Cell Division (151)

1) Chromosomes and DNA - What does DNA stand for? - deoxyribonucleic acid - a nucleic acid where the sugar component is a ribose molecule with an oxygen missing - the total DNA in a human cell is 2 meters in length - however, it fits in a nucleus that is on average 5m in diameter - DNA is 400,000 times longer than the diameter of the nucleus it is contained in DEMONSTRATION: TWINE - How does the DNA fit in a nucleus? - each DNA molecule is compacted into structures called chromosomes - How are chromosomes constructed/ - first, the DNA wraps around spherical proteins called histones - analogy to a string of pearls - this new structure is called chromatin - next, the chromatin coils and supercoils to condense the structure DEMONSTRATION: SLINKY - even circular chromosomes of prokaryotes can supercoil to save space DEMONSTRATION: RUBBER BAND SUPERCOILING - packaged chromosomes are located in the nucleus - different organisms have different numbers of chromosomes - humans have 46 (23 pairs, called homologues of each other) - homologues carry the same genes, but may be slightly different in sequence - analogy to clothing; shoes, socks, gloves, etc - organisms that have pairs of chromosomes are called diploid - What are genes? - functional regions on a DNA molecule that encode proteins - one DNA molecule may have thousands of genes on it 2) DNA Structure - What is DNA composed of? - nucleic acids, or nucleotides - a phosphate group, a 5-carbon sugar, and a nitrogen base - sugar can be ribose or deoxyribose (RNA vs. DNA) - two major classes of nucleotides

- based on nitrogen base type - purines: double ring bases (A + G) - pyrimidines: single ring structures (C, T and U) - T is in DNA only, while U is strictly RNA - How is the DNA molecule organized? - nucleotides are linked together in long strands - phosphate groups connect to sugar - DNA is made up of two strands - the nitrogen bases stick out from the phosphate-sugar backbone - the two strands are held together by interactions between bases from different strands - A only interacts with T, C only interacts with G (in DNA) - forces connecting these bases are hydrogen bonds - result is a ladder-like structure - the two strands wind together in a helical structure - like a spiral staircase - sugar-phosphate backbone is the handrail, bases are the steps - the two strands are complementary 3) Mitosis - How do cells grow and reproduce? - all organisms undergo complex processes to reproduce - a life cycle is the progression of different stages from conception to conception - individual cells divide into daughter cells - this division is called mitosis - each daughter cell must be the same as the original parent - therefore, cell components must grow to supply two cells - importantly, DNA must replicate to provide each new cell with a full set of hereditary information - Why do cells divide? - to grow and get larger - to replace worn out or damaged cells - for reproduction - How does the life cycle of a cell proceed? - it is broken up into 4 phases, together called the cell cycle - two phases are called gap, or growth phases (G1, G2) -cell doubles in size, buildup of cytoplasmic materials - in between growth phases, DNA is replicated - this is called the synthesis phase (S)

- finally, cells divide in the mitosis phase - after division, cells repeat the cycle (G1, S, G2, M) - What happens during mitosis? - DNA has already replicated during the S phase - DNA copies are still connected at the centromere - DNA copies are called sister chromatids - prophase: chromosomes condense and are visible spindle fibers form, microtubule structures that will act like cables to pull apart the chromatids - small microtubule structures called centrioles move to opposite ends of the cell - these act like the anchors for the spindle fibers spindle fibers attach to the centromere of the chromatids nuclear envelope disintegrates - metaphase:chromosome pairs line up at the center of the cell - anaphase: sister chromatids separate at the centromere attached microtubules shorten, pulling them apart - telophase: each half of the new daughter cells now has a copy of each chromosome spindle fibers disassemble and nuclear envelope reforms cell begins to pinch in to complete separation of daughter cells, called cytokinesis pinching is caused by microfilaments, and continues until edges reach each other and membranes fuse together in plants, a new cell wall, called a cell plate is constructed between new cells, and new membrane is manufactured to fill in the separated areas - Can cells divide continually? - at least in vertebrates, there appears to be a limit to the number of divisions that can take place for many cells - the timing mechanism appears to reside in the ends of the chromosomes - these regions are called telomeres - at each cell division, a portion of the telomere is lost - i.e., the chromosomes gradually shorten - after roughly 50 divisions, a key amount of telomere DNA is lost, which signals the cell to become quiescent - What happens if these stages do not occur properly? - it is very important that each step of mitosis (and the entire cell cycle) occur for the proper length of time and in the correct sequence - the timing of the cell cycle is regulated by very complex molecular

machinery collectively called the cell cycle control system - if cell division is not properly regulated, cell division may occur in the wrong place or to an excessive amount - cells that have severely malfunctioning division are known as cancer cells - these cells can spread from their point of origin to other body parts in a process called metastasis 4) Meiosis - What is meiosis? - a specific type of cell division - proceeds just like mitosis, except there is a second separation - during the first division, chromosome homologues are separated into daughter cells - during second division, sister chromatids are separated - the result is four cells, each with half the number of original chromosomes, but one of each homologue - these cells are now called haploid, meaning only one version of each chromosome - gametes are sex cells produced as a result of meiosis - fusion of gametes during fertilization results in a complete complementary set of chromosomes again (diploid) - the pairing and lining up of one homologous set along the equator does not impact how any other set lines up - this fact will become significant in inheritance DEMONSTRATION: PENCILS - Does meiosis differ from mitosis in any other ways? - during prophase I (the first division) when homologous pairs line up side by side, non-sister chromatids of homologous chromosomes can exchanges segments with each other - this is known as crossing over - this allows for more genetic variability in the gametes produced