Cell Structure (151)

1) Cells and Life - What are cells? - smallest unit of life - cells can work together to maintain an organism, or can be independent life forms - cells come in a variety of structures and functions - What is the Cell Theory a) all living things are made up of one or more cells b) the smallest living unit of all organisms is the cell c) all cells arise from pre-existing cells - What makes a cell a cell? - almost all cells share four similar features a) a surrounding membrane b) an enclosed fluid called the cytosol c) presence of organelles, structures that carry out certain cellular functions (mostly eukaryotes) d) a control center: nucleus (eukaryotes) or nucleoid (prokaryotes) that contains DNA - there are two major cell types - prokaryotes: bacteria; no membrane bound organelles - eukaryotes: all other cells - we will discuss prokaryotes in greater detail later - What are the parts of eukaryotic cells? (Draw-a-cell) a) Plasma membrane - encloses the cell - made up of phospholipids and proteins - phospholipids form a double layer (lipid bilayer) - these molecules are amphipathic - they have both hydrophobic and hydrophilic regions - polar heads face the aqueous environments - non-polar tails face the middle of the double layer - since the phospholipids arent linked together, the membrane is fluid - since the internal portion of the membrane is non-polar it acts as an excellent barrier to most water-soluble molecules, keeping the cell contents isolated - proteins embedded in the bilayer act to allow passage of molecules into the cell

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- these transmembrane proteins are also amphipathic - membrane structure is based on the Fluid Mosaic Model - fluid bilayer embedded with a mosaic of proteins - different embedded proteins have different functions - functions include transport, receiving signals, communicating with other cells and anchoring Cytoskeleton - the cytoskeleton provides the cell with support - the cytoskeleton can also aid in movement of substances within cells, acting like cables - there are three main cytoskeleton components 1) Microfilaments: a twisted double chain of protein 2) Microtubules: a chain of proteins wrapped in a spiral 3) Intermediary filaments Endoplasmic Reticulum - system of interconnected membranes that form channels throughout the cell - like a trolley car system for cells to move substances throughout the cell in membrane sacs called vesicles DEMONSTRATION: PLAY-DO VESICLE FORMATION - rough ER is covered with ribosomes, where protein synthesis takes place - proteins synthesized by the ribosomes can enter the ER directly for transport throughout the cell - smooth ER lacks ribosomes - this form synthesizes new lipids - it also works to detoxify certain chemicals Golgi Apparatus - a specialized membrane structure - proteins are modified, such as attachment of carbohydrates - proteins to be transported out of the cell are processed here Lysosomes - the cell stomach - contain digestive enzymes to break down molecules Vacuoles - membrane-enclosed storage compartments - can contain water, food, wastes, etc - important structure for plant cells to maintain water pressure - this pressure keeps the cells turgid - loss of turgidity causes wilting

g) Nucleus - the cell control center - has a double membrane - outer membrane (nuclear envelope) is continuous with the endoplasmic reticulum - inner membrane isolates the nuclear contents - nuclear pores act as channels through the membrane - contain DNA - the nucleolus is the site of ribosome biosynthesis - ribosomes eventually exit through the nuclear pores h) Mitochondria - also have a double membrane - they possess their own DNA (2-10 copies)! - mitochondria may have originated as bacteria - break down fuel molecules to generate energy for cellular work - called cellular respiration - O2 is used, CO2 and H2O are generated as waste products i) Chloroplasts - similar to mitochondria - double membrane, own DNA, likely bacterial origins - opposite function however! - generate energy storage molecules (sugars) by a process called photosynthesis - uses CO2 and H2O and releases O2 j) Cilia and Flagella - cellular hairs made up of microtubules - mostly for motile purposes - flagella are longer than cilia k) Cell Walls - not present in animal cells - rigid structure surrounding the cell - composed mainly of cellulose (plants) and/or chitin (fungi) - provide stiffness and protection - What are the main differences between plant and animal cells? - presence or absence of a cell wall and chloroplasts - presence of a single large vacuole to provide water pressure - How did the complexity of eukaryotic cells arise? - the Endosymbiont Theory proposes that eukaryotic cells arose from large, non-nucleated cells (possibly archaean) engulfing smaller, simpler cells (probably bacteria)

- there is much evidence to suggest that mitochondria and chloroplasts have prokaryotic origins - they both have their own DNA - this DNA is similar in nature to bacterial DNA - mitochondrial ribosomes are similar to bacterial ribosomes - the bacteria Rickettsia prowazekii (causes typhus) contains many of the same genes as mitochondria - the membrane from an enveloping vesicle explains the outer membranes of both organelles - they replicate on their own - they have a similar size 2) Transport across cell membranes - Different materials need to enter and exit cells - Water must be present for these materials to be dissolved in - Transport must be regulated - cells dont want absolutely everything entering - How do molecules move into cells? - all molecules have an inherent jiggling motion - called Brownian movement (need personal space) - this movement can result in collisions with other molecules - this can cause net movement in a certain direction - often in response to changes in concentration, pressure or charge - this is called passive transport (no input of energy needed) - there are several forms of passive transport into cells a) Diffusion: move from areas of high to low concentration - gases easily diffuse through membranes b) Osmosis: a specific form of diffusion involving water moving across a membrane - hypotonic environments; cells burst from water moving in - hypertonic environments; cells shrivel from water moving out - isotonic environments: no net movement of water - albumin keeps blood similar to cellular concentrations c) Facilitated diffusion - molecules can move passively down gradients - however, they need a specific protein to allow access - molecules can also be moved in actively d) Active transport - moves molecules across a concentration gradient - requires energy and a protein pump

e) Endocytosis - molecules are enveloped by the plasma membrane - eventually forms a vesicle - two different types of endocytosis a) phagocytosis: engulfs large solid objects - examples are white blood cells b) pinocytosis: engulfs dissolved molecules - a special form of endocytosis is receptor-mediated - materials first bind to outer receptors - the reverse action is called exocytosis - vesicles are really individual extensions of the plasma membrane