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Plants are: a. Multicellular: has more than one cell. b. Eukaryotic: complex cells; possess nuclei and organelles. c. Photosynthetic: obtain ENERGY from sunlight. Able to synthesize food (i.e. organic compounds) directly from CO2 and H2O using energy from light. Solar energy Chemical energy
Complex life cycles that involve alternation of generations are characteristic of ALL members of the kingdom Plantae. The life cycles of all plants include both a diploid and a haploid generation. * Diploid cells have the normal number of chromosomes. * Haploid cells have HALF the normal number of chromosomes. Alternation of generations: the switching back and forth between the production of diploid and haploid cells. Sporophytes (Diploid plants): 2n; diploid stage of a plants life cycle. Involve the formation of SPORES. Gametophytes (Haploid plants): n; haploid stage of a plants life cycle. Involve the formation of GAMETES. - Spores are produced by meiosis (reduction division). - Gametes are produced by mitosis. Process of Alternation of Generations i. Multicellular diploid sporophyte (2N): specialized cells within the sporophyte reproduce asexually. Undergo meiosis and release haploid spores (N). ii. These spores then divide by mitosis. Grow into multicellular gametophytes (N). iii. The two different types of gametophytes produce their gametes (N) by mitosis. When gametes from two different mating types fuse, they form a zygote (2N). The zygote divides by mitosis to grow into a sporophyte (2N) and the cycle continues. (*Whenever plants grow up, cells are divided/increased by mitosis.)
Kingdom Plantae is divided into 5 main categories. a. 1. Algae 2. Mosses 3. Fern b. 4. Angiosperms (angio: covered, sperms: seeds): produce fruits eg. Apple trees 5. Gymnosperms (gymno: naked, sperms: seeds): do NOT produce fruit eg. Cone
Accessory pigments: compounds other than chlorophyll that absorb light energy and pass it on to the primary photosynthetic pigment i.e. chlorophyll.
3. Rhodophyta: red algae - Contain chlorophyll a, d and reddish accessory pigments called phycobilins/phycoerythrin (Phycoerythrin is a type of phycobilins). Phycobilins/phycoerythrin: very efficient at absorbing the energy of blue light and making it available for photosynthesis. Red algae can live deeper in the water than other kinds of algae because of the pigments phycobilins and phycoerythrin. Able to trap whatever energy is left in the small amount of light that penetrates deep in the water. (Predominantly energy corresponding to the blue wavelength of sunlight) - Store food in the form of a special kind of starch. Example: Porphyra nori
Sporophyte: diploid part of a moss life cycle (2n). 1. Seta: a sporophyte has a stalk called seta for support. 2. Sporangium: at the end of the seta, there is a spore capsule called sporangium. Haploid spores (n) are produced within the sporangium by meiosis. 3. Calyptra: The sporangium has a cap called calyptra. The calyptra covers the sporangium and is easily removed at maturity. 4. Operculum: the top of the sporangium has a lid called operculum. 5. Peristone: once the operculum is removed, a hole called peristone is exposed. d. Peristone teeth: peristone is surrounded by teeth called peristone teeth. As the seta (stalk) twists, the spores are sprinkled through the peristone (hole).
Life Cycle of Tracheophytes (Ferns) - Like all plants, ferns have an alternation of generations. - Tracheophytes are the first plants to have a dominant sporophyte stage (2n). The dominant generation of bryophytes is gametophyte (n). Sporophytes grow above the gametophyte and are entirely dependent upon them. The main reason why ferns are NOT perfectly adapted to living on land is because they still need standing water (thin pool of H2O) for fertilization. Process of Reproduction: a. Fern sporophytes (2n) produce spores (n) on the underside of their fronds. Fronds: large leaves of ferns. Fronds are divided into smaller leaves called leaflets. Spores are produced in sporangium. Large clusters of sporangia are called sori (sing. sorus). b. Spores are released from sporangia/sori, and they germinate to form small, heartshaped gametophytes (n) called prothallia (sing. prothallium). c. Two types of reproductive structure: antheridia (produce sperm cells) and archegonia (produce egg cells) are found on the underside of the prothallium. d. Sperms are released from mature antheridia. Fertilization can take place only when the ground and the prothallia (contain archegonia and antheridia) are covered with a thin film of water (i.e. Standing water). e. As in bryophytes, fern sperm cells have to swim to the archegonium to undergo fertilization + syngamy. f. The diploid zygote produced by fertilization immediately begins to grow into a new sporophyte (2n) on the top of the prothallium (gametophyte). As the sporophyte grows, the prothallium withers away. g. The mature sporophyte develops fronds in the air and rhizomes underground. h. The sori (clusters of sporangia) on the underside of fronds/leaflets produce haploid spores (n) by meiosis and the cycle continues.