Introduction

The departure point of the current paper is its authors conviction that contrast and comparison are means of acquiring knowledge. By establishing the common features as well as the features that distinguish the grammar systems of two languages, methodologists can identify the particular areas that require special attention in the process of learning and teaching a foreign language.

Therefore, it is more than commendable that language students and teachers should study contrasted grammar in order to get insight understanding of the mechanisms that distinguish the language to teach from the native language of the learners.

The main aim of this paper is exactly to provide all interested parties with the necessary information on the means of expressing condition in English and Romanian while trying to emphasize those differences that may result in difficulties for the Romanian learner of English.

In order for this goal to be achieved, the first chapter is dedicated to the conditional mood, its forms and tenses in both languages. The second chapter presents the structure, uses and values of the conditional sentences, while the last chapter offers a pragmatic view of the logical mechanisms underlying conditional contexts.

Grammar books and specialized articles have been used for the theoretical support, and a great number of examples have been

provided all through the paper. The examples were taken both from real-life situations and contexts, and from literary works, both English and Romanian, in an attempt to familiarize the reader with the expression of condition in all registries: formal, semi-formal, informal.

Consequently, the author firmly believes that the present paper will prove useful in her future didactic career, and will help her find the best methods to help her future students overcome any difficulty they might encounter in learning the conditional patterns in English.

CHAPTER !: 1. The Conditional Mood in English

THE CONDITIONAL MOOD

Unlike Romanian, English has no specific marks for the conditional mood. Instead, some auxiliary and modal verbs are employed to express condition. 1.1. The Present Conditional The Present Conditional is formed by means of the auxiliaries SHOULD ( for the 1 st person in the singular and plural ) and WOULD ( for the 2 nd and 3rd persons in the singular and plural) followed by the present infinitive of the verb. Its forms are as follows: Affirmative I/we should /would go You/ he/ she/ it/ they would go Negative I/we should not/shouldnt go You/ he/ she/ it/ they wouldnt go

Interrogative Should/would I/ we go? Would you/ he/ she/ it/ they go? Remarks: a. Just as in the case of the Future tense, where there is a growing tendency to use the auxiliary verb will for all persons (singular and plural), in constructing the Conditional Mood (Present or Perfect), the auxiliary would is more and more frequently used in all persons. b. The Present Conditional is translated into Romanian by the same mood and tense. 1.2. The Perfect Conditional The Perfect Conditional is formed by means of the auxiliaries SHOULD ( for the 1 st person in the singular and plural ) and WOULD ( for the 2 nd and 3rd persons in the singular and plural) followed by the perfect infinitive of the verb. Therefore, its forms are: Affirmative I/we should/ would have gone You/he/she/it/they would have gone Negative I/we shouldnt/ wouldnt have gone You/he/she/it/they wouldnt have gone Interrogative Should/would I/we have gone? Would you/he/she/it/they have gone? 1.3.The conditional of modal verbs The conditional forms of CAN and May are identical with their past forms: COULD, respectively MIGHT, followed by the present infinitive for the Present Conditional, and by the perfect infinitive for the Perfect Conditional: CAN Present Conditional

I could call, you could call, he/she/it could call We could call, you could call, they could call Perfect Conditional I could have called, you could have called, he/she/it could have called We could have called, you could have called, they could have called MAY Present Conditional I might call, you might call, he/she/it might call We might call, you might call, they might call Perfect Conditional I might have called, you might have called, he/she/it might have called We might have called, you might have called, they might have called OUGHT is itself the expression of the conditional of MUST, followed by the present infinitive for the present conditional, or by the perfect infinitive for the perfect conditional: Present Conditional I ought to call, you ought to call, he/she/it ought to call We ought to call, you ought to call, they ought to call Perfect Conditional I ought to have called, you ought to have called, he/she/it ought to have called We ought to have called, you ought to have called, they ought to have called 1.4 The Conditional of modesty and politeness The present Conditional of the modal verbs is often used to express the conditional of modesty and politeness. Compare the following conditional forms with their corresponding indicative forms: Conditional Could you tell me the time, please? We might watch the game on your TV. Indicative Can you tell me the time, please? Lets watch the game on your TV.

Would you care for a show tonight? You shouldnt do that, you know. Ought you to go for a walk in this weather? weather?

Do you care for a show tonight? Dont do that! Must you go for a walk in this

2. The Conditional Mood in Romanian Not only does Romanian possess specific markers to express condition, but the forms of the conditional cover a much wider semantic field, covering a multitude of stylistic and/or modal nuances.

2.1.Inventory of forms and morphematic structure The conditional(also referred to as potential in some grammar books)presents two series of analytical forms:the present conditional and the perfect conditional. The present conditional is made of two components.The former is a mobile/fixed element(affix)which bears the information of person and number,with homonymy between the third and sixth persons: as,ai,am,ati,ar.The latter is a phonic sequence which is homonymous with the infinitive and bears the verbal root.Therefore the present conditional has the following forms: 1.as canta 2.ai canta 3.ar canta 4.am canta 5.ati canta 6.ar canta 1.as aparea 2.ai aparea 3.ar aparea 4.am aparea 5.ati aparea 6.ar aparea 1.as asterne 2.as asterne 3.ar asterne 4.am asterne 5.ati asterne 6.ar asterne

1.as acoperi 2.ai acoperi

1.as citi 2.ai citi

1.as cobori 2.ai cobori

3.ar acoperi

3.ar citi

3.ar cobori 4.am cobori 5.ati cobori 6.ati cobori

4.am acoperi 4.am citi 5.ati acoperi 5.ati citi 6.ar acoperi 6.ar citi

1.as hotari 2.ai hotari 3.ar hotari

1.as merge 2.ai merge 3.ar merge

1.as rupe 2.ai rupe 3.ar rupe

4.am hotari 4.am merge 4.am rupe 5.ati hotari 6.ar hotari 5.ati merge 6.ar merge 5.ati rupe 6.ar rupe

The negative adverb is placed before the free affix: nu as veni.With the exception of the unstressed form of the personal pronoun in the third person singular,accusative,which is placed after the second element of the verbal form,the pronoun clitics are placed before the mobile affix,after the negative adverb: (nu)ar supara-o,(nu)ar deranja-o,(nu)m-as juca,(nu)s-ar supara,(nu)i-am povesti, (nu)l-ar deranja. The two components can be dissociated by introducing (semi)adverbs such as mai,cam,tot,in which case the junction point is after the mobile affix: as tot juca,ai mai aparea,ar cam veni. In nowadays colloquial language there can be found situations when the (semi)adverbs are placed before the mobile affix resulting in constructions such as tot as juca,cam as aparea or mai as veni,which are not recommended by the academic norm. The components of the present conditional can also be dissociated by postposition of the mobile element.The forms with a post-posed mobile element are very rare in modern Romanian.They appear mostly in constructions with an obvious affective character,which characterize the popular and familiar language: Mira-m-as!,Manca-lar mama!,Arde-te-ar focul!,Bata-te-ar norocul!,Duca-s-ar pe pustii!. In structures of this kind there can be used forms that keep the long infinitive with verbal value,adding a stylistic(poetic or archaic)value to the context: cantareas,inchinare-as.When a pronominal clitic is introduced between the two inverted components,the long infinitive cannot be used: inchina-m-as.

The perfect conditional is made up of three components.The first one is a mobile element,a free affix,identical with the one from the present conditional both in form and in its role of a bearer of information regarding the person and number.The second element is a component homonymous with the infinitive of the verb a fi.The third element is identical with the invariable participle.Consequently,the perfect conditional has the following forms: 1.as fi cantat 1.as fi aparut 2.ai fi cantat 2.ai fi aparut 1.as fi asternut 2.ai fi asternut 3.ar fi asternut

3.ar fi cantat 3.ar fi aparut

4.am fi cantat 4.am fi aparut 4.am fi asternut 5.ati fi cantat 5.ati fi aparut 5.ati fi asternut 6.ar fi cantat 6.ar fi aparut 6.ar fi asternut

1.as fi acoperit 1.as fi citit 1.as fi coborat 2.ai fi acoperit 3.ar fi acoperit 2.ai fi citit 2.ai fi coborat 3.ar fi citit 3.ar fi coborat

4.am fi acoperit 4.am fi citit 4.am fi coborat 5.ati fi acoperit 5.ati fi citit 5.ati fi coborat 6.ar fi acoperit 6.ar fi citit 6.ar fi coborat

1.as fi hotarat 2.ai fi hotarat 3.ar fi hotarat

1.as fi mers 2.ai fi mers 3.ar fi mers

1.as fi rupt 2.ai fi rupt 3.ar fi rupt

4.am fi hotarat 4.am fi mers 4.am fi rupt 5.ati fi hotarat 6.ar fi hotarat 5.ati fi mers 5.ati fi rupt 6.ar fi mers 6.ar fi rupt

As in the case of the present conditional,the negative adverb precedes the mobile affix:nu as fi jucat.The pronominal clitics are placed before the free affix(after the negative adverb):(nu)m-as fi jucat,(nu)s-ar fi suparat,(nu)i-am fi povesit,(nu)l-ar fi

deranjat.If the clitic has the form of the third person singular feminine,accusative,it is placed after the third element:ar fi suparat-o,ar fi deranjat-o. The components can only be dissociated by introducing the (semi)adverbs mai,cam,tot,the junction point being after the mobile affix and before the component fi:as tot fi cantat,ai mai fi aparut, ar cam fi mers. As with the forms of the present,placement of the (semi)adverbs before the mobile affix is not recommended:cam as fi cantat,mai as fi venit. 2.2 Modal values The conditional is a verbal form frequently used in modern Romanian.The high frequency of its use is mainly due to its modal values that cover the concept of possibility in its different degrees. According to the context,the conditional acquires two modal values on the axis IMAGINA-CREDE-STI-EXISTA and another two on the axis VREA-POATE-TREBUIEFACE.Out of the four values.two place the conditional at the left limit of both axes and express processes that are considered unreal,false(the area of IMAGINA)and,respectively,wished for(the area of VREA),and the other two axpress uncertain,probable processes(the area of CREDE)and respectively feasible(the area of POATE). Among the personal moods the conditional is associated with the presumptive having the meaning X considera,dar nu e convins/se considera,dar nu exista convingerea(which is specific to the modal CREDE)and can be replaced by the subjunctive.As far as the meaning is concerned,the conditional is in contrast,on the one hand,to the imperative(which is defined as posibil obligatoriu)and,on the other hand,to the indicative,wich is defined as real( existent/efectuat). The typical context for the significance circumscribed to IMAGINA( process considerat fals:X isi inchipuie ca,se imagineaza ca), is the comparative construction introduced by the linkers ca si cum,ca sic and. In the statement Ana se poarta cu Andrei ca si cand acesta n-ar mai fi calatorit cu avionul. It is assumed that Andrei is not for the first time in the described situation,but,on the contrary,has experienced it at least once before;the linker ca sic and gives the statement containing the conditional form,a counterfactvalue,that is,the situation is presented as false,unreal. The following quotations taken from different stylistic registers of Romanian,illustrate the significance imagined,untrue(counterfact). Glasul I se pogora tremurator ca si cum ar fi marturisit o taina sau inganat o ruga.(Mateiu I. Caragiale,Craii);

Si cand gandesc la viata-mi imi pare ca ea cura/Incet repovestita de o straina gura,/Ca si cand n-ar fi viata-mi,ca sic and n-ar fi fost.(M.Eminescu,Melancolie); Criticul nu e Dumnezeu,chiar daca unii se comporta ca si cum ar fi.(Rlit,2003). In order to express the same meaning in the context of conditional forms, (de)parca ,can also appear(as a linker or exclamatory mark). Si iar pac!paf!pana la a din urma,pe cand cocoana se scutura la fiecare, parca ar arde-o cu un bici de foc.(I.L.Caragiale,Doua loturi); Tema muzicala a lui Nino Rota capata un nou patos, parca si-ar deschide aripile,parca si muzica s-ar intoarce acasa.(Dilema,2003); De parca nu s-ar fi vorbit de ea niciodata!(Rlit,2003); Parca nu l-ai cunoaste!. Unlike ca si cum or ca sic and,(de)parca does not accompany exclusively conditional forms,but can also appear with the indicative: Merge de parca pluteste. Epistemic verbs(such as a imagina,a-si inchipui or nouns as impresia)can also be associated with the conditional expressing counterfact assertions(considered false),as can be seen in the following texts: Imaginati-va un june indragostit lulea de o domnisoara,care i- ar marturisi acesteia ca o iubeste numai in ziua ei de nastere! (Rlit,2003); N-am avut niciodata impresia ca ar scoate ceva din asemenea epave ale oceanului-timp.(M.Sadoveanu,Creanga de aur). Processes coming first on the deontic axis (VREA-POATE-TREBUIE) are also expressed by means of the conditional.The processes are then presented as wish(dorinta) or intention(intentie).A statement like Dan ar canta. expresses the fact that Dan does not act in a certain way,but has only got the wish or intention of doing it.In this situation the conditional acquires the significance of optative(desiderative). The significance of desired process is more obvious with the forms for the first and fourth person where the speakers involvement is marked in a stronger way: Te-as lasa si mi-e cu jale,/Te-as iubi si nu-ndraznesc!(G.Cosbuc,Gazel);Te-as culege,riga bland[]Lasa._Asteapta de te coace. (I.Barbu,Riga Crypto);Odaia mea ma inspaimanta/Aici n-ar sta nici o iubita.(G.Bacovia,Singur). The conditional with optative value (the conditional-optative)occurs in independent sentences that are not marked affectively(Ileana ar pleca/ar fi plecat la mare in aceasta vacanta),in exclamatory sentences(Ce-as mai manca o ciocolata!,Ce-as mai fi mancat o ciocolata!,De-ar ploua putin!/De-ar fi plouat putin!,Cum te-as

mai rasfata!/Cum te-as mai fi rasfatat!),as well as in main or subordinate clauses such as: As urca greul cerurilor goale/Si muntii lunii pana-n pisc./Am ramane in luna,pe disc,/Sa aram vaile de tibisir,/Sa semanam lamaita si calomfir. (T.Arghezi,Mirele); Sclavele mele rad si-mi arata ca m-ar invata bucuroase practicile lor. (M.Sadoveanu,Creanga de aur). The conditional-optative expressing wished-for processes also occurs in wishes,imprecations and curses: Usca-s-ar izvoarele toate si marea,/Si stinge-s-ar soarele ca lumanarea. (T.Arghezi,Blesteme); Vedea-te-as in vreo fituica[]/Lauda-te-ar Bogdan Duica/Si pupa-te-ar Popa Iapa!(G.Toparceanu,Parodii originale). This use of the conditional is emphasized in everyday language where the conditional occurs with the modal value we have mentioned(of optative) in fixed structures,sometimes in the same context with the subjunctive-hortative: Arde-l-ar focul(sa-l arda)!.Manca-i-ar pamantul(sa-I manance)!,Pupa-te-ar mama(sa te pupe)! The forms of the conditional can also express processes whose existence/development is probable,virtual.This value of the conditional is integrated on the epistemic axis as associated to the operator CREDE.The conditional with the modal significanceX considera, dar nu are convingerea/se considera,dar nu exista convingerea appears both in main sentences either independent or regent, and in subordinate clauses. The uncertainty related to the development of a process happening after the statement is obvious in interrogative sentences(direct or indirect) in which the predicate has a conditional form: Oare ar veni si el cu noi!; Ar veni,n-ar veni?; Nu stiu daca ar veni sau n-ar veni. The conditional can also signify uncertainty in contexts expressing the speakers estimation related to some situations: O alta problema ar fi cresterea pretului petrolului,care ar antrena o majorare generala de preturi.Este greu sa fac o estimare, dar efectele ar fi considerabile. (Adevarul,2003).

When used to report someones statements, the conditional expresses the same idea of a process from the area of virtuality seen as doubt.The conditional then denotes an attitude of distance from the reported statements and is thus opposed to the indicative.The use of the conditional forms renders the reserve of the speaker regarding the sincerity of the person making the statement, or implies the fact that the statement is probable but there is no conviction as to its veracity.The statement Un ofiter MApN ne-a declarat caar fi vorba despre muncitori civili adusi sa construiasca baraci.(EZ,2003) is preferred to Un ofiter MApN ca a fost vorba despre muncitori civili adusi sa construiasca baraci. ,exactly because the former expresses doubt about the reported statement. Some other times the conditional may only suggest the impossibility of establishing the truth of the statements: La veneticul acesta necunoscut,despre care se zvonise ca nu-si destainuia obarsia pentru ca ar fi fost prea joasa,se invederau tocmai dimpotriva,trupeste si sufleteste,semnele unei inalte stripe in cadere. (M.Caragiale,Craii); Se vorbeste despre kezari cum ca ar fi supusi gadei.(M.Sadoveanu,Creanga de aur); Numai ca in timp ce marea,ce s-ar gasi undeva la miazanoapte,e o simpla probabilitate,vantul din sud taie in doua jumatati,aproape precise,anul. (O.Paler,Desertul). The conditional forms are also used to express the processes whose existence/progress is supposed by the speaker.The significance process from the area of credibility as assumption is also marked by the presence of elements expressing probability in the context: Chemat sa ne calauzeasca pasii in ceasul de fata,el s-ar sufoca,probabil,de nesfarsita mizerie moral ace curge din noi.(Rlit,2003); Cine ar fi vazut figura lui neica Stavrache, presupunand ca acela ar fi fost om deprins sa descifreze intelesuri din chipurile omenesti, ar fi ramas in mirare. (I.L.Caragiale,In vreme de razboi). The modal significance of probability (X considers,is not certain;it is thought,there is no convinction)is also emphasized by conditional forms accompanied by indefinite linkers: Surpriza generala[]este ca,spre final,constati ca din aceste detalii s-a conturat un portret essential al invitatului,ca o piatra pretioasa,la fel de interesanta din orice parte ar fi privita.(Adevarul,2003);

La belsugul de abanos si de mahon[]iubirea de flori a chiriasului,impinsa pana la patima,adauga o nebuneasca risipa de trandafiri si de tiparoase ce,[] oricand am fi venit,puneau locuintei pecetea de lux ales. (M.Caragiale,Craii); Unde-a plecat,Calare,Fat-Frumos,/De nu se mai zareste nicaierea,/ Oricat si-ar pune soarele puterea,/Oricat s-ar cobori luna de jos?(T.Arghezi,Fat-Frumos). There is a subtle difference between the report from a distance of certain processes and the expression of situations from the area of supposition,which the following quotation is illustrative of: Se spunea cum ca ar fi fost bolnava.Altii chibzuiau ca i-ar fi poruncit Imparatul sa stea in ghinekeu, ca sa nu s-arate dintr-odata doua Imparatese. (M.Sadoveanu,Creanga de aur). The verb in the conditional can also express a hypothesis,a supposition which the achievement(carrying out)of another process depends on.This value characterizes constructions such as:Daca n-ar fi nu s-ar povesti, which grammar books name conditional.In this type of structures,the verbs express processes that are linked together by the condition expressed by the linker daca (and its equivalents).The situation in the subordinate clause is probable,hypothetical.Concession structures such as Chiar daca n-ar fi tot s-ar povesti are similar to the previously mentioned ones.In this syntactical-semantic context the verbal form has the value of conditional proper.This value is frequently used and occurs in different types of texts: Daca Domnul meu s-ar fi induplecat sa-si aiba somnul numai langa mine,nimeni nar fi aflat niciodata vorbele rostite.(M.Sadoveanu,Creanga de aur); Daca ochilor tai le-ar placea/Nevazutul si nestiutul,ai putea/Veni la mine,parca,/Si te-ai lasa primejdiei din barca/Si nu te-ai mai gandi la nimic. (T.Arghezi,Haide); Daca in spiritul acelorasi valori ar fi continuu trait si prezentul cotidian,drame ca acelea ale biografiei sale nu ar fi fost si n-ar mai fi posibile. (Rlit,2003). In structures like the ones quoted above two probable processes are correlated.The conditional proper also occurs in constructions that express the correlation between a probable process and a real,certain one. With the same value as POATE,the verb in the conditional expresses a possible process or condition that some necessary facts exist(mental or emotional capability,favourable circumstances).The process expressed by the conditional has a higher degree of possibility than the one expressed by the conditionaloptative(that expresses wish/intention).With this value the conditional is opposed to the imperative whose basic features are compulsory, forbidden.In this situation the verbal form under discussion acquires the value of conditional-potential.

The conditional-potential forms occur in different types of contexts (a)independent, often incidental sentences; (b)exclamatory sentences; (c)direct interrogations or rhetorical; (d)subordinate clauses: (a)Pe o bucata de drum am vazut(desprinse,ai fi zis,de-a dreptul din Hitchock)stoluri nesfarsite de pasari negre, care zburau pe o parte si alta a autostrazii.(Dilema,2003); (b)Ce s-ar simplifica lucrurile!(Rlit,2003);N-as fi fost buna de profesoara pentru nimic in lume!(Rlit,2003); (c)Cine ar crede asa ceva?;S-ar simplifica astfel lucrurile oare?; (d)Rolul diplomatiei cultural este sa propuna diasporei valori la care ea nu ar avea altfel acces.(Dilema,2003);Cine stie daca as fi fost buna de profesoara!;Intreba daca astfel s-ar simplifica lucrurile. In this type of contexts the verbal forms have the same significance as the constructions built with the modal:a putea:ai fi zis=ai putea zice;n-as fi fost buna=n-as fi putut sa fiu buna;cine ar fi crezut=cine ar fi putut crede;s-ar simplifica lucrurile=lucrurile s-ar putea simplifica;nu ar avea acces=nu ar putea avea acces. The conditional-potential forms accompanied by the negation occur with the same hypothetical value in contrastive structures and are in an adversative logicalsemantic report with statements that contain verbs in the indicative mood.This is how the explanatory hypothesis can be explained: E adevarat, si nu pentru ca mi-ar fi frica de asta,ci pur si simplu pentru ca nu ma intereseaza asemenea lucruri.; De cativa ani buni un mare actor roman nu mai joaca. Nu ca i-ar fi slabit puterile ori ca si-ar fi sleit zestrea de talent.Dimpotriva, e la fel de proaspat ca de cand il cunosc.(Rlit,2003). As for the conditional-potential occurring in main clauses,we should mention the special situation of constructions of the above-mentioned type: Daca n-ar fi, nu s-ar povesti;Daca n-ar fi intristarea,n-ar fi nici bucuria. The achievement or non-achievement of the process expressed by the conditional clause implies the possibility or impossibility of the carrying out of the process expressed by the main clause.Therefore, the carrying out of the process described in the main clause depends on the fulfillment of the other process to which it is linked by means of the logical semantic relationship dacaatunci(ifthen).In the following text, the conditional in the governing clause and the conditional forms in

the main clauses are equivalent with some modal constructions(with the verb a putea or the adverb phrase e posibil): Daca asemenea brat ar ramanea al ortodoxiei, atunci taria Bizantului ar spori[=e posibil sa sporeasca] [it may increase].Ar mai ramanea deschise[e posibil,se poate sa ramana deschise=it is possible,they may stay open] si alte rani, dar pentru acelea s-ar gasi vraci[=e posibil sa se gaseasca vraci=it is possible to find a healer]. (M.Sadoveanu,Creanga de aur). The conditional-potential also occurs with forms of gerund or subjunctive, which acquire the value of the conditional proper: Stand cineva sa cugete la soarta Pasadestilor-Magureni, ar zice ca asupra neamului lor apasa o neagra afurisenie.(M.Caragiale,Craii); Tot viforul care urla in noaptea grozava sa fi napadit dintr-o data in teasta lui Stavrache,nu l-ar fi clatinat mai cu putere decat infatisarea si vorbele acestea! (I.L.Caragiale,In vreme de razboi). The modal significance of a conditional process is sometimes reinforced by different contextual means.This significance is usually marked by structures with adversative sentences containing another verb in the indicative.Thus, two processes are linked_a probable, uncertain one(expressed by the conditional)and another real, certain one(expressed by the indicative): Carol al 2-lea ar fi fost un bun rege daca vremurile ar fi fost altele.Dar vremurile au fost cele care au fost si amintirea si mostenirea lasate de Carol al2-lea sunt astazi discutabile din perspective eficientei sale poetice. (22,2003); Daca as fi unul dintre acei autori care se respecta si sunt foarte respectati, as incheia povestea mea astfel[]Dar fiindca nu sunt dintre acei autori, prefer sa va spun drept:dupa scandalul de la bancher, nu stiu ce s-a mai intamplat cu eroul meu si cu madam Popescu.(I.L.Caragiale,Doua loturi). The conditional-potential also appears in regent of other types of clauses: Dar cand te-am pierde,Doino,/Ai cui am ramanea?(G.Cosbuc,Doina). The conditional is sometimes used to suggest an attitude of protecting the interlocutor.Thus, the conditional form can express the tentative value of an answer(Ai timp?As avea.).When used in the conditional, verbs that express the wish, preference, request, necessity, permission suggest a weaker intention: vreau vs. as vrea;prefer vs. as prefera;va rog vs. v-as ruga;se cuvine vs. s-ar cuveni;imi permit vs. mi-as permite. The conditional also confers the same tentative modal significance to other verbs, and in such cases the use of the conditional induces the typical significance of POATE(request/permission:if youd allow me to):

Pe langa toate acestea, eu as mai propune o explicatie fara nici un haz si complet incorecta politic:nu ne plac lucrurile frumoase; (Dilema,2003); As cita aici un fragment dintr-un studio calinescian. (Rlit,2003); V-as contrazice, a fost tot ce-am reusit sa ingaim.(O.Paler,Desertul).

2.3

THE RELATIONSHIP WITH OTHER MOODS

In constructions of the type ifthen, the perfect conditional proper is synonymous with(indicative imperfect)the past continuous of the indicative: Ar fi ars,probabil,si casa daca nu sareau vecinii cu galeti cu apa. (O.Paler,Desertul); Ar mai fi trait inca bine,daca nu I se intampla lui Canuta sa moara. (I.L.Caragiale,Canuta,om sucit).

Daca binevoiesti a-mi da slobozenie,precum e randuiala,eu m-as intoarce acolo si as intra la ascultare la sfantul Pantelimon. (M.Sadoveanu,Creanga de aur). There is a complex relationship between the conditional and the subjunctive.When used in the conditional,some verbs that can enter structures both with the indicative and the subjunctive(such as a se mira ca/sa, a se bucura ca/sa),impose the use of the subjunctive for the subordinate verb: M-as fi mirat,Dumnezeu sa-l ierte,sa-l gasesc la locSfintia-ta nu l-ai cunoscut pe raposatul Canutaom sucit.(I.L.Caragiale,Canuta,om sucit); M-as bucura sa fie adevarat ce spui si daca este,explicatia e foarte simpla:imi place ce fac.(As,2003). Verbs that only accept the indicative form of the subordinate verb do not react in the same way.For instance,we say:aud ca,but also as auzi ca; consider ca, but also as considera ca;a raspuns ca,but also ar raspunde ca The conditional-optative often occurs in contexts with subjunctive forms having the same modal value.These are structures that constitute typically Romanian patterns: Si d-l Stavrache,urmat de fetita,trece-n pravalie bolborosind: Scrie-v-ar popa sa va scrie,de parliti!(I.L.Caragiale,In vreme de razboi). In constructions of the ifthen type the perfect conditional(proper) competes with the subjunctive:

Sa nu mai fi fost zi deloc ca sa fi ramas mereu impreuna,rau nu mi- ar fi parut;cu dansul nu mi s-ar fi urat o vesnicie.(M.Caragiale,Craii). The conditional proper can be replaced by the gerund: Dandu-mi din ochiul tau senin/O raza dinadins,/In calea timpilor ce vin/O stea s-ar fi aprins.(M.Eminescu,Pe aceeasi ulicioara).

2.4

Temporal Characteristics

The temporal significances of the conditional forms are generally similar to the significances of the present of the indicative and respectively of the perfect of the indicative.The temporal feature which is proto-typical to the present conditional is [Simultaneity/Coincident to the moment of speech,(t0)]and that of the perfect conditional is [Anteriority to the moment of speech,(t0)].In fact, temporal features are contextually marked.The present conditional co-occurs with verbal forms of the present of the indicative and,sometimes,with time adverbs that are typical to the present: Insuportabil prin luciditate si franchete acum o sute douazeci de ani, el ar fi macar la fel de incomod si acum ,avand toate sansele sa infunde puscaria,precum atunci a infundat ospiciul.(Rlit,2003). The present conditional can also express processes that happen after the moment of speech ,thus corresponding to the future of the indicative(with the feature [Posteriority to t0]): Maine as face o plimbare in parc; Daca anul urmator ar avea cateva saptamani libere,s-ar mai relaxa; In viitor s-ar simplifica lucrurile oare? The modal value taken by the conditional-optative in wishes,imprecations and curses also projects the process to the semantic area of the future: Ei,auzi!Vedea-i-as mari,/Parca trece-adunatura/De tatari!(G.Cosbuc,Iarna pe ulita). The past conditional co-occurs with forms of perfect indicative(perfect compus,simplu,imperfect,mai mult ca perfect):

Aveam impresia ca o aud plangand,as fi alergat spre ea,dr nu mai puteam. (As,2003). Adverbs and adverb phrases,specific to the past,are sometimes associated to the verb forms:Ieri as fi mers la teatru;Cu o saptamana in urma as fi acceptat oferta. The temporal features are obvious in contexts in which the two forms(of present conditional and perfect conditional) occur together: Dup ace ar fi prigonit acest demon dintre dregatorii cei mari,ar veni randul altora.(M.Sadoveanu,Creanga de aur). In subordinate clauses ,the conditional forms have the same temporal value:the conditional expresses processes from the semantic area of the present or future ,whereas the past conditional expresses processes from the area of the past.The time referent is established by the verb in the main clause: -the present conditional expresses a process that is simultaneous with or posterior to the one expressed by the main verb:Spune(a spus,va spune)ca ar veni acum/maine.Este(a fost,va fi)opinia pe care as sustine-o(in momentul de fata si in viitor); -the past conditional expresses actions,events or states anterior to the ones expressed by the main verb;at the same time the perfect conditional has the modal value(unfulfilled process): Abia acum citeste carte ape care ar fi savurat-o in copilarie.Acum sunt de parere ca in tinerete as fi avut mai multa energie pentru acest tip de activitate; -the conditional proper expresses a process that is anterior to the one expressed by the main verb(with a conditional-potential meaning): Daca as avea vacanta,as merge la mare.Daca ai fi cerut,ti-as fi dat. Temporal features are often neutralized and the past conditional forms only carry modal values.In the following text,the conditional form does not show that the process(possible,uncertain or probable)belongs to the semantic area of the past,its association with the adverb astazi(today) making it impossible to understand the form as carrying temporal significance;the conditional form only expresses the idea that the process is probable: Se spune ca intreaga sa colectie de discuri pentru gramofon,distrusa in anii refugiului familiei regale din timpul primului razboi mondial, ar fi avut astazi o valoare inestimabila.(As,2003).

In fact, even in conditional constructions(of the type ifthen)the conditionalpotential and the perfect conditional proper express hypothetical,probable processes: Daca ai fi venit,te-ai fi distrat(Dar nu ai venit si nu te-ai distrat); Poate ca situatia ar fi ramas neschimbata daca intre timp nu ar fi izbucnit razboiul.(Dar a izbucnit razboiul si situatia s-a schimbat).

2.5

The Present Conditional

The present conditional is an analytical form of the verb made up of two components: as juca,as lucre,as aparea,as veni,as povesti. As for its contents ,the present conditional covers the reference time present and future.Consequently,a verb in the present conditional has a constant feature,the modal one [-real], unreal, when unreal means imagined,probable,wished for,intended and a variable temporal feature,expressed by the context.When the conditional form places the process in the semantic area of the speech act,its significance is given by the feature(Simultaneity to t0).When the process is placed in the semantic area ulterior to the speech act,the temporal feature is(Posteriority to t0). The conditional that has the present as the reference time is generally accompanied by time phrases or/and verbal forms in the present of the indicative:

Astazi chiar de m-as intoarce /A-ntelege n-o mai pot/Unde esti copilarie,/Cu padurea ta cu tot? (M.Eminescu, O,ramai ). The conditional with the future as the reference time usually occurs in contexts with phrases that place it in the semantic area of the future or with verbs in the future of the indicative: Intr-o limba Barbara/Ti- as spune povesti dintr-o tara./Vorbele,ca o tarana/Din sesurile ei,ti le- as presara pe mana,/Si-n lacrimi se vor trezi/Apele terii dinspre miazazi. (T.Arghezi,Haide).

2.6

The Perfect Conditional

In terms of form ,the perfect conditional is an analytic tense made up of three components(as fi jucat,as fi lucrat,as fi aparut,as fi venit,as fi povestit ). The significance of the perfect conditional is given by two features,one of which-the modal one[-Real] is identical to that of the present conditional.The differences in significance are due to the temporal features[Anteriority to t0]. When expressed,the time significance is emphasised by its association with forms of perfect indicative(perfect compus,simplu,imperfect,mai mult ca perfect)and sometimes with phrases that place it in the area of the past: Si poate ca lucrurile ar fi ramas asa,daca Marcela,in varsta de 48 de ani,nu ar fi aflat astfel ca Florina mersese pana intr-acolo incat recunoscuse,in scris,ca a avut o aventura.(Libertatea,2003). The prototypical past conditional is an absolute tense(strictly deictic): Ii spune ca ar fi venit cu draga inima la spectacol,dar a fost bolnav. The past conditional can also be used as a relative tense: Va spune intr-o zi ca oricum n-ar fid at curs invitatiei.

CHAPTER 2: The Adverbial Clause of Condition 1. The conditional Sentence in English Conditional sentences usually consist of two clauses: a conditional clause (or if clause) and a main clause (or result clause). The result in the main clause is dependent on the condition in the conditional clause. This chapter looks at the basic types of conditional sentence, and some variations on these, and introduces a number of words and phrases used to express condition. As opposed to Romanian, where the conditional mood is used both in the main clause and in the conditional clause, in English the conditional appears only exceptionally in the subordinate clause and is replaced by the forms of the subjunctive, which coincide with the forms of the Past and Past Perfect of the Indicative and express unreal actions.

1.1 General points on conditionals

Sentence structures

We usually form conditional sentences in one of these basic structures. If clause main clause OR main clause if clause

If I had a car, I would take you.

I would take you if I had a car.

If we put the if clause first, we usually separate the clauses with a comma, especially if one clause is quite long: If the bill is passed by both parliamentary houses, it becomes law.

We can use then in the main clause to emphasise that the result depends on the condition being achieved: If the bill is passed by both parliamentary houses, then it becomes law.

We can put the if clause in the middle of the main clause, but this is rare. It may be possible, if both parties desire it.

In conversation we often use only the main clause: the if clause is implied: Actually, it would be pretty difficult. (if we did as you asked).

1.2 Sentence patterns

There are four basic conditional sentence patterns where our choice of tense depends on the time of the condition (past, present or future) and how possible or impossible we think the event is:

zero conditional possible at any time, but most commonly in the present: If your dog is depressed, he probably needs more exercise.

first conditional possible in the future: If the single flops, theyll sack their manager. second conditional impossible in the present/possible (but improbable) in the future: If you were a bit nicer, he wouldnt get so cross.

third conditional impossible in the past: If you had answered the door, she wouldnt have gone away again.

1.2.1 Zero conditional

This is also known at the general conditionalan its pattern is: if + present simple present simple

If you dont look after the tomato plant, they die very quickly. If one thinks of all that it has to do, and all that it does so well, it is really astonishing. (Jane AustenEmma) Even where there is no interruption he is often content, if certain verses and lines have style, to leave unbridged transitions, unexplained ejaculations, that make his meaning unintelligible. (W.B.Yeats- Introduction to The Oxford Book of Verse) If so large a part of creation is really criticism, is not a large part of what is called critical writing really creative? (T.S.Eliot- Function of Criticism) If youre not mad, I feel sorry for you, Sonny, because youre crazy, and youre lost, man. (C. Brown- Manchild in the Promised Land)

We can use other present tenses in both clauses, e.g. present perfect or present continuous: Prawns are very risky to eat if they havent been kept at the right temperature. If shes traveling abroad on business, she always phones me every evening.

We can use modal verbs in either clause, especially can and may: Prawns can be very risky to eat if they havent been kept at the right temperature. If you can read this, youre driving too close to me!

1.2.1.1 Other Possible Combinations of Tenses 1: if + present + modal

if clause: present tenses condition to be satisfied Simple present: If she finishes early, Present progressive: If she is arriving today, Present perfect: If she has arrived, Present perfect If she has been waiting, progressive: Can, must: If she cant understand it, main clause: modal likely outcome she can/could phone me. she may/might phone me. she should/ought to phone me. she must phone me. she must phone me.

Will in the main clause expresses certainty or near certainty. If we do not feel certain enough to use will, or if we want to express the ideea of e.g. necessity, we can use another modal instead: Condition to be satisfied If its fine tomorrow, likely outcome can (we are free to) could (we would be able to) we may (its possible) go out. might (its possible) should (its advisable) ought to (its advisable) must (its necessary)

Gone to heaven, I hope; where we may, everyone, join her, if we take due warning and leave our evil ways to follow good.

(Emily Bronte- Wuthering Heights)

Progressive and perfect combinations with modals are possible: If I hear from Tim, I may be leaving tonight. If he is in New York, he may not have got my letter yet.

2: if + should + imperative
If clause or variation Condition to be satisfied If you (should) see him, Should you see him, If you (should) happen to see him, Shoul you happen to see him, Main clause: imperative request, suggestion, etc. please give him my regards.

If + should (+ bare infinitive), instead of if + present, makes the condition more doubtful: If he calls, tell him Ill ring back. (normal type 1.) If he should call, tell him Ill ring back. (if + should) The main clause is not necessarily always an imperative: If I should see him, Ill ask him to ring you. If + should + imperative in the main clause is used especially when we want to make polite requests suggestions, or to tell people ( tactfully) what to do: If you should write to her, send her my love. If you should go to Nairobi, go and see the Snake Park. Imperatives can also be used in ordinary type 1 conditions: Cancel the match if it rains. If it rains, cancel the match.
If I meet with no insuperable difficulties therefore, consider that point as settled ( Jane Austen- Emma)

The only kind of negative we can form with should is e.g. Should you not (see example next paragraph); otherwise we must use the negative form of the simple present: If you dont see him(not * if you shouldnt *) A condition can be expressed without if by beginning a sentence with should. This is rather formal and is often found, for example, in business letters, not in everyday conversations:

Should you be interested in our offer, please contact us. Should you not wish our agent to call, please let us know. The more elaborate the construction with should and / or happen to, the more tactful a speaker is trying to be. Compare the sequence: If you If you should Should you If you happen to If you should happen to Should you happen to Should you by any chance happen to see him see him see him see him see him see him see him fairly likely: neutral

unlikely: very tactful

3: imperative + conjunction + clause

Imperative condition to be satisfied Provide the materials Stop shouting, Put that down, Be there on time, conjunction and or or else otherwise Main clause: shall/will likely outcome well do the job. youll wake up the neighbors. Ill smake you. youll create a bad impression.

Imperatives can be used in place of if clauses to comment, make requests, make a bargain, offer advice, threaten and so on. The use of the imperative conveys more urgency than the if clause: Comment: Fail to pay and theyll cut off the electricity. (If you fail to pay, theyll cut off the electricity.) Request: Tell us what to do and well get on with it. (If you tell us what to do well get on with it.) Threat: Stop eating sweets or you wont get any dinner. (If you dont stop eating sweets, you wont get any dinner.) Advice: Take a taxi, otherwise youll miss your train. (If you dont take a taxi, youll miss your train.) Note the difference between imperative + or and imperative + and in threats: Drop that gun or Ill shoot you. (If you dont drop it) Drop that parcel, and Ill kill you. (If you do drop it).

1.2.1.2 Uses and values of the Zero Conditional

We use the zero conditional to talk about events or situations that can occur at any time, and often occur more than once, and their results: If I eat dairy products, I get red spots on my skin. If can be replaced by when in this type of conditional sentence: If/When you press this key, the game starts, and when you click here, it stops. We also use the zero conditional to talk about actions which always have the same result: If you use a very hot iron on nylon, it melts. We can use an imperative instead of a present tense in the result clause to give a general instruction: If a chip pan sets alight, throw a fire blanket, not water, on it.

1.2.2 First conditional

1.2.2.1Patterns

This is also known as the likely or possible conditional.

if + present simple

will/wont + infinitive

If the museum charges for entry, a lot of people wont be able to visit it. If he lives, she thought to herself,what will become of him? ( D. H. Lawrence- Sons and Lovers)

If you are none of these you can be sure it will kill you too but there will be no special hurry. (E. Hemingway- A Farewell to Arms) On the other hand, if one of them succeeds in blowing me to pieces with a wellplaced bomb, he will never sleep any the worse for it. (G. Orwell- England Your England)

We can use other present tenses in the if clause:

If youre coming on the motorway, youll need change for the tolls. We can also use other future forms in the main clause: If the results of the customer survey are favorable, the supermarket is going to introduce a new range. We can use modal verbs in either clause, especially can, may and should: If the regime can keep the loyalty of the army, they may retain power. If the Spanish team continues to do so well, they should win the World Cup. It is usually incorrect to use a future form in the if clause: If the weather will be good tomorrow, well have a picnic. If the weather is good tomorrow, well have a picnic. However, it is appropriate if will/wont refers to willingness or refusal: The company will impose sanctions if the workers wont abandon the strike.

If you will have that precision out of them and make their fingers measure degrees like cogwheels, and their arms strike curves like compasses, you must unhumanise them. (John Ruskin- The Stones of Venice) Are you ready for your bath, Sir? Oh, dont get up-Ill put you in, if youll just unbutton your pyjamas- there. ( F.S. Fitzgerald- The Diamond As Big As The Ritz)

1.2.2.2 Uses and values of the First Conditional

We use the first conditional to describe possible future events or situations and their results: If the result of the test is negative, youll receive notification through the post. The bank will be starting a recruitment drive if it receives head office approval. We can use first conditional to express a variety of functions: Commands: If you get home late, dont wake us up! Offers: Ill call the hotel if you dont have time. Suggestions: Shall we go out tomorrow if the weathers good? Warnings: Ill call the police if you dont leave right now! Note that we use an imperative in the main clause for commands.

To make this conditional pattern more formal, we can omit if and use should before the subject: Should you be less than delighted with our product, we will refund your money immediately.

1.2.3 Second conditional 1.2.3.1 Patterns

This is also known as the unlikely or improbable conditional.

If + past simple

would/wouldnt + infinitive

If they wanted to make an offer, she would listen and think it over.

We can also use the past continuous or was going to in the if clause:

If a celebrity were staying in the hotel, security arrangements would be tightened. We often use a modal in the main clause, especially might or could: More funding fore AIDS research could be secured if people were more aware with the dire situation in Africa. With be in the if clause, we usually use the subjunctive were for all persons. You may hear English speakers using was as in the first example above. It is becoming accepted today, but you should not use in formal situations. If the programmer was familiar with this language, it would be an easy job. If the programmer were familiar with this language, it would be an easy job. It is possible to use would in both clauses in US English but not in British English. US: The blockades wouldnt happen if the police would be firmer with the strikers. Br: The blockades wouldnt happen if the police were firmer with the strikers

1.2.3.1Basic form of type 2 conditionals

if clause: past tense condotion to be satisfied Be: If I was taller, Have: If he had any money, Other verbs: If you took a taxi, Could: If you could see me now, Notes on the form of type 2 conditionals 1. The most commonly used form is: if + simple past + d conditionals if it rained tomorrow wed stay at home. In type 2, if is followed by a past tense or could (= was / were able to). Main clause: would/should likely outcome I would become a policeman. hed leave home. youd get there quicker. youd laugh your head off.

The main clause is normally formed with would, though should can be used instead of would after I and we. Would is generally contracted to d in all persons in the main clause.
If I got nothing from the house of the rich, I would get something at the house of the poor. (Oscar Wilde- De Profundis)

Yes, it was ugly enough; but if you were man enough you would admit to yourself that there was in you just the faintest trace of a response to the terrible frankness of that noise, a dim suspicion of there being a meaning in it which you- you so remote from the night of first ages- could comprehend. ( Joseph Conrad- Heart of Darkness) If I had my way, Id cut off your hair and send you to Vietnam. And if I couldnt do that, Id cut your throat. (A. Ginsberg- Uptown)

2. An unnecessary extra negative can occur in type 2 conditionals: I wouldnt be surprised if he didnt try to blackmail you. (If he tried to blackmail you) The not in the if clause does not make a true negative.

1.2.3.2 Other Possible Combinations of Tenses 1: if + were/was + would/should

if clause: were / was condition to be satisfied If If I / he / she / it You / we / they were / was were main clause: would/should likely outcome ready I would (or should) he would (or should) go. You / they (etc.) would.

If the errand were not a pleasure to me, it could be done, as it always is when I am not here, by my grandmamma. (Jane Austen- Emma) If there were no hope for me, I would ask you to tell me at once, that I might just ride away to- no matter where. (George Elliot- Daniel Deronda)

If I were / if I was Were can be used in place of was after if I / he / she / it. There is no difference in meaning, but were is more formal, particularly when we are marking doubtful statements: If I were you / in your posotion, Id accept their offer. (this means: you should accept their offer.) We also use these expressions to refer to somebody else: If I were Jane / in Janes position, Id accept him. If it were not for / were it not for (not* was* ) this expression explains why something has or hasnt happened: If it werent for the rain, wed go for a walk. In formal context, if it were not for can be expressed as were it not for, with the negative in full (not werent it* ): Were it not for your help, I would still be homeless. If it were not for and were it not for are often followed by the fact that: Were it not for the fact that you help me, I would be homeless.

2: if + past + modal
If clause: past tense Condition to be satisfied If he knew the facts, If he could get the facts, main clause: modal lickely outcome could tell us what to do. might tell us what to do.

he he

Another modal can replace would in type 2 conditional, e.g. when we feel the imaginary consequences are less likely, or when we are referring to ability, possibility, etc.: Condition to be satisfied If he were here, If he were here, If he failed, likely outcome he could help us.(ability) he might help us. (possibility) he ought to / should try again. (duty)

Progressive and perfect combinations with modals are possible: If she were here now, she could be helping us. If he was in New York, he could have met my sister. If they were in the army, they would have been fighting in the jungle most of the time.

3: if + were to / was to + would, etc.

if clause: were to / was to main clause: would/should,etc. Condition to be satisfied likely outcome If I / he / she / it were to / was to ask, I / we would / should, etc. If you / we / they were to ask, he/she/it/you /they would, etc. Instead of an ordinary verb in the simple past, we can use were or was + to infinitive in type 2 conditional clause: If I were to (or was to) ask you, would you help me? Were to is more common than was to after I / she / he / it and makes a suggestion sound more tentative and polite. Compare: If I asked him, Im sure hed help us. Do you think he would? Well, if I were to ask him nicely. Modals other than would and should are possible in the main clause: If you were to ask him, he might help you. If Sue were to make an effort, she could do better. The same kind of conditional can be expressed without if, if we begin a sentence with were (not *was *). This kind of inversion is common only in very formal contexts: Were the government to cut value added tax, prices would fall. There is no negative construction (not * if he were not to*)but negative inversion is possible with the full form: Thered be a clear case for legal action over this matter were it not likely to make life difficult for all us. (not * werent it*)

1.2.3.3 Uses and values of the Second Conditional

Type 2 conditionals talk about imaginary situations in the if clauses and speculate about their imaginary consequnces in the main clause. Though past tenses are used, the reference is not to past time. (that is why this use of the past tense after if is often called the unreal past.) by comparison, type 1 conditionals talk about things which will possibly happen and consider their real consequences for the future. Depending on the attitude of the speaker, a type 2 conditional can be used in place of type 1 to describe something that is reasonably possible. So:

If you went by train, you would get there earlier. If you didnt stay up so late every evening, you wouldnt feel so sleepy in the morning. Mean the same, but are more tentative than: If you go by train, you will get there earlier. If you dont stay up so late every evening, you wont feel so sleepy in the morning. However, type 2 conditionals more often describe what is totally impossible: If I had longer legs, Id be able to run faster. 1. When we dont expect the action in the if clause to take place: If he ran all the way he would get there in time (but I dont suppose he will run all the way). If a burglar came into my room I should throw something at him (but I dont expect a burglar to come in). If I dyed my hair my skin would look whiter ( but I have no serious intention of dying my hair). 2.When the supposition is contrary to known facts: If we had a helicopter we could get there quite quikly (but we havent a helicopter). If I knew his addres Id give it to you (but I dont know it). Sometimes the same if clause could have two possible meanings: If he ran all the way could imply but I dont think he will or but he doesnt. The remaining, however, is normally clear from the context. At one time ambiguity of this type was avoided by using were + infinitive instead of the past tense in type 2 (1). If he were to run/ if a burglar were to come / if I were to dye my hair. Nowadays this use of were is considered rather formal but it is sometimes found in written English.

The second conditional has two main meanings. 1. It can describe an improbable future event or situation. The condition is unlikely to be fulfilled because the future event is unlikely to happen: If the result of the test were positive, we would call you within two days. 2. It can also describe a hypothetical current situation or event, i.e. one which is contrary to known facts. It is therefore impossible to fulfill the condition:

If the police were confident of their case against Sykes, surely they wouldnt hesitate to take him into custody? The choice between the first conditional and Use 1 of the second conditional often depends on how possible the speaker believes an event to be: If Mike rings the travel agent tomorrow, he might get a cancellation. (The speaker thinks that it is likely that Mike will ring the travel agent) If Mike rang the travel agent tomorrow, he might get a cancellation. (The speaker thinks that it is unlikely that Mike will ring the travel agent) We use the second conditional to express a variety of functions: Giving advice (with were): If I were you, I would take her out of that school. Polite requests: If you could deal with this matter, Id be very grateful.

Desires/regrets: If we didnt have to work so hard, we could spend more time together.

We can use should+ infinitive or were to + infinitive in the second conditional to emphasise that the condition is unlikely to happen. If the printer should break down within the first year, we would repair it at our expense. If you were to listen more carefully, you might understand a little more. We can put was/ were to in front of the subject to sound more formal: Were you to accept our offer, we could avoid the costs of a court case. We do not put do or the main verb in front of the subject. Did the builders finish the work to schedule, they would receive a bonus. If the builders finished the work to schedule, they would receive a bonus. Were the builders to finish the work to schedule, they would receive a bonus.

We can make this condition more formal by placing should before the subject: Should the tickets fail to arrive before the departure date, we would arrange to have duplicates waiting at the airport.

1.2.4 Type 3 conditionals

The verb in the if clause is in the past perfect tense; the verb in the main clause is in the perfect conditional: If I had known of our arrival I should have met you (but I didnt know so I didnt meet you). If he had fallen through the ice he would have drowned (but he didnt fall, so he didnt drown).
Then the son of Ecgtheow, the hero of the Geats, would have found death under the wide waters if the battle-shirt, the hard war-net, had not helped him and if holy God had not achieved victory in war. (Beowulf)

Here we know that the condition cannot be fulfilled because the sentence refers only to past events.

1.2.4.1Basic form of type 3 conditionals:

if clause: past perfect imagined condition If I had been taller, If I had any sense, If we had gone by car, If I had been trying harder, If I could have stopped, main clause:would/should have imagined outcome I would have joined the police force. I would have kept quiet about it. we would have saved time. I would have succeeded. there wouldnt have been an accident.

Be: Have: Past perfect: Past perfect progressive: Could have:

Notes on the form of type 3 conditionals

if If 1. The most commonly used form is: + past perfect + would have it had rained we would have stayed at home.

If he had remained among the larches all night, he would have heard nothing of the stir at the Grange. (Emily Bronte- Wuthering Heights)

Even if she had not promised that woman to be silent, it would have been impossible for her to enter on the subject with Grandcourt. ( George Elliot- Daniel Deronda)

Progressive forms are possible in the if clause and / or main clause: If it had been raining this morning, we would have stayed at home. If I had not married, I would still have been living abroad. 2. If is followed by the past perfect or could have (= had been able to). Would have and should have are not used in the if clause. However, in everyday speech (never in writing) the following non standard form (a kind of double past perfect) often occurs and should be avoided: If Id have know she was ill, Id have sent her some flowers. 3. The abbreviation d can stand for had or would and is common both in speech and informal writing: If Id (= I had) left sooner, Id (= Id would) have been on time. The abbreviations I wouldve and Id ve for would have are common in speech. Only wouldve and d have occur in informal writing: If Id got up earlier, I wouldve / Id have been on time.

1.2.4.2 Uses and values of type 3 conditionals

Type 3 conditionals assumes something purely imaginary in the if clause and consider the imagined consequence in the main clause. In this respect, they are like type 2. However, type 3 conditionals refer to consequences which did not happen because they refer to something that didnt happen in the past. They are hypothetical conditions: If I had worked harder at school, Id have got a better job. If I hadnt been wearing a raincoat, I would have got wet. (referring to something possible: often expressing regret) If I had won the pools, life would have been much easier. (referring to a completely impossible situation). We use type 3 conditionals to speculate about a range of possibilities, from what might have been reasonably expected to what would have been completely impossible.

We can use the third conditional to express criticism: If youd been driving more slowly, you could have stopped in time. If I had been you / in your position We often use these expressions to describe a course of action we would have followed in someone elses position: If I had been you / in your position, Id have accepted their offer. (this means: you should have accepted their offer.) We can also use these expressions to refer to somebody else: If I had been Jane, Id have walked out on him years ago. If it hadnt been for We often use this expression to explain why something didnt happen in the past: If it hadnt been for the rain, we would have had a good harvest.

1.2.4.3 Inversion with had in type 3 conditionals

The form had (he) is a formal variation of if (he) had: Had the management acted sooner, the strike wouldnt have happened. A negative inversion is possible with the full form: Had it not been for the unusually bad weather, the rescue party would have been able to save the stranded climber. (not * hadnt*) 1.2.4.4 Other Possible Combinations

1: if + past perfect + modal

If clause: past perfect tense Imagined condition main clause: modal imagined outcome

If he had known the facts, he could have told us what. If he could have got the facts he might have done it. Another modal can replace would in type 3 conditionals, e.g. when we feel that the imagined consequences were less likely, or when we are referring to ability, etc. Imagined condition imagined outcome

If he had been here yesterday, If he had been here yesterday, If he had received a present,

he he he

could have told us. (ability) might have told us. (possibility) should have thanked her. (duty)

Progressive and perfect combinations with modals are possible: If he had been here, he could have been helping us in the shop.

2: if + were/ was to + perfect infinitive

If clause: were/ was to + perfect infinitive main clause: perfect conditional

If he were to have received your letter, he would have phoned you. If they were to have played better, they would have won the meci. This structure diminishes the degree of certainty, and belongs to what is generally known as tentative language. Type III sentences with this form can also be formed without if, which triggers the inversion of the subject in the conditional clause. Were she to have learnt the truth about him, she wouldnt have married him. (If she were to have learnt the truth).

1.2.5.Mixed Conditionals

Mixed conditionals include the verb forms from two different conditional patterns. These are two of the most common mixed patterns.

1.2.5.1Mixed second/ third conditional

This conditional describes a hypothetical situation or event in the present, which is contrary to known facts. The result in the main clause refers to the past: If the island were still a tourist attraction, last weeks earthquake would have caused far more deaths.

(= The island is no longer a tourist attraction so the earthquake didnt cause a huge number of deaths.)

1.2.5.2 Mixed third/ second conditional

This conditional describes a hypothetical situation or event in the past , which is contrary to known facts. The result in the main clause refers to the present: If Fleming hadnt discovered penicillin, there would be far more fatalities every year. ( = Fleming did discover penicillin so there are fewer fatalities now).

If he had come nearer he would probably be aware, from the lights flitting to and fro, and the opening and shutting of the outer doors, that all was not right within. ( Emily BronteWuthering Heights)

1.3 Alternatives to IF 1.3.1Negative conditions

We often use unless to express a negative condition. It is similar to ifnot or only if. Unless youve got a doctors note to say youve passed the medical, they wont allow you to go on the activity holiday. (=if you dont have a doctors note, they wont allow you) Unless they all retreat, the casualty count could be horrendous. (=the casualty count could be horrendous if they dont all retreat.) One cannot see the modern world as it is unless one recognizes the overwhelming strength of patriotism, national loyalty. ( G. Orwell- England Your England) I wouldnt be willing to help you out again unless you paid me. (= I would help again only if you paid me.)

Unless is not always an alternative to if not, especially when the negative condition after if is contrary to known facts, and in most questions. Youd be happier unless you had such high expectations. Youd be happier if you didnt have such high expectations. What time shall we leave for the theatre unless he turns up? What time shall we leave for the theatre if he doesnt turn up? We can use unless with not: The college will offer you a place on next years course, unless your schoolleaving grade is not as predicted. (=if your school grade is as predicted) Are they going to sell? Not unless they receive an exceptional offer. (=They wont if they dont receive)

1.3.2 Necessary conditions

We use the conjunctions provided/providing (that) so/as long as and on (the) condition (that) emphasise that the condition is necessary to the result. They all mean only if: The system will not have to be drained provided that antifreeze has been added. Expenses will be reimbursed on the condition that all receipts are submitted. We do not use these conjunctions with the third conditional, as they can only refer to present or future conditions: We would have had the party there so long as they had arranged the catering. Well have had the party here, so long as you also arranged the catering. To express a necessary condition for something to have happened in the past, we use but for + noun phrase: They would have all perished, but for the quick thinking of the driver. (=if it had not been for the quick thinking of the driver)

1.3.3 Imaginary conditions

We use Suppose/Supposing (that) and What if to talk about imaginary conditions. Suppose he asked you to go to the cinema with him, would you go? We often omit the result clause with these conjunctions. What if the money doesnt arrive on time? We use in case to imagine a future situation. It is note as same as if: Ill pop round later in case youre there. (= I dont know if youll be there.) Ill pop round later if youre there. (=Ill only come if youre there.) We often use in case to imagine a precaution necessary for a situation: She gave me the key to get in the house in case you came out. In case of (+noun) is more formal, and is often used in instructions: In case of (an) emergency, pull the cord above the bath.

1.3.4 Unexpected conditions

We use even if to express a condition that is unexpected in the circumstances: Even if they do go down with flu after theyve had the vaccination, its likely to be less serious.

1.3.5Alternative conditions

We use whetheror not to express alternative conditions (for all conditional patterns):

Theyll deliver the furniture whether theres someone to receive it or not.

when if and when are interchangeable when the statement of the conditional clause is a fact or a general issue (also known as zero conditonal) If you heat ice, it melts. When you heat ice, it melts. if is used for something that, according to the speaker, might happen.
We can spend the afternoon on the beach if the weather is fine.

when is used for something that, according to the speaker, will happen.
I will clean up the kitchen right away when I'm back from work.

2. The Conditional Clause in Romanian

2.1.Defining aspects The adverbial of condition is an element of the statement that expresses the condition whose fulfillment the realization of a process depends on. The specific expression of the adverbial of condition is the clause introduced by the conjunction daca (or its synonym de). 2.2 Semantic features The adverbial of condition belongs to the group of adverbials used to express logical-semantic relations.The sentence containing an adverbial of condition states that the process expressed in the main clause is fulfilled under certain circumstances expressed in the subordinate clause.In other words,such a sentence expresses a relation of inference(conditioning)which the speaker establishes,of the type[X considers(believes)that]if A,then B.

The conditional does not belong to the thematic structure of the verb and,consequently,can always be suppressed without thecorrectness(cohesion)of the statement being affected. 2.3 Syntactic features The prototypical conditional is semantically integrated in the statement,but syntactically-within the verb group-it is a secondary constituent that depends on[V+objects]what characterizes this type of adverbial is its occurring in a hypothetical syntactic construction of the type: ifthen,where the conditional is the subordinate term. In the above mentioned structure,the governing element of the adverbial of condition is a whole clause with the predicate expressed by a verb: [Daca te ieu dupa magar,]conditional[te duce la stana]regent. A clause containing an interjection group,an adverb group or an adjective group in a predicative position can also govern a conditional: [Daca reusesti,]conditional[bravo tie]regent; [Daca vei izbuti,]conditional[bine!]regent; [Medicamentele homeopatice sunt utile]regent[daca medicamentele traditionale provoaca alergii]conditional. In the rgent clause of the conditional construction there can appear the correlators atunci and apoi:Daca te intereseaza,atunci citeste! or Daca nu asculti sfatul meu,apoi nu imi mai cere parerea! In such situations,atunci and apoi lose their significance and function as terms with a discursive,anaphorical role that also ensure the cohesion of the two-clause sentence. 2.4 Pragmatic features 1.The prototypical adverbial of condition expresses a relation of inference,of conditioning between two processes: Daca n-ai papuci,sunt bune si opincile. 2.In some constructions,clauses introduced by daca express the speakers perspective(opinion,usually doubt or uncertainty)on the contents of the statement:Daca nu gresesc,tu singura te-ai oferit sa rezolvi situatia; Daca imi aduc bine aminte,era prin aprilie anul trecut;Daca-mi dai voie(Daca nu va suparati),nu e chiar asa. Statements containing the pattern ifthen,can also express a deductive relation regarding the speakers statement: Daca e umezeala pe strada,atunci a plouat

peste noapte=Daca[constat ca] e umezeala pe strada[deduc ca]a plouat peste noapte. In contexts such as the one we have just mentioned,the adverbial clause of condition has the role of directly or indirectly linking the speaker with the act of speech and is placed at the metadiscursive level.This type of conditional clauses are often syntactically integrated,as is the case in the following text: Daca nu ma-nsel,tot acolo la Ratoaia,am intrebat eu:Dar cum de sunteti singuri? []Acolo,la popota,chiar imi amintesc ca am baut si o gura de palinca, daca nu ma insel.(JN,2004). However,metadiscursive conditionals can also appear in incidental constructions: Nenorocirea care a lovit-o-daca pentru dansa a insemnat nenorocire-a intampinat-o cu o seninatate aproape dispretuitoare. (M.Caragiale,Craii).

2.5 The Substitution Class of The Adverbial of Condition 2.5.1.Clauses It is the clauses that emphasise the fact that the statement containing an adverbial of condition suppose a relation of logical-semantic inference established by the speaker.In the adverbial of condition is a clause,the construction-made up of a main clause and its subordinate clause-is called a period/hypothetical construction. The name is related to the fact that the entire construction expresses a hypothesis that the speaker states and can present as certain,possible or impossible. Traditionally,the two terms of the construction are called prothasis(the conditional clause)and respectively apothasis(the main clause).One feature of the hypothetical period is the use of the same verb forms in both clauses or the use of interchangeable verb forms(synonymous). 2.5.1.2 Subjonctive and relative conditional clauses The conditional clause is generally linked to its regent by junction.The specialized linker for the adverbial clause of condition is the phrase in caz ca:Sa reclame,in caz ca ar fi fost evacuat cu forta,se temea,fiindca ar fi trebuit sa marturiseasca a fi tatal unor copii dezavuati de noul regim.(G.Calinescu,Scrinul negru). However,the typical linker,which is naturally associated to the hypothetical period is the conjunction daca. Daca is most frequently used in expressing the hypothetical period,but it is not a specialised linker,but a plurivalent conjunction;it can function in instances that are

not adverbial(direct object clauses,indirect object clauses,subject clauses,predicate clauses,defining relative clauses)as well as in adverbial clauses(time clauses,adverbials of cause,concession). Daca can express a weak condition of the type ifthen like in:Daca ar barfi numai personae oarecare,atunci situatia nu ar fi atat de grava. (Rlit,2004)or a strong one(only if) like in:Lumea nu era muritoare de foame,numai daca nu voiai ,nu gaseai sa muncesti.(As,2003). The restrictive character of a condition is also emphasised by the adverbs doar(with a positive regent,type:Vin doar daca ma chemi.)and decat(with a negative regent,type:Nu vin decat daca ma chemi.) In the conditional clause introduced by daca there cannot be used forms of the subjunctive or the imperative of the predicates,but it is possible to use forms of any tense of the indicative: Daca-I fire mincinoasa/Ce folos ca e frumoasa? (G.Cosbuc,Scara);Daca ne duceam noi la el,ne primea ca pe niste rude sarace. (O.Paler,Desertul);Daca aid at,uita,daca ai luat,pomeneste.(Proverb);Daca vei veni sit u,va fi fericit. In this type of clause the predicate can also be in the conditional( Daca nu ar fi ocolisuri,nu ar fi literatura,Rlit,2004)or in the presumptive (Dac-ar fi fiind toti plecati,cine ne va deschide usa?) The conjunction de is a linker in the conditional period when it is synonymous with daca: De te-ating,sa feri in laturi,/De hulesc,sa taci din gura.(M.Eminescu,Glossa);Astazi ar fi linsat un orator de-ar indrazni sa pronunte frazele antifeministe ale lui Cato. (Rlit,2004). Just like daca ,de is a plurivalent conjunction and can be used either with nonadverbial value(mark of indirect questions,linker for subject clauses,predicate clauses or relative clauses) or an adverbial one(linker for the adverbials of concession,cause,purpose,consequence). The rhetorical interrogative conditional clause can also be introduced by the conjunction cand: La ce statornicia parerilor de rau,/ Cand prin aceasta lume sa trecem ne e scris/Ca visul unei umbre si umbra unui vis? (M.Eminescu,Despartire). The conditional clause can be introduced by sa:Dar n-a fost el!...sa-l vad venind/As mai trai o viata.(G.Cosbuc.Mama). It is an instance when the subjunctive and the conditional-as moods of possibilityare synonymous;compare:Sa stie omul ce-ar pati,dinainte s-ar feri. or Sa fie dupa

pofta cainilor,n-ar ramane vita in sat; to De-ar sti omul ce-ar pati,dinainte s-ar feri, Cand ar fi dupa fofta cainilor,n-ar ramane vita in sat.(Proverbe). The subjunctive conditional clause can be included in a prepositional group whose centre is fara ,in which case the regent is in the negative: Fara sa-mi fi fost frica,n-as fi fost aici si n-as vorbi astfel.(O.Paler,Viata pe un peron). In elliptical constructions,usually in the popular speech,the conditional clause can be introduced by the conjunction de unde followed by the negative adverb nu:Vino,ca de unde nu[vii],ma supar! Relative pronouns included in prepositional groups whose centre is in locul can also introduce conditional clauses in reduced constructions: In locul cui a vorbit,eu n-as fi spus asta. This structure derives from an extended construction with a free relative with unlexicalised (erased)antecedent:[In locul cui a vorbit,]prothasis[eu n-as fi spus asta]apothasis;[Daca as fi fost in locul acelui,]prothasis[care a vorbit],[eu n-as fi spus asta]apothasis. 2.5.1.2Juxtaposed conditional clauses The hypothetical period can also be expressed by juxtaposition of the two clauses,the junction being rendered by the pause and the intonation pattern: Ai invatat,raspunde!,Ai carte,ai parte!,La calic slujesti,calic ramai! In colloquial and popular speech the conditional clause can appear without the subordinating linker in constructions with correlative terms according to the pattern [doar]conditional clause[c-apoi]regent: Si doar te-a impinge pacatul sa clintesti vreo piatra din locul sau,iar mai ales acea mare din fruntea cerbului,c-apoi atata ti-I leacul.(I.Creanga,Harap-Alb). 2.5.1.3 The conditional clause in reduced or elliptical constructions

In the conditional construction the main clause can be reduced like in the text below: Taranii discuta aprins si daca-I intrebi,[iti raspund ca/afli ca]fiecare dintre ei are o ruda in Spania.(EZ,2004). The main clause may lack only the verbal element of the predicate: Ce folos de chip frumos/Daca nu e lipicios?(Proverb). Sometimes,the main clause is complete,but the conditional clause is reduced:

Imi vin in minte tablourile lui Vermeer,in care e evident ca pictorul nu suporta opacitatea zidurilor.De aceea deschide in ele ferestre sau, daca nu,asaza pe pereti harti care sunt tot un fel de ferestre. (O.Paler,Desertul). Conditional clauses containing affirmative or negative adverbs are extremely frequent in modern language:Sa-mi spui cinstit daca vrei sa vii in excursie. Daca nu,nu-i nici o suparare!Daca da,voi fi fericit! Conditional clauses introduced by de and de unde can also be reduced and function as pro-phrases,especially when part of a causal construction: Acum sa-mi spui tu cine esti,de unde vii,si incotro te duci,ca de nu,acolo iti putrezesc ciolanele!(I.Creanga,Harap-Alb); Dar sa stii ca la-ntoarcere trebuie sa gasesc un copil in casa; de unde nu,paine sis are cu mine nu mai mananci!(I.L.Caragiale,Mama). A special case is that of daca,de,cand occurring in independent sentences with affective value:Ei,de-as fi fost de fata!;Te crede mosul,nepoate,dar cand ai sti cu ce greutate se capata!(I.Creanga,Harap-Alb);Si daca nu-I decat un zvon? These constructions can be seen as reductions of a two-clause structure with an exclamarory main-clause(Ei,de-as fi fost de fata[ce bin ear fi fost!],Te crede mosul nepoate,dar cand ai sti cu ce greutate se capata[te-ai ingrozi!] )or with an interrogative one(Si daca nu-I decat un zvon[ce se intampla?]/[ce ne facem?]). In other words,in structures like the above mentioned ones, daca and cand(as synonymous with daca) contain in their matrix the significance [+Hypothetical],but aquire an exclamatory/interrogative value transferred from the suppressed main clause. However,in structures like De-abia daca l-am zarit! or Daca are 20 de ani!,daca totally loses its linking status and becomes a means of expressing the speakers uncertainty.

2.5.1.4 Semantic types of conditional clauses

The conditional clause renders a hypothesis ,it expresses a condition that the speaker can state as certain,possible or impossible.Except for the clauses introduced by sa(whether integrated or not in prepositional groups with fara)that have the verb in the subjunctive, the conditional clauses are built with the indicative,the presumptive or the conditional.

The same mood and tense(or forms having the same value,semantically equivalent)are generally used in the main clause.The verb forms have different senses,and their use indicates the type of inference(conditioning)between the two processes that are correlated in the hypothetical period. A certain conditional clause is considered to be the one which,in the hypothetical period,expresses a process by means of the forms of the indicative(present,perfect and future): Daca nu ti-i drag, si daca nici nu-I chip sa-ti fie mila de el, apoi degeaba se straduieste.(M.Sadoveanu,Fratii Jderi). A predicative interjection can be used in the main clause instead of the indicative: Daca insa a dorit sa se vorbeasca mai mult despre ea,iata ca acum a reusit din plin.(22,2004); De te-a impinge pacatul sa mai vii o data,vai de steaua ta are sa fie! (I.Creanga,Harap-Alb). The conditional clause is feasible or possible if it describes a process expressed by the present subjunctive or the present conditional: Sa stie el ca sunt aici,m-ar omori; Daca ar sti ca sunt aici m-ar omori. The conditional clause is unreal when it describes a process that is unfulfilled at the moment of speech,by means of the forms of perfect conditional,perfect subjunctive or past continuous with the value of perfect conditional: Daca as fi auzit vestea,ti-as fi spus; Sa fi stiut,as fi venit si eu; Si poate ca nu ar fi fost nimic/ Daca nu intra sa sape,/Cu cantecul,cu degetul tau cel mic.(T.Arghezi,Morgenstimmung). Sometimes the past continous replaces the perfect conditional over the whole hypothetical period: Daca eu stiam prin ce trecea familia mea,ma intorceam mai repede in orasul natal. 2.5.1.5The use of impersonal verb forms A verb in the gerund-whether accompanied by the limiting adverb numai or notcan be an adverbial of condition in different types of construction which this verbal form allows,including in the negative:

Si deosebit de aceasta, lasandu-l sa se ridice l-as pierde,m-ar parasi si mi-ar veni greu sa ma mai lipsesc de serviciile sale.(M.Caragiale,Craii); Neputand sa te ajunga,crezi c-or vrea sa te admire?(M.Eminescu,Scrisoarea 1). The gerund can be the centre of the group and either has the same subject as the main verb or its own subject: Infrangandu-ne rutina lecturii,vom observa usor ca G.N are dreptate. (Rlit,2004); Facand abstractive de toate acestea,actul medical era(cel putin asa mi s-a parut mie)ireprosabil.(DV,2004).

2.5.1.6

The use of adjectives and participles

In the statements:Singura,nu se duce in excursie:se plictiseste,nu prea sties a-si faca prieteni si,in plus,ii este frica sa mearga cu avionul. or Invitat,ar veni si el., the adjective and respectively the participle have the syntactic function of adverbials of condition due to the absence of the verb a fi in the contracted construction with the gerund:Singura[fiind],nu se duce in excursie.=Daca este singura,nu se duce in excursie.;Invitat[fiind],ar veni si el.=Daca ar fi invitat,ar veni si el.

2.5.1.7

The use of adverbs

Several adverbs(altminteri,(numai),astfel,altfel,asa)and adverb phrases(in caz contrar,(numai),in felul acesta) can function as adverbials of condition. There should be a distinction made between altfel and astfel/asa(modals)in sentences like:A procedat altfel(in alt mod)/astfel/asa(in acest mod) and altfel(conditional,synonymous with in caz contrar=otherwise)and astfel/asa(conditional,under these circumstances ).The adverb altminteri also has two different meanings:altminteri(in alt chip,altcumva,altcum, modal,rarely used)and altminteri(conditional,in caz contrar).The counterfactual anaphoric altminteri,astfel,asa and astfel are also used with a discursive function.Altminteri and altfel summarise a supposition contrary to the indication of the only existing possibility: A trebuit sa fug,altminteri[daca nu fugeam],muream injunghiat. (O.Paler,Desertul); In plus,banii trimisi acasa de strainihranesc alte milioane de oameni,sotii,copii sau parinti care altfel [daca n-ar fi trimisi banii]ar supravietui cu cornuri cu lapte sau cu pensii de mizerie.(Adevarul,2004).

Altfel is a contraction of a supposition referring to the indication of a possibility: Vino cu noi cu masina,caci astfel/asa [daca vei veni cu noi cu masina]vei calatori mai comod. The phrase (numai)in felul acesta (asta) is required by a positive regent: Scrie-I,caci numai in felul acesta[daca ii vei scrie]ai sa-l convingi! In caz contrar requires a negative regent: Sa vina maine la tribunal;in caz contrar[daca nu va veni],va pierde procesul prin neprezentare. In fact,the above-mentioned adverbs and adverb phrases are proforms(substitutes)supposing in absentia a conditional construction marked by the typical conjunction daca,with a causal construction as regent:Invata,caci,daca faci,procedezi altfel nu vei reusi!Invata,caci,numai daca faci,procedezi astfel(in felul acesta,asa)vei reusi! The adverb phrase in orice caz and,rarely,the adverb oricum(with the same meaning)can be used as adverbials of condition: Nu se vedea pe sine ca fiind un om rau.In orice caz/oricum nu mai rau decat cei care il acuzau cu atata vehementa. 2.5.1.8 The use of nouns Abstract nouns names of actions can have the syntactic function under discussion when as part of one-member noun groups or extended noun groups they are integrated in prepositional groups having cu,fara or in(in the accusative) as centre: Cu un sacrificiu relativ neinsemnat s-ar putea imbunatati viata tuturor. (L.Rebreanu,Rascoala); Fara dotari,nu ai practice cu ce sa asiguri servicii mai bune. (DV,2004); Fara aceste trepte,oamenii nu ar mai gasi astazi drumul Pesterii.(As,2004); In absenta talentului,restituirile sale ar viza imposture,in lipsa inteligentei,interpretarea sa ar fi ssemnul facilului.(Rlit,2004). Abstract nouns that express the idea of condition such as: caz,conditie,ipoteza and eventualitate(=ipoteza)have the function of adverbials of condition.They,too,as centres of extended noun groups,are integrated in prepositional groups that have in or (rarely) cu as centres: In cazul de fata,nu mai avem nimic de spus.;In cazul unui incendiu,chemati pompierii.;In situatia data,nu mai e nimic de facut.;In conditiile enumerate,imi retrag acuzatiile.;Ne-am pregatit in eventualitatea ca vor veni toti invitatii.;In

ipoteza absentei lui/ca nu ar fi venit,ar fi fost tare mahnita.;Vin numai cu aceasta conditie. The examples below,taken from recent texts,are illustrative of the situations already mentioned: In conditiile legislatiei actuale,cumpararea lor ar presupune organizarea de licitatii publice si prea putini medici au resursele necesare cumpararii propriului lor cabinet.(DV,2004); Ca si vecinii lor de peste Canal,deputatii francezi primesc sume de bani pentru garantarea veniturilorin cazul in care nu sunt realesi.(JN,2004); Documentul confirma ca boieri pe Dobrin Greavu,pe Stoica si fiul sau Radu,precum sip e Bucur Paler din Lisa,cu conditia ca ei sa faca servicii militare ecvestre la castelul Fagaras.(O.Paler,Desertul). In colloquial language two such nouns can be associated in constructions that are incorrect both from the semantic point of view and from the syntactic one,as can be seen in the text: I-a dat baiatuala cincizeci de mii,in eventualitatea cazului cand sa-ntoarce sa ia vrun taxi.(IVLRA). When they have as determiners demonstrative adjectives,the above mentioned nouns have a discursive function and anticipate a whole fragment of the text: _Daca nu vii cu mine nu ma duc in excursie:ma plictisesc,nu prea stiu sa-mi fac prieteni si,in plus,mi-e frica sa merg cu avionul. _In acest caz,renunta!; Sunt de accord sa vin cu tine,daca imi garantezi ca nu ne intalnim cu Maria si cu Paul.Doar cu aceasta conditie te insotesc. The nouns caz,conditie,ipoteza,eventualitate(=ipoteza,conditie) are used in stereotypical constructions,syntactic cliches and represent a way of emphasizing the transition from prepositional groups with some autonomy to phrasal structures. Abstract nouns from prepositional groups having the specialized prepositional phrase in caz de (in the accusative)can be adverbials of condition: In caz de pericol,trageti manerul!,In caz de viscol ne vom adaposti la prima cabana. Rarely(in colloquial Romanian)the phrase la caz deis used:La caz de incurcatura,voi interveni.

Animate nouns substitute pronouns(personal,demonstrative,some indefinite ones),relatives and possessives can be adverbials of condition when integrated in prepositional groups whose centre is the phrase in locul(with the genitive): In locul lui Ion/acestuia/celorlalti/tau, eu as fi ripostat. These groups derive from elliptical sentence constructions: [Daca as fi fost]in locul lui Ion/acestuia/celorlalti/tau,eu as fi ripostat. Ii spusei ca in locul lui m-as fi simtit magulit,miscat chiar,oamenii se purtasera cu dansul cum nu se putea mai frumos,ii dasera dovada temeinica de prietenie. (M.Caragiale,Craii).

2.5.1.9

Word order and punctuation

The position of the adverbial of condition in relation to its regent is generally free.Only in the case of sentences marked by the linker de unde and in that of juxtaposed conditionals is it compulsory to place the adverbial before its regent. There is some preference given to the anteposition of conditional clauses whose main clauses contain correlatives as apoi or atunci.Most adverbials introduced by daca are also anteposed. Subjonctive clauses can be separated from their regents by a pause which is graphically marked by comma.The presence of this pause depends on the one way on the types of conditionals presenting different degrees of connection to the regent according to whether they are prototypical or metadiscursive(compare As pleca daca nu mai e nimic de discutat; to As pleca [#]daca nu mai e nimic de discutat,As pleca[#],daca nu va suparati! )and on the other hand,on the presence of a correlative in the regent(Daca ai obiectii[#],atunci vorbeste!).The constructions in which juxtaposed conditionals occur are always marked by prosodic elements(a pause and a certain intonation pattern).

2.5.1.10 The Relationship With Other Parts of The Sentence Irrespective of their type(clauses or not)elements of the statement that have different syntactic functions can acquire a conditional value:the instrumental (Cu mixerul asta,m-as putea descurca),the sociative(Si-a dat seama ca fara ea n-ar putea sa mai traiasca),the adverbial of manner(Acum,cu voia ta,o sa citesc putin),the adverbial of time(Acuma era sigur ca in alte imprejurari,nu s-ar fi miscat din Bucuresti).

The use of the gerund generally allows the combination of the typical conditional significance of the adverbial of condition with other adverbials-of time,cause,manner,instrument: Pazind avioanele,explodeaza trenurile.Pazind trenurile,se scufunda vapoarele. (EZ,2004); Habar n-avea ca,intrand la batranul staret si duhovnic Iustin,viata lui se va schimba cu totul.(As,2004); Mergand insa ceva mai departe,putem observa ca furtul,de pilda,este condamnat si pedepsit in toate culturile-in Islam si in Israel,in Orient si in Occident aproape la fel.(Rlit,2004). When expressed by a clause,the conditional interferes with the adverbial clause of cause,especially when used in a metadiscursive way: Daca s-a aruncat in partea mane-sa,ce-I vinovat el?(I.Creanga,Harap-Alb). In constructiona like Du-te sa vezi filmul,ca ai sa-mi dai dreptate,efectele special sunt remarcabile!the reduced conditional clause is included in the adverbial clause of cause: Du-te sa vezi filmul,ca[daca ai sa-l vezi]o sa-mi dai dreptate,efectele special sunt remarcabile. Sometimes a conditional clause can be mistaken for an adverbial clause of concession,their dissociation being possible within the wider context and through the insertion of correlative adverbs totusi or tot(as modifiers),correlatives that are specific to the adverbial clause of concession: As fi facut toate aceste observatii si daca nu l-as fi cunoscut[]Dar din pacate il cunosc(DV,2004). The adverbial clause of condition occurs in similar constructions with the oppositional,which it can be distinguished from by the possibility/impossibility of equaling it to a construction with clauses of the same rank that are in an adversative relation. Compare:Daca examenul acesta este greu,apoi urmatoarele vor fi si mai grele=Examenul acesta este greu,dar urmatoarele vor fi si mai grele. (oppositional,false conditional)to Daca examenul acesta ti se pare greu,apoi nu a ice cauta in facultate!(Under these circumstancesconditional). Sometimes it is difficult to distinguish the border between the adverbial of condition and the oppositional clause.

Chapter 3 Conditional Sentences Meaning and Verb Form

Introduction
In this chapter our concern is not with subtleties in the logical or semantic properties of conditional sentences, but with the tight connection between the meanings of English conditional sentences and features of their grammatical form.

In a conditional sentence, there are two parts, (1) the antecedent = the protasis, and (2) the consequent = the apodosis. In general I will refer to them simply as "P" and "Q", from the logician's tradition of representing material implication as "P implies Q". Most of the examples we consider will be of the form "if P, Q", but actually there are numerous ways of expressing the meanings that get expressed in English conditional sentences. Here are some examples:
1. "If you come closer, you'll be able to see the parade." (the form we'll mainly be considering)

2. "Unless you come closer you won't be able to see the parade." (If you don't stand closer, you won't be able to see the parade) 3. "Do you like it? It's yours!" (If you like it, it's yours) 4. "Come here and I'll give you a kiss." (If you come here, I'll give you a kiss.) 5. "Criticize him the slightest bit and he starts crying." (If you criticize him the slightest bit, he starts crying.) 6. "Get out of here or I'll call the police." (If you don't get out of here I'll call the police.) 7. "Anyone who does that deserves to be punished." (If anyone does that, they deserve to be punished.) 8. "With his hat on he would look older." (If he had his hat on, he would look older.) 9. "Otherwise, I wouldn't be here." (If things were not the way they are, I wouldn't be here.)

Our main examples will be of type (1) above, marked by the introducer "if", and with the antecedent or subordinate clause preceding the consequent or main clause. (Hence, "if P,Q".)

Dependencies in Conditional Clauses

It is common to think of "if" in English as a kind of conjunction, and to think of the meaning of a conditional sentence as a straightfoward product of the meanings of its component clauses. In the simplest way of thinking of this, the truth of a conditional sentence is a product of the truth values of its individual clauses, according to a truth-table that holds the full sentence to be true unless the P part is true while the Q part is false.

This implies, of course, that each of the parts of a conditional sentence could stand on its own, and could have its truth determined independently of the other. Consider the following sentences:
1. If it rains in California, everybody always gets gloomy. 2. If I touched Jimmy, he would burst into tears. Is it true that "it rains in California"? Yes. Is it true that "everybody always gets gloomy"? No. Therefore, sentence (1) is false.

But of course that line of reasoning doesn't make sense. We have to understand the phrase "in California" as taking the entire sentence in its scope, just as we understand "everbody" as taking in Californians who experience rain, which is not at all what "everybody" means in a selfstanding sentence. Sentence (1) is undoubtedly false, but not for the reason worked out from the truth-table for material implication. Is it true that "I touched Jimmy"? No. I wouldn't think of it. Is it true that "he would burst into tears"? I can't answer that, since a sentence with a conditional modal can't be evaluated on its own. Assuming, for the same of argument, that the second clause is either true or false, then sentence (2) is true. But we know, of course, that the truth of this sentence, as we usually understand it, cannot be determined in that way. The point is, of course, that the subtle ways in which we understand the actual conditional sentences that get used in everyday talk involve detailed consideration of the actual grammatical form of the sentences themselves.

Types of Meanings of Conditional Sentences

Eve Sweetser, in From Etymology to Pragmatics has classified conditional semantics according to the three domains she speaks of in that book, the content domain, the epistemic domain, and the speech act domain. Content-base conditionals are understood by relating the content of the two clauses to each other. A typical way in which content conditionals can be understood is for the "P" clause to identify a situation which causes or automatically results in the state of affairs signalled by the "Q" clause. This is the case for
o o o

If you drop it, it will break. If you say that again, I'll slap you. If it rains, we'll cancel the picnic.

Epistemic conditionals are understood as expressions of the reasoning process. If the state of affairs represented by the "P" clause turns out to be true, then we are licensed to believe what we are told in the "Q" clause. Thus:
o o o

If their lights are on, the Wilsons are home from their vacation. If the streets are wet, it rained last night. If she wins, she's been practicing in secret.

And speech act conditionals are understood as pre-posing to a speech act a "P" clause that identifies the situation which got the speaker to provide the speech act. Thus:
o

If you're hungry, I could find something for you in the fridge.

o o

If you leave before I see you again, have a good time. If what I said offended you, I apologize.

We will see, in comparing the verbal forms of conditional sentences, that some combinations can only have the epistemic interpretation, others can have either an epistemic or a content interpretation..

Verbal Forms
A major descriptive problem that grammarians have to face in dealing with English conditional sentences involves the complex system of compatibility relations between the two parts of a conditional sentence. That is, certain verbal forms occurring in the antecedent clause of a conditional sentence are compatible only with certain other verbal forms in the consequent clause. Some examples of compatible combinations are these:
o o o o

If she opens it, they will escape. If she opened it, they would escape. If she had opened it, they would have escaped. If she opened it, they escaped.

Some examples of incompatible (or at least difficult-to-contextualize) combinations are the following:
o o o

*If she'll open it, they had escaped. *If she were here, I'll be happy. *If she opens it, she had misunderstood my message.

What we need for this set of facts is some set of general principles according to which these acceptability judgments, and the accompanying interpretations, can get explained.

The tools we need for stating these principles include the following:
o o

First, we need to have a vocabulary for describing the various verbal forms which enter into the compatibility relations just mentioned; second, we need to speak of something I will refer to as "epistemic stance" - the speaker's stance on the reality of the proposition expressed in the antecedent clause; third, we will need to notice that some sentences give expression to what we can call the "interlocutors' interest" - the speaker's view that of the alternatives recognized by a conditional sentence, one is looked on as matching the speaker's or the hearer's interest (this will be modified below); and

fourth, we will need to notice features of "polarity" - the difference between positive polarity and negative polarity.

Describing the selection of verbal forms in English conditional sentences is made complex by the facts that some of the relevant categories are not identifiable with particular morphemes or particular individual grammatical notions, but with complexes of these. What this means is that we will have to give different names to forms that have the same, or almost the same, superficial appearance. Furthermore, in discussing the categories we need, it is necessary to keep in mind the difference between "Time" (which we take as a semantic notion) and "Tense" (a grammatical notion). The names of the verbal-form categories we will use are these:
o

present the form which, in the copula, results in is, am, are and in the nonmodal verbs uses the sibilant suffix to express third-person-singular agreement (walks) past the form which, in the copula, results in was, were and otherwise, in the "regular" cases, the simple past-tense inflection ( walked) future the expression of future meaning with the modal will followed by the unmarked infinitive present subjunctive this form is the same as the past- tense form, except that, in some dialects (perhaps especially in the U.S.) there is a single form for the copula: were past subjunctive this form is the same as the pluperfect form (had gone, etc.), except that in colloquial English we also find a more complex form ( had've gone, etc.), and in colloquial American English we find a form identical to what I will call "conditional perfect": would have gone. conditional this form is constructed with would or could plus the unmarked infinitive (would go, etc). conditional perfect this form is constructed with would or could plus the perfect infinitive (would have gone, etc.)

In general, "perfect aspect" and "progressive aspect" can coexist with most of these forms and contribute their own meanings. In other words, in describing a conditional antecedent, the form "if he has seen her" will be simply classified as "present" for present purposes.

Epistemic Stance

In the following section we will combine conditional sentences with sentences having a temporal subordinate clause. We can distinguish three sorts of epistemic stance - positive, neutral, and negative - which will indicate the degree of the speaker's commitment to the actuality of the proposition expressed in a subordinate clause. In the case of positive epistemic stance, the speaker accepts the truth of the proposition expressed in the subordinate clause: Thus, in "when Pat opened the door, the dog escaped", the speaker accepts the idea that Pat did indeed open the door and asserts that at that time the dog escaped. In the case of neutral epistemic stance, the speaker takes no stand on the truth of the proposition expressed by the subordinate clause. Thus in, "If Pat left the door open, the dog undoubtedly escaped", the speaker does not know whether or not Pat left the door open, but asserts an unfortunate consequence of such a state of affairs. And in the case of negative epistemic stance, the speaker assumes that "P" is not true, where "P" is a proposition derivable from (and preserving the polarity of) the form of the antecedent clause. Thus, in "If Pat had left the door open, the dog would have escaped," we hear the sentence as revealing the speaker's belief that Pat did not leave the door open. In using the words "positive" and "negative" epistemic stance, rather than, say, "believes true" and "believes false", I have in mind the fact that we may be dealing with conceits rather than beliefs. And in the case of future-time expressions, such as the difference between "If she invites them, they'll go" and "If she invited them, they'd go", we will interpret the latter sentence not as expressing the speaker's belief that "they" won't get invited, but that - say - "other things being equal", they're not likely to get invited.

There are three basic types of conditional sentences, from the point of view of Epistemic Stance. They can be referred to as Generic (in which the speaker accepts the existence of instances of P but is presenting the "conditional" as a general principle), Neutral (in which the speaker makes no commitment about the actuality of P), and Negative (in which the speaker doubts the actuality of P). The following tables will show the relationships between Epistemic Stance, "Time", and Verbal Form. Each cell in these tables names the form of the verbal expression that expresses the Epistemic Stance (the table), the Time (the column), and appearance as Antecedent or Consequence (the row). Any conditional sentence can be formed by choosing, from one of the tables, one cell from the upper column and one cell from the lower column. (There are some other constraints, to be noted below.) Generic

Neutral Epistemic Stance

Negative Epistemic Stance

Examples of Neutral-ES and Negative-ES conditionals, illustrating each formal possibility, follow: Neutral Epistemic Stance

It should be noticed that there are different pragmatic purposes to conditional sentences, which we can think of as causative versus inferential. Those in which the time of the antecedent follows the time of the consequent are necessarily of the inferential type.

Negative Epistemic Stance

The upper left ("past subjunctive") corner of the Negative ES diagram has a special status, in that there is a variety of forms that can express it. The standard form is identical to the pluperfect: "If I hadn't opened it." But there is a general colloquial form "If I hadn't 've opened it" and there is a special American colloquial form "If I wouldn't have opened it." Thus:
o o o

if I hadn't opened it if I hadn't've opened it if I wouldn't have opened it

A very important fact to notice about this collection of alternatives, and their evaluations, is that it characterizes not only the past Neg-ES forms of conditional antecedents, but also other contexts with Neg-ES meanings. One such context is as the complement of the verb "wish". Wish is the only verb in English which accepts these forms in its complement. We find (with the same acceptability judgments):
o o o

I wish I hadn't said that. I wish I hadn't've said that. I wish I wouldn't've said that.

The verb wish is used not only for expressing past counterfactual wishes, but also for expressing present and future wishes. In the case of present- time wishes, we find the sentential complements of wish taking the same present-

subjunctive form we found with present Neg-ES antecedents. Thus, in "I wish you lived closer to Berkeley", the past-tense form is used to express a wish about a present-time situation, and in "I wish she were here", the special form "were" (rather than "was") can be used.

There is one observation that keeps us from concluding that the complements of wish are simply identical, in their formal requirements, with Neg-ES antecedents, and that has to do with the FUTURE form. The future Neg-ES antecedent form is the same as the past tense, but in the case of wish, we do not get "*I wish you introduced me to Louise tomorrow", but "I wish you would introduce me to Louise tomorrow." How are we going to account for the obligatory "would" in this clause? I propose that clausal complements of wish and the antecedents of Neg-ES conditonals are indeed constructed in accordance with the same principles, but so far we have left out one set of facts. When such a clause expresses the Interlocutors' Interest (or that of some other discourse-relevant individual), the future-time version is formed with the modal "would". Since "wish" necessarily expresses the speaker's interests, the construction with "would" is obligatory in that case. This means that we should be able to find cases of "would" in the Neg-ES antecedents of conditional sentences, and that such clauses should be taken as expressing one or both of the conversation participants' interests. That is, in fact, what we find. Consider first a comparison of cases where we learn from the consequent whether or not the speaker has a positive interest in the outcome.
o o

If you spoke to my father about that, we'd get in serious trouble. If you spoke to my father about that, I might get permission to go.

Both of these sentences are acceptable. We can infer from the first one that the speaker wants the addressee not to have this conversation, and from the second one that the conversation with the father is desired. But the grammatical form of the sentence does not express these judgments. But now let us look at the same sentences with would:
o o

?If you would speak to my father about that, we'd get in serious trouble If you would speak to my father about that, I might get permission to go.

The oddity of the first of these sentences is that the consequent seems to contradict the assumption suggested by the verb form in the antecedent, assuming that the speaker of the sentence does not want trouble.

Having seen that there is a separate form for Neg-ES future antecedents revealing participant interests, we can now ask whether such a possibility also exists for Neutral-ES sentences. It appears there is, namely in the form of the modal "will". We noted earlier that FUTURE Neutral-ES antecedents use the simple present tense form, instead of the

expected will-future; but we can find "will" in sentences exhibiting the participants' positive interests. Compare:
o o o o

If the sun'll shine we'll be able to have our picnic. ?If it'll rain, we'll have to cancel the picnic. If you break another dish, I'll give you a spanking. ?If you'll break another dish, I'll give you a spanking.

The questioned sentences in the preceding set are all odd, since they suggest that the speaker wants it to rain, or wants the addressee to break a dish.

In earlier work I suggested that the will...will form of a conditional sentence was dedicated to "negotiations" or "negotiated offers". supported by sentences like "If you'll wash the dishes, I'll dry" and "If it'll make you feel any better, I'll stay another day or two". But I think now that the explanation of these forms is more general, and that the "negotiation" aspect of the interpretation of these sentences is merely a by-product of the sentences' ability to express both participants' interests. There is a generalization to be captured here. We are now free to say that in future-time antecedents, the modal will is used, and that this form has its present-tense form will in the Neutral- ES case, the past-tense form would in the Negative- ES case. Hence:

In the cases where the future antecedent expresses the interlocutors' interests, the form will is used, in each case: It is well known that the antecedent clauses of conditional sentences are - or are capable of being - "negative polarity contexts", but this is only when the sentence does not express the interlocutors' interest. Some linguistic forms are generally welcome in only positive (or "positive interest") sentences, e.g., "a little". Other expressions, e.g., "any" (in the relevant meaning), are generally welcome only in sentences expressing uncertainty or negative interest. Compare the following,
o o

If you come a little closer, you'll be able to see better. If you come any closer, I'll call the police.

In the former case, I invite you to come closer, and propose a reason why you should be interested in doing so. In the latter case, I discourage you from coming closer, and I propose a reason for you to want to do otherwise.

If we were to examine the compatibility problems for antecedent and consequent verbal forms in English conditional sentences, mentioned at the beginning of this section, we will find that the ones which are possible are those that "fall out from" the combined principles governing tenses, epistemic stance, and interlocutor interests, and that the ones which are impossible cannot be derived from the patterns that such principles create.