Chapter One

Introduction

Chapter One INTRODUCTION

1.1

Background

Overexploitation of aquifer systems has caused a decline in water table in various parts of the world (Gupta and Onta, 1997; Gupta and Babel, 2005). In China, more than half of the cities are facing a rapid drawdown in water table (Cannon, 2006). Similarly, the aquifer system of Quetta valley (study area) is under tremendous stress due to overdraft of groundwater (WAPDA, 1989). Consequently, water table is declining at an alarming rate and the rate of decline is increasing with the passage of time. The overexploitation of groundwater, if left unchecked, may lead to a complete depletion of the aquifer. This situation demands an in-epth study of the aquifer system in terms of geometry of the aquifer, its recharge and discharge and storage capacity in order to formulate a sustainable withdrawal strategy. A variety of groundwater models (Analytical, Porous media, Viscous fluid, Membrane, Electrical analog, Empirical, Mass balance and Numerical) are in use to simulate the behavior of aquifer systems (Gupta and Onta, 1997). Numerical models especially Visual MODFLOW is proved to be the most versatile in providing solutions to groundwater problems (Spitz and Moreno, 1996; Osiensky and Williams, 1997; Waterloo Hydrogeologic Inc., 2006). However, reliable and precise aquifer geometry data are a prerequisite for a groundwater flow model, which accentuates the need to map the bedrock topography (Bohidar et al., 2001). Since in the study area data of depth to bedrock do not exist (Nagi, 1986), therefore different geophysical methods (VES, seismic reflection and gravity) were applied to collate the required data which were subsequently used in the groundwater modeling. 1.2 Description of the Study Area

The study area comprises Quetta valley, where the city of Quetta, the capital of Baluchistan province, is situated. The model area is bounded by longitudes 66 50 to 67 20 E and latitude 29 39 to 30 26 N (Fig. 1.1). The watershed area of the valley is 1756 square kilometers, out of which 792 square kilometers have an alluvium cover. Altitude of the area varies from 550 to 3580 meters above mean sea level.

Chapter One

Introduction

The area is predominantly arid with mild to hot summers and relatively severe winters, a typical characteristic of a subtropical continental highland environment (WAPDA, 1988). The maximum temperature ranges 30 to 35 C in summers and the minimum temperature in winter varies between -4 to 6 C (Kazmi et al., 2005). However, temperature greater than 35 C and lower than 4 C has also been recorded (WAPDA, 1988). The average relative humidity at 1200 UTH is about 35 to 65 percent in winter and about 15 to 30 percent in summer. Table 1.1 gives monthly average meteorological data of the area. The area can be divided into three major physiographic units such as mountain highland, piedmont plain and valley floor (Haque, 1986). The mountain highlands are characterized by relatively steep slopes and mainly include Takatu, Zarghoon, Murdar, Daghari, Chiltan, Kumbelan mountain ranges. The piedmont plain comprises area between mountain highland slopes and relatively flat valley floor. The general gradient of the piedmont plain is 30 meters per kilometer (Kazmi, 1973) and it gradually merges with the valley floor. Piedmont plain is the area where predominant recharge to the groundwater takes place because of its relatively high porosity and high hydraulic conductivity (WAPDA, 1986). The valley floor is almost flat and constitutes the central part of the valley. It is underlain by fine grained sediments like clay and silt with thin layers of gravel and sand (WAPDA, 1986). The depth to water table in this area is comparatively shallow. In the main Quetta valley (north) slopes gently towards NNW at a general rate of about 15 meters per kilometer (Kazmi, 1973). The minimum altitude of the valley floor in Quetta (north) is 1570 meters. In Dasht plain (south) the valley floor forms a playa (flat land) lying at the general altitude of 1768 meters above mean sea level. The water due to torrential rains at hills gathers in the playa forming an ephemeral lake.

Chapter One

Introduction

Model Area

66 50 30 25

66 55

67 00

67 05

67 10

67 15

67 20

30 15

BALELI HANNA RIVER QUETTA CITY MAIN VALLEY

RA NG

30 10

SAR IAB L ORA

30 05

Landi 30 00

a nR el a mb

29 50

nge

D AS

29 55

IN PLA HT

ZA R AK HU

Mian Ghundi

MURDAR RANGE

CHI LTA N

LEGEND
DHI KR ANG E
567 5

Ku

Nala Alluvium/Bedrock Contact Water Shed Boundary

29 45

ZARGHOON RANGE

30 20

TU KA TA

E NG RA

FURLONGS 29 40

MILES

Scale

Figure 1.1 Map showing location of the Model area

Chapter One

Introduction

Table 1.1 Month

Mean monthly meteorological data of Quetta valley Rainfall (mm) 64.0 49.5 61.7 22.2 5.3 1.5 16.2 13.2 2.4 6.5 4.4 37.5 285.0 Temperature oC Mean Mean Maximum Minimum 10.8 12.8 18.1 25.3 30.8 35.4 36.1 35.0 31.6 25.5 19.7 14.0 24.6 -2.7 -0.9 3.6 8.6 12.4 16.8 20.3 18.3 11.7 4.7 0.1 -1.9 7.6 Mean 4.1 6.2 11.1 17.0 21.6 26.1 28.0 26.6 21.6 15.1 9.9 5.9 16.1 Relative humidity (%) 50 50 43 35 27 21 26 24 22 24 29 43 33 Pan Evaporation (mm) 115 138 183 240 255 297 427 384 250 150 121 109 2580

January February March April May June July August September October November December Annual

1.2.1 Geology of the study area Geology of the Quetta valley is very complex due to severe folding and faulting. It is a synclinal valley filled with alluvial deposits mainly clay, silt, sand, and gravel. The stratigraphic sequence of the area ranges in age from Recent to Triassic. Table 1.2 shows a summary of this sequence (Kazmi and Reza, 1970; Kazmi, 1973; UNDP, 1982; Kazmi et al., 2005). Geomorphologically the valley is divided into two drainage basins; northern basin and southern basin (Kazmi, 1973; WAPDA, 1988). However, surface water divide is not very sharply defined but is represented a rolling type of topography in the vicinity of Landi hill. Northern basin is constituted by the Sariab Lora and the Baleli rivers system. These rivers exit the basin through the Samungli-Baleli gap. Main streams of the basin originate from the Chiltan, Murdar, Zarghoon and Takatu mountain ranges. Both rivers also carry

Chapter One

Introduction

the municipal wastewater of the Quetta city and suburbs. The southern basin, generally known as Dasht e Khuni (WAPDA, 1987), mainly receives flood water from the Dagari and Kumbelan mountain ranges. This basin has a closed drainage system and all flood water ponds in Dasht Playa which ultimately either evaporates and/or percolates into the ground. Table 1.2
Formation Alluvial Fan Recent

Stratigraphic sequence of Quetta valley

Age Characteristics Mainly includes slope wash and slump deposits consisting of unsorted debris with large angular blocks, gravel, pebble and coarse sand. These deposits are mostly derived from massive limestone Stream channel and flood plain deposits comprising unconsolidated clay, silt and sand. This formation comprises ancient streambed, flood plain and valley fill deposits of clay, silt, sand and conglomerates. The formation is semi-consolidated. Its thickness is about 400 meters. Urak group consists of shale, calcareous sandstone, claystone, siltstone, conglomerate and limestone. This group folds in the east of Quetta to form a synclinal hill range called Zarghoon range. Thickness is about 4000 meters. Limestone. Ghazij formation comprises shale interbedded with layers and lenses of claystone, mudstone limestone and conglomerate. (2700 meters). Massive nodular limestone with subordinate marl, shale and sandstone. The limestone is well jointed and fractured. This group consists mainly of limestone with some marl, shale and sandstone. Thickness is about 500 meters. This formation comprises mainly dark grey limestone with local shale. Outcrops of Chiltan Limestone surround Quetta valley. Murdar range is entirely comprised of this limestone with a thickness up to 1800 meters. Shirinab Formation is composed of limestone interbedded with calcareous shale. It is well jointed and faulted. Thickness is about 1500 meters. Interbedded limestone and shale

Alluvium Bostan

Pleistocene Pleistocene

Urak Group

Pliocene/Miocene

Spintangi Ghazij

Eocene Eocene

Brewery

Paleocene

Parh Group

Cretaceous

Chiltan Limestone

Jurassic

Shirinab

Jurassic

Alozai Group

Triassic

Chapter One

Introduction

The aquifer system of the Quetta valley is comprised of unconsolidated/semi-consolidated and bedrock aquifers, which can be divided into four types, based on the geology and associated hydrogeological characteristics (Kazmi and Reza, 1970; Kazmi 1973; UNDP, 1982; Kazmi et al., 2005). Alluvial fan deposits comprising Quaternary coarse-grained gravel with very low content of fine-grained material represent an aquifer with relatively high hydraulic conductivity and specific yield. Whereas, alluvium (gravel with reasonable proportion of fine-grained material), is characterized with intermediate hydraulic conductivity and specific yield. Formation named as Bostan clay is mainly clay with small proportions of sand and gravel. It also acts as aquifer with relatively low hydraulic conductivity. However Chiltan Formation, predominantly limestone, makes deepest aquifer system of the Quetta valley. It is a thickly bedded limestone with minor intercalation of shale/marl. Primary porosity and hydraulic conductivity of the limestone is very low. But due to fractures/joints in the limestone, it has quite high hydraulic conductivity, which makes it a good aquifer. 1.3 Objectives of the Study

Main objective of the study was evaluation of the aquifer system of the Quetta valley using Visual MODFLOW. To achieve this major goal the following objectives were set for this study: Determination of aquifers geometry with the help of geophysical methods. Getting knowledge about the aquifers behavior through calibration-verification of the groundwater flow model against the observed historic data. Prediction of response of the aquifer to different groundwater future pumping scenarios. 1.4 Thesis Layout

Chapter 1 of the thesis gives briefly background of the problem and introduction to Quetta valley in terms of geography and geology. Chapter 2 is a review of literature about the use of geophysical techniques for determination of depth to bedrock and groundwater flow modeling. Chapter 3 deals with the principles of the geophysical methods and interpretation of geophysical data in terms of depth to bedrock. The physical and mathematical concepts involved in groundwater flow modeling are given in Chapter 4. Chapter 5 is a brief introduction of the Visual MODFLOW. Chapter 6 describes details of

Chapter One

Introduction

the calibration and verification of the model. Chapter 7 discusses future scenarios and the results as predicted by the model for these scenarios. Important conclusions drawn from the study and recommendations made are presented in chapter 8.