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2
+
2
)/[2(1 - )]
L
q
= [(10)
2
(1/60)
2
+ (0.8333)
2
] /[2(1 0.8333)] =
2.1667 customers
Mean system length L = L
q
+ = 2.1667 +
0.8333
= 3 customers
Mean waiting time W
q
= L
q
/ = 2.1667/10
15
David L. Olson Managing Operations Across the Supply Chain, Swink
University of Nebraska-Lincoln
McGraw-Hill/Irwin
= 0.2167 hours, or 13
minutes
Mean time in system W = W
q
+ 1/ = 0.2167
+ 1/12
= 0.3 hours, or 18 minutes
Comparison with the M/M/1 and M/D/1 models indicates that the
low variance (standard deviation) of this model yielded
performance very close to (but just a bit more waiting than) the
constant service time model. It is true that as the variance
increases, the more waiting that will occur. The probability of
waiting here is identical to the M/M/1 and M/D/1 models.
16
David L. Olson Managing Operations Across the Supply Chain, Swink
University of Nebraska-Lincoln
McGraw-Hill/Irwin
(M/M/s):FCFS// Model
This model assumes exponentially distributed arrival rates and
service times, with multiple servers. The conventional
assumption of first-come, first-served priority is made, along
with an infinite maximum waiting line and an infinite calling
population. The formulas for the standard queuing measures
for this set of assumptions is:
Inputs Mean time between arrivals 1/ = 1/10 hours = 6
minutes
Mean service time 1/ =1/12 hours = 5
minutes
Number of servers s = 2
Outputs Average utilization = /s = 10/(2 12) =
0.4167
Empty system probability
1
1
1
1
1
]
1
,
_
,
_
+
1
1
1
1
1
]
1
,
_
s
s
n
P
s
s
n
n
1 !
!
1
1
0
0
= 1/(1 + 0.8333 + 0.8333
2
/[2(1
0.41667)]
= 1/(1 + 0.8333 + 0.5952) = 0.4118
Probability of n units in system if n s, P
n
= P
0
(/)
n
/n!
P
1
= (0.4118) (10/12)
1
/1 =
0.3431
P
2
= (0.4118) (10/12)
2
/2 =
0.1430
If n > s, P
n
= P
0
(/)
n
/(s!s
n-s
)
P
3
= (0.4118) (10/12)
3
/(2 2
(3-
2)
)=
0.0596
17
David L. Olson Managing Operations Across the Supply Chain, Swink
University of Nebraska-Lincoln
McGraw-Hill/Irwin
Mean queue length
( )
2
0
1 !
P
,
_
s
L
s
q
L
q
= [0.4118 (0.8333)
2
0.4167] / [2(1 0.4167)
2
] =
0.1751 customers
Mean system length L = L
q
+ / = 0.1751
+ 0.8333
= 1.0084 customers
Mean waiting time W
q
= L
q
/ = 0.1751 / 10
= 0.0175 hours, or 1.05
minutes
Mean time in system W = W
q
+ 1/ = 0.1751
+ 1/12 = 0.1008
hours, or 6.05 minutes
This system radically reduces the waiting line, at the cost of
doubling service capacity (in the configuration of two parallel
servers). Waiting has practically disappeared, and would now
only occur when there were three or more customers in the
system, or 1 0.4118 0.3431 0.1430, or a probability of
0.1021.
18
David L. Olson Managing Operations Across the Supply Chain, Swink
University of Nebraska-Lincoln
McGraw-Hill/Irwin
(M/M/1):FCFS/K/ Model
This model differs from the M/M/1 model in that a finite waiting
line is imposed. It assumes exponentially distributed arrival
rates and exponentially distributed service times, with one
server. The conventional assumption of first-come, first-served
priority is made, along with an infinite calling population. The
formulas for the standard queuing measures for this set of
assumptions is:
Inputs Mean time between arrivals 1/ = 1/10 hours = 6
minutes
Mean service time 1/ =1/12 hours = 5
minutes
Maximum number in the system K = 3
Outputs Average utilization = / = 10/12 = 0.8333
Empty system probability P
0
= (1 - )/(1
K+1
)
= (1 0.8333)/(1 0.8333
4
) =
0.3219
Probability of n units in system P
n
=
n
P
0
P
1
= (0.8333)
1
(0.3219) = 0.2683
P
2
= (0.8333)
2
(0.3219) = 0.2235
P
3
= (0.8333)
3
(0.3219) = 0.1863
Mean system length
K
n
n
n
0
P
= 0 0.3219 + 1 0.2683 + 2
0.2235 +
3 0.1863 = 1.2742
customers
Mean queue length L
q
=
K
n
n
2
n
P ) 1 (
= 1 0.2235 + 2 0.1863 =
0.5961
customers
Mean waiting time W
q
= L
q
/ ((1 P
K
)
19
David L. Olson Managing Operations Across the Supply Chain, Swink
University of Nebraska-Lincoln
McGraw-Hill/Irwin
= 0.5961/[10(1-0.1863)]
= 0.0733 hours, or 4.40 minutes
Mean time in system W = L / ((1 P
K
)
= 1.2742/[10(1 0.1863)]
= 0.1566 hours, or 9.40 minutes
By capping the maximum number waiting, in effect the number
of arrivals is reduced, thus radically reducing the waiting line
length and time. However, there is much less work done, as
there will be fewer customers served. The smaller K is, the
more impact.
20
David L. Olson Managing Operations Across the Supply Chain, Swink
University of Nebraska-Lincoln
McGraw-Hill/Irwin
(M/M/s):FCFS/K/ Model
This model adds the feature of multiple servers to the last
model.
Inputs Mean time between arrivals 1/ = 1/10 hours = 6
minutes
Mean service time 1/ =1/12 hours = 5
minutes
Number of servers s = 2 s K
Maximum number in the system K = 3
Outputs Average utilization = /(n) = 10/(2 12) =
0.4167
Probability of n units in system For n s, P
n
= [(/)
n
/n!]
P
0
P
1
= [(0.8333)
1
/1] P
0
P
2
= [(0.8333)
2
/2] P
0
For s < n K P
n
= [(/)
n
/(s!
s
n-s
)] P
0
P
3
= [(0.8333)
3
/(22)] P
0
P
0
+ P
1
+ P
2
+ P
3
= 1.0
P
0
+ 0.8333 P
0
+ 0.3472 P
0
+
0.1447 P
0
= 1
P
0
= 0.4301P
1
= 0.3584P
2
=
0.1493 P
3
= 0.0622
Mean system length
K
n
n
n
0
P
L = 0 + 1 0.3584 + 2 0.1493 +
3
0.0622 = 0.8437 customers
Mean queue length L
q
=
+
K
s n
s n
1
n
P ) (
L
q
= 1 0.0622 = 0.0622
customers
21
David L. Olson Managing Operations Across the Supply Chain, Swink
University of Nebraska-Lincoln
McGraw-Hill/Irwin
Mean waiting time W
q
= L
q
/ [ (1 P
K
)]
= 0.0622/[10(1 0.0622)] =
0.0066 hours,
or 0.40 minutes
Mean time in system W = L / [ (1 P
K
)]
= 0.8437/[(10(1 0.0622)] =
0.0900 hours,
or 5.40 minutes
As with the one server model, capping the maximum number
waiting reduces the effective number of arrivals. With multiple
servers, there is radical reduction in the waiting line length and
time. The smaller K is, the more impact.
SUMMARY
Waiting line models are important conceptually in considering
service operations. The performance of these systems when
probabilistic arrival and/or service distributions are present is
usually quite counterintuitive. Waiting line models provide a
means to more accurately estimate the impact of changes to
various service systems, especially when arrival patterns are
determined by customer behavior, leading to arrival patterns
and service patterns following various distributions.
This chapter demonstrated some of the more conventional
types of waiting line systems. Formulas exist for specific types
of waiting line situations. Real applications involve a great deal
of complexity, often stringing a series of waiting line systems
together. Therefore, solution of waiting line problems is usually
accomplished through simulation.
KEY TERMS
Arrival: component in a waiting line system representing the
appearance of work to be accomplished
Balking: customer arrival pattern in a waiting line system
where if the line exceeds a certain level, the customer
departs the system prior to receiving service
Calling population: the set of all possible arrival entities
Distribution: statistical pattern enabling identification of
probabilities
FIFO: first-in, first-out priority rule commonly used to select the
next work
22
David L. Olson Managing Operations Across the Supply Chain, Swink
University of Nebraska-Lincoln
McGraw-Hill/Irwin
Queue discipline: the rules used to select the next work for a
waiting line system
Service facility: the component of a waiting line system that
performs work
Steady state: waiting line system performance at the stage
when initial condition biases have been eliminated
Transient state: behavior of a waiting line system during the
period when the initial condition bias still affects system
performance measures
Waiting line: the queue of work that has arrived but which the
system has been unable to begin service for
PROBLEMS
1. Many business operations face uneven waiting lines. How do grocery
stores deal with fluctuating waiting lines? How do banks deal with
fluctuating waiting lines at teller windows?
2. Give an example of a last-in, first-out queue discipline.
3. What is the effect of scheduling arrivals (such as barber appointments)
on a waiting line?
4. How does customer impatience affect waiting lines?
5. In an operation involving waiting lines, what happens when the arrival
rate exceeds the service rate?
6. What can be done to reestablish a stable operation if the arrival rate
exceeds the service rate?
7. Why will limited queue lines reach a steady state even when the arrival
rate exceeds the service rate?
8. Why will models with limited calling populations reach a steady state
even though the arrival rate may exceed the service rate?
9. Sal Maglie has operated a small barber shop in Poughkeepsie for a number
of years. Sal has experienced a wide variety of business conditions over
that time. With the development of his business, conditions have changed
a great deal. Sal has kept meticulous records of operations over the years.
There have been distinct changes in the distribution of customer arrivals as
well as the time Sal takes to give a haircut. When Sal was learning to cut
hair, the rate of service varied a lot. He averaged 30 minutes per haircut,
distributed exponentially. About one customer per hour arrived in a
random manner, risking his head to Sal's care.
Calculate the basic parameters of this system
(P
0
, P
1
, P
2
, L, L
q
, W, W
q
, ).
23
David L. Olson Managing Operations Across the Supply Chain, Swink
University of Nebraska-Lincoln
McGraw-Hill/Irwin
10. A towing company operates a large fleet of trucks. These trucks have
averaged one call for mechanical service every 4 hours. Trucks generate
revenue at the rate of $20 per hour. The mechanic, Thumbs Swenson,
costs the company $12 per hour in wages, fringes, and equipment.
Thumbs was found to average 20 minutes on a truck without help from the
truck driver (2 hours per truck with the truck driver's help). Assuming an
M/M/1:FCFS// model:
a. What is the probability of 0, 1, or 2 trucks in need of repair at any one
time?
b. What is the average number of trucks requiring repair at any one time?
c. What is the average time a truck is out of service after breaking down?
d. What is the average amount of time a truck waits for Thumbs?
e. On the average, how many trucks are idle while waiting for Thumbs?
11. As the trucks got older, the wrecking company discussed in problem 10
found that the rate of mechanical failures increased. In the second year
of operation, Ace suffered a truck breakdown rate of one truck per hour.
The increased severity of the mechanical failures also required additional
mechanic time, and the average repair time per truck was now 30
minutes.
a. What is the probability of 0, 1, or 2 trucks in need of repair?
b. What is the average number of trucks that are inoperative?
c. What is the average time a truck is inoperative?
d. What is the average number of trucks waiting for the mechanic?
e. What is the average idle time for a truck that is waiting for a mechanic?
f. What is the cost to Ace in lost revenue by not having enough
mechanics?
g. Would it pay to add a mechanic?
12. Thelmas Diner features special-order hamburgers. Customers arrive at
the rate of 5 per hour following the exponential distribution. Service is
normally distributed and the appropriate queuing model is
(M/GS/1:FCFS//). Determine the number of people who will be
waiting in line, the average time they have to wait, and the probabilities
of 0, 1, 2, and more than 2 waiting customers, given the following
different service rates (each negative exponentially distributed).
a. A service rate of 5, standard deviation 0.0333 per hour ( = 12 minutes,
std 2 minutes), normally distributed.
b. A service rate of 6, standard deviation 0.0333 per hour ( = 10 minutes,
std 2 minutes), normally distributed.
c. A service rate of 7.5, standard deviation 0.0333 per hour ( = 8 minutes,
std 2 minutes), normally distributed.
24
David L. Olson Managing Operations Across the Supply Chain, Swink
University of Nebraska-Lincoln
McGraw-Hill/Irwin
13. A Car Wash uses a fixed-time assembly line requiring 3 minutes to wash a
car, including drying time. If customers arrive in a random manner at the
average rate of 8 per hour, calculate the expected number of cars in the
system and the average time each customer can expect to spend at the car
wash. (M/D/1:FCFS//)
14. The Fifth National Bank of Bryan is expanding. To justify a second teller,
the vice-president of finance has requested a series of waiting line analyses.
The initial phase involves determining current system properties. At
present, customers arrive following the exponential distribution at the rate
of about 10 per hour. The teller spends exactly 5 minutes with each
customer. Define the appropriate model, stating any assumptions you have
made, and determine the current operating parameters.
15. According to the marketing staff of the FNB in problem 14, customer
service times could be more accurately described by a random (negative
exponential) distribution. What effect does this change in assumptions
have on the current system parameters?
16. The board of directors of FNB (problems 15 and 16) has concluded that a
second teller is needed. Using the exponential arrival distribution, and two
servers:
a. Determine the probability of an arriving customer finding five people
already in the queue (thus constituting six customers in the system: One
being served, four in line, plus the new arrival).
b. Determine the same probability for a two-teller system.
c. Compare the empty-system probabilities for the one- and two-teller
situations.
d. What are the server utilization factors?
e. What is the mean queue length for each system?
17. A city traffic control facility is used to collect traffic fines. The mayor of
the city is very concerned that citizens be treated well by city officials.
Those who get traffic citations vote. The mayor has received complaints
that the office for paying citations has experienced long waiting lines, and
the mayor wants an analysis of the system. The system consists of a clerk
who processes each ticket. Looking up data and cross-referencing results
in a distribution of service time that is exponentially distributed with a
mean capacity of 10 per hour. People come into the office during peak
periods (10 a.m. through 3 p.m.) at the rate of 6 per hour. If the line is
longer than 5 people, citizens tend to leave. Analyze the expected
performance of the current system. (M/M/1:FIFO/5/)
a. Identify the probability that the clerk is idle
b. Identify the average number of citizens waiting
c. Identify the average waiting time per citizen
25
David L. Olson Managing Operations Across the Supply Chain, Swink
University of Nebraska-Lincoln
McGraw-Hill/Irwin
18. Analyze the data in problem 17, only using two clerks instead of 1.
a. Identify the probability that either clerk is idle
b. Identify the probability that both clerks are idle.
c. Identify the average number of citizens waiting
d. Identify the average waiting time per citizen
26