Evolution (151)

1) Evolution and Darwin - What does evolution refer to? - the process of development of organisms over geologic time - diversity of life on Earth is believed to be due to changes in earlier organisms over successive generations - the current theory of evolution was strongly influenced by the research and conclusions of Charles Darwin - Who was Charles Darwin? - a medical student from Cambridge University in the early 1800s who spent 5 years on a sea voyage that traveled around the globe - a thoughtful scientist, Darwin made several observations during the trip concerning the diversity of life in nature - What were Darwins observations? a) present day organisms shared characteristics with some extinct organisms, suggesting a relationship between them - in the 1790s George Cuvier discovered fossils that were not comparable to modern-day organisms, such as the Irish Elk and Mastodons - organisms has gone extinct - he looked at fossils and saw similarities with current organisms - one example is the armadillo and the now-extinct Glyptodont - moreover, these fossils were found in the present-day locations of their more modern counterparts b) climate is not the only factor influencing organismal diversity - observed several areas with similar climates over the globe that had different organisms between them c) populations of species that were geographically isolated from each other sometimes had slightly different characteristics - in that same respect, different species that were isolated but close to each other could be remarkably similar to each other - one example is the birds on the Galapagos Islands and Ecuador - What did Darwin do with these observations? - he thought about them! - he considered what he had observed in the context of what he knew about geology, breeding and population biology - the Earth was hypothesized to be very old, and had undergone changes over time as a result of the natural forces that acted upon it

- this was the work of the geologist Charles Lyell; his 1830 book Principles of Geology strongly influenced Darwin - breeders can generate a population of organisms with desired traits even from a common ancestral stock - they take advantage of the natural variation in species, such as is obvious in humans - this is known as artificial selection - studies by Thomas Malthus demonstrated that populations of species would increase exponentially if resources did not limit them - his work was titled Essay on the Principle of Population - only a limited number of organisms survive to reproduce - What did Darwin hypothesize was the force behind evolution? - natural selection 2) Natural Selection - How did Darwin come to formulate his ideas about natural selection? - he applied the ideas behind the processes of artificial breeding within a context of a natural, environmental setting - he also considered the factors that limited natural population growth, and that these factors can change with area and time - What is the Theory of Natural Selection? - individuals that are better suited to their environments are more likely to survive the pressures of space and resource limitations upon them, and therefore have the opportunity to pass on their characteristics to future generations - we know now that these traits are inherited through genes - he called these traits adaptations to the environment - inheritable characteristics that confer a reproductive advantage to the individuals that possess them - not the same as responding to different situations - as these adaptive traits are successfully passed down to future generations, more individuals will possess these traits - the population as a whole can gradually change this way - has been referred to as the survival of the fittest - once again, fittest doesnt mean healthiest; but best adapted to survive and reproduce - there is no one best way to survive to reproduce - this is why there is such a great diversity of organisms occupying similar environments

- there are always multiple strategies for adaptation - in the desert, some conserve water, while others find it - What are some examples of natural selection on organisms? - one of the best known, and the one used by Darwin extensively to promote his theory is the adaptation of the different Galapagos Island finches - Galpagos Island finches were clearly different species, but closely resemble the single species of finch living on mainland Ecuador - hypothetically, one mainland finch reached the islands and was the ancestor for all the others - since these islands were relatively young, the ancestor finch was able to move into all these new, unoccupied habitats - different habitats provided different selective pressures, and natural varieties of the finch that were best suited to live in these environments passed these traits down more effectively - a selective pressure is an agent of selection of traits - different habitats could be found on different islands or on the same island - eventually these populations became different enough to prevent interbreeding, resulting in speciation - this spreading out of species is called adaptive radiation - other examples include the Peppered Moth, South American guppies, the Viceroy Butterfly, and resistance to antibiotics and pesticides 3) Evidence for Evolution - Is there scientific evidence to support the theory of evolution? - the fossil record can tell us a great deal of information about the structure, environment and age of extinct organisms - a fossil is any record of a dead organism - the age of fossils can be determined - layer of earth it is found in or carbon dating - scientists can see the progression of certain organisms throughout history this way - comparative anatomy shows that organisms supposedly derived from a common ancestor have basic similar structures - in some cases, relationships are quite obvious - African vs. Asiatic elephants - more distantly related organisms can still show common structures - for example, the forelimbs of mammals are all similar, but modified slightly, reflecting specific adaptations

- these similar features are called homologous structures - some homologous structures that have diminished in usefulness over evolution are called vestigial - some snakes have tiny leg bones - homology is also observed when comparing embryonic development - some primitive features have been retained in the embryo of several groups of animals - sometimes, similar structures evolve for similar purposes but from different ancestors - these structures are called analogous - an example are the wings of birds and bees, both designed for flight, but evolved separately - this is called convergent evolution - today, DNA sequence comparisons can determine similarities between organisms - the fewer the differences, the closer the relationship - therefore, this can also be seen by comparing amino acid sequences of the same protein 4) Genetics and Evolution (Microevolution) - How does genetics influence evolution? - the frequency, distribution and inheritance of alleles within a population are important concepts in evolution - this is known as population genetics - the entire sum of all genes and alleles within a given population is called its gene pool - the allele frequency refers to the number of each particular allele for a given gene, often expressed as a proportion - shifting allele frequencies within a gene pool over time are the small steps that collectively drives evolution - Can a population ever be free from evolution? - remember, individuals dont evolve, populations do - ideally, if the allele frequencies remain constant (for whatever reason), over generations, there will be no change in the overall population - an algebraic formula used to represent this state is known as the Hardy-Weinberg equilibrium - p and q are used to represent the frequency of the two (and only two) alleles for a given gene - therefore, p + q = 1

- genotype frequencies can then be calculated from allele frequencies using the equilibrium formula - following Mendels Law of Segregation, the proportion of alleles = the proportion of gametes - p2 + 2pq + q2 = 1 - homozygous dominant + heterozygous + homozygous recessive = total population - this could only occur if five conditions are met a) there is no mutation within the gene pool b) there is no gene flow between populations - this means no exchange of alleles with outside populations c) the population is very large d) mating is completely random e) there is no natural selection - all genotypes are equally adaptive and reproductively successful - for obvious reasons, Hardy-Weinberg equilibrium is almost never achieved in natural populations - Why does population size influence evolution? - chance events such as disasters can have a greater impact on small populations compared to a larger one - one example of random genetic change in small populations is known as genetic drift - chance mating can affect allele frequencies in smaller populations more than in larger ones - this tends to reduce genetic variability within a small population - genetic drift reduces heterozygosity - it can lead to fixation if the allele frequency drifts to 100% - however, genetic drift can increase variability between populations - there are two special cases of genetic drift - population bottlenecks occur when a population undergoes a drastic reduction in size - loss of genetic variability has occurred in many natural populations as a result of bottlenecks - examples include the Cheetah and the Northern Elephant Seal - a founder effect occurs when a small population of pioneering organisms has little initial genetic variability - such as a single flock of birds colonizing a remote island - How does natural selection act to alter allele frequencies?

- selection acts on a population in three major ways a) Directional selection - favors individuals that possess a trait at one end of the spectrum range of phenotypes present in the population - for example, thicker fur, or the giraffes neck length b) Stabilizing selection - favors individuals that possess an average value for a trait and selects against individuals with extreme values - can often occur after directional selection has established a consistent population - if the organism is well adapted, and the environment does not change, many variations that are more extreme may be harmful - often occurs when a single trait is under opposing selective pressures - need to find the best balance between the two - lizard size was seen to be affected this way; smaller lizards had trouble defending their territory, but larger lizards were easier prey for owls - many traits are likely the result of stabilizing selection c) Diversifying selection - favors individuals that possess either extreme value at the expense of the average values - is not as prevalent as the other two cases - for example, an island that has some plants that produce large, hard-shelled seeds, and some that produce small softshelled seeds that is colonized by a flock of birds would select for the two extremes in beak size