BIOLOGY | Evolution

MICROevolution change from generation to generation / form new species MACROevolution patterns of change in groups (related species) over broad periods of time Phyletic Gradualism evolution occurs by gradual accumulation of small changes Punctuated Equilibrium evo history consists of geo long periods of stasis with little/no evolution rapid, punctuated evolutionary events LAMARCK theory inheritance of acquired characteristics DARWIN theory Natural selection / Survival of the fittest Natural Selection 1. 2. 3. 4. Large reproductive potential Pop sizes stable Resources limited Competition to survive 5. 6. 7. 8. Variation among individuals Much variation is heritable (DNA) Most fit survive Favored traits accumulate in pop

Kinds of Selection 1. 2. 3. 4. STABILIZING selection most common traits best adapted DIRECTIONAL selection favors traits at one extreme a. a. a. c. 5. a. Peppered moth Short weeds on lawns escape mowing / tall weeds in wild get more sunlight Females increase fitness by increasing quality of offspring by choosing superior male Sexual dimorphism diff in appearance = form of disruptive/diversifying selection Form of directional selection (favors one extreme) DISRUPTIVE/DIVERSIFYING selection environment favors extreme traits SEXUAL selection differential mating of males in pop. b. Males increase fitness by maximizing quantity of offspring produced ARTIFICIAL selection breeding animals/plants that possess desirable traits

Sources of Variation SEX o o Crossing over Prophase 1 meiosis exchange of DNA btw nonsister chromatids of homologous chromosomes Independent assortment -- Metaphase 1 result = daughter cells with random combo of mom & dad chromosomes DIPLOIDY has 2 copies of each chromosome in cell o Rr -- diff alleles for single gene locus are present; r is hidden and stored for future gens OUTBREEDING mating with unrelated partner BALANCED POLYMORPHISM maintenance of different phenotypes in pop

BIOLOGY | Evolution
o o Heterozygous advantage greater selective advantage than either homozygous condition Hybrid vigor superior quality of offspring from cross of 2 different inbred strains o Results from reduction of loci with deleterious rr conditions and increase in loci with Rr advantage Frequency-dependent Selection (minority advantage) when least common phenotype have selective advantage **Not all variation has selective value NEUTRAL VARIATION Allele Frequency Changes NATURAL SELECTION MUTATIONS GENE FLOW introduction/removal of alleles GENETIC DRIFT random increase or decrease of alleles o o o Founder Effect allele freq of migrating individuals are not same as pop origin Amish with polydactylism Bottleneck dramatic decrease in size (natural catastrophe, predation, disease, etc.) Inbreeding and/or sexual selection

NONRANDOM MATING

GENETIC EQUILIBRIUM: Hardy-Weinburg Equilibrium

p dominant allele frequency q recessive allele frequency p2, q2 frequency of homozygotes p2 + 2pq + q2 frequency of heterozygotes p+q=1 p2 + 2pq + q2=1
(all alleles sum to 100%) (all individuals sum to 100%)

SPECIES capable of inbreeding SPECIATION formation of new species Types of Speciation 1. ALLOPATRIC pop divided geographically so that interbreeding btw 2 resulting pop is prevented

BIOLOGY | Evolution
2. SYMPATRIC form new species w/o geo barrier present a. Balanced polymorphism insects of same color mate bc other ones did not camouflage well and were eaten b. Polyploidy possess more than normal 2 sets of chromosomes found in 2n cells i. Often occurs in plants c. 3. Hybridization 2 distinct forms of species mate and produce progeny along hybrid zone barrier ADAPTIVE RADIATION relatively rapid evolution of many species from single ancestor due to diverse geo/eco conditions available for colonization Maintaining Reproductive Isolation PREzygotic Isolating Mechanisms o o o o o o o o Habitat isolation Temporal Behavioral Mechanical Gametic Hybrid Inviability when zygote fails to develop properly and aborts/dies prematurely Hybrid sterility functional adults, but cannot reproduce (eggs/sperm sterile or dysfunctional) Hybrid breakdown hybrids produce offspring with reduced viability/fertility

POSTzygotic Isolating Mechanism

Patterns of Evolution DIVERGENT common ancestor CONVERGENT 2 unrelated species with similar traits (analogous traits) PARALLEL 2 related species/lineages with similar evolutionary changes COEVOLUTION tit-for-tat evolution of 1 species in response to new adaptations in another species (predator and prey / pathogens and immune systems)