:

• Extremely small physical size
• Low power consumption
• Reduced cost
• Increased system reliability
• Increased operating speed
• Increase equipment density
• Improved function performance
• High yield

Limitations of ICs:
• Coils or inductors can not be fabricated
• ICs function at fairly low voltages
• They handle limited amount of power
• They are quite delicate and can not withstand rough
handling or excessive heat
Scale Of Integration:

• Small Scale Integration (SSI): In this number of circuit

per package is less than 12
• Medium Scale Integration (MSI): In this number of circuit
per package is between 13 and 99
• Large Scale Integration (LSI): In this number of circuit
per package is between 100 and 9,999
• Very Large Scale Integration (VLSI): In this number of
circuit per package is between 10,000 and 99,999
• Ultra Large Scale Integration (ULSI): In this number of
circuit per package is between 1,00,000 and 9,99,999
• Giga Scale Integration (GSI): In this number of circuit per
package is between 10,00,000 or more

SSI < 12
MSI 12 - 99
LSI 100 - 9,999
VLSI 10,000 - 99,999
ULSI 1,00,000 - 9,99,999
GSI > 10,00,000

Classification of ICs by Structure:

• Monolithic ICs: In these ICs all circuit components (i.e.
active and passive) are fabricated inseparable within a
single continuous piece of silicon crystalline material called
WAFER.
In Monolithic ICs all components are formed
simultaneously by a diffusion process. Then a metallization
process is used in interconnecting these components to form
the desired circuit.

• Hybrid ICs: In Hybrid ICs passive components (such as

resistors and capacitors) and the interconnection between
them are formed on an insulating substrate, the substrate
is used as a chassis for the integrated components .Active
components such as transistors and diodes, as well as
Monolithic ICs are then connected to form a complete
circuit.
Hybrid ICs are further classified as Thin Film
and Thick Film, depending on the method used to form the
resistor, capacitor and related interconnections on the
substrate.

1. Thin Film: When a suitable material is evaporated on a

substrate informing resistors, capacitors and
interconnections, a Thin Film Hybrid IC is obtained

2. Thick Film: When the resistors, capacitors and

interconnections are etched on the substrate by silk
screening, a Thick Film Hybrid IC is obtained.
 Classification of ICs by Function:

• Linear ICs: They perform amplification and other essential

linear operation on signals.

• Non Linear ICs: They require only ON-OFF operation of

the transistor, thus the design requirements for these
circuits are less stringent than those of linear ICs.

Comparison among different ICs:

Monolithic ICs have an advantage of lowest cost and high

reliability, but they have some limitations.
• Isolations among components is poor
• Inductors can not be fabricated
• It is difficult to change the circuit design after it is
finalized
• Range of values of resistors and capacitors, which are
produced in ICs, is comparatively small.

The Thick and Thin Film ICs have an advantage of producing

resistors and capacitors with greater range of values and smaller
tolerance than those of Monolithic ICs. Isolation among
components in these circuits is also better. They have greater
flexibility in circuit design. The performance of film circuit at
high frequencies is also much better. There limitations are:
• Active components an not be fabricated
• Fabrication cost is higher than Monolithic
• Physical size is also larger
 IC Terminology

Some common terms used in fabricating ICs are:

• Bonding: Attaching the die on ceramic substrate and then
connecting the leads to the package.
• Chip: An extremely small part of silicon wafer on which IC
is fabricated.
• Circuit Probing: Testing the electrical performance of each
IC chip with the help of microscope.
• Diffusion: A process that consist of the introduction of
impurities into selected regions of a wafer to form
junctions.
• Encapsulation: putting a cap over the IC and sealing it in an
inert atmosphere.
• Epitaxy: A process of controlled growth of a crystalline
doped layer of silicon on a single crystal substrate.
• Mask: A glass plate with desired pattern of diffusion or
metallization.
• Metallization: A process for providing ohmic contacts and
interconnections by evaporating aluminum over the chip.
• Photolithography: A process to transfer geometrical
pattern from the mask to the surface of the wafer.
• Photoresist: A light-sensitive material that hardens when
exposed to ultraviolet light.
• Wafer: A thin disk of semiconductor in which number of
ICs are fabricated simultaneously.

The 555 Timer

 The 555 is a monolithic timing circuit that can produce
accurate and highly stable time oscillation. The IC was designed
and invented by Hans R. Camenzind. It was designed in 1970 and
introduced in 1971 by Signetics (later acquired by Philips). The
original name was the SE555/NE555 and was called "The IC Time
Machine". The 555 gets its name from the three 5-kOhm
resistors used in typical early implementations

The 555 timer is one of the most popular and versatile

integrated circuits ever produced. It includes 23 transistors, 2
diodes and 16 resistors on a silicon chip installed in an 8-pin mini
dual-in-line package (DIP-8).

The 555 has three operating modes:

• Monostable mode: In this mode, the 555 functions as a

"one-shot". Applications include timers, missing pulse
detection, touch switches, Frequency Divider, Capacitance
Measurement etc.
• Astable - Free Running mode: The 555 can operate as an
oscillator. Uses include LED and lamp flashers, pulse
generation, logic clocks, tone generation, security alarms,
pulse position modulation, etc.
• Bistable mode: The 555 can operate as a flip-flop, if the
DIS pin is not connected and no capacitor is used. Uses
include bouncefree latched switches, etc.
The 555 as Monostable Multivibrator:
A monostable multivibrator, often called a one shot
multivibrator, is a pulse-generating circuit in which the duration
of the pulse is determined by the RC network connection
externally to the 555 timer. In a stable state the output of the
circuit is approximately zero or at logic-low level. When an
external trigger pulse is applied, the output is forced to go high.
The time the output remains high is determined by the external
RC network connection to the timer. At the end of the timing
interval, the output automatically reverts back to its logic-low
stable state. The output stays low until the trigger pulse is again
applied. Then the cycle repeats. The monostable circuit has only
one stable state hence it is named monostable.

The 555 as an Astable Multivibrator:

An astable multivibrator, often called a free-running
multivibrator, is a rectangular-wave-generating circuit. Unlike the
monostable multivibrator, this circuit does not require an
external trigger to change the state of the output; hence it
is named free-running.
 The 555 as an Astable Multivibrator:

This circuit diagram shows how a 555 timer IC is configured

to function as an astable multivibrator. An astable multivibrator
is a timing circuit whose 'low' and 'high' states are both
unstable. As such, the output of an astable multivibrator toggles
between 'low' and 'high' continuously, in effect generating a train
of pulses. This circuit is therefore also known as a 'pulse
generator' circuit.

Operation: In this
circuit, capacitor C1
charges through R1 and
R2, eventually building up
enough voltage to trigger
an internal comparator to
toggle the output flip-
flop. Once toggled, the
flip-flop discharges C1
through R2 into pin 7,
which is the discharge
pin. When C1's voltage
becomes low enough,
another internal comparator is triggered to toggle the output
flip-flop. This once again allows C1 to charge up through R1 and R2
and the cycle starts all over again.
C1's charge-up time t1 is given by: t1=0.693(R1+R2)C1.
C1's discharge time t2 is given by: t2=0.693(R2)C1. Thus, the
total period of one cycle is t1+t2 = 0.693 C1(R1+2R2). The
frequency f of the output wave is the reciprocal of this period,
and is therefore given by: f = 1.44/(C1(R1+2R2)), wherein f is in
Hz if R1 and R2 are in megaohms and C1 is in microfarads.
 The 555 as Monostable Multivibrator:

This circuit diagram shows how a 555 timer IC is configured to

function as a basic monostable multivibrator. A monostable
multivibrator is a timing circuit that changes state once
triggered, but returns to its original state after a certain time
delay. It got its name from the fact that only one of its output
states is stable. It is also known as a 'one-shot'.

Operation: In this circuit,

a negative pulse applied at
pin 2 triggers an internal
flip-flop that turns off pin
7's discharge transistor,
allowing C1 to charge up
through R1. At the same
time, the flip-flop brings
the output (pin 3) level to
'high'. When capacitor C1
as charged up to about 2/3
Vcc, the flip-flop is
triggered once again, this time making the pin 3 output 'low' and
turning on pin 7's discharge transistor, which discharges C1 to
ground. This circuit, in effect, produces a pulse at pin 3 whose
width t is just the product of R1 and C1, i.e., t=R1C1.
The reset pin, which may be used to reset the timing cycle
by pulling it momentarily low, should be tied to the Vcc if it will
not be used.