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LIST OF FIGURES
FIGURE PAGE NO.

1. STUDIO FIG. ...3 2. APPROX.RELATIVE SENSTIVITY OF THE AVG. HUMAN EYE TO DIFF. WAVELENGTH.......5 3. ADDITIVE COLOUR MIXING.6 4. COLOUR TV SYSTEM...8 5. ENERGY SPECTRUM OF TV SIGNAL....10 6. ONE LINE DISPLAY OF TV SIGNAL....11 7. POINT TO POINT TOPOLOGY..14 8. BLOCK DIAG. OF EARTH STATION.16 9. DSNG WITH VOIP....20 10.TRANSMITTER...22 11.RESPONSE FOR VSB25 12.SATELLITE COMMUNICATION....26 13.COMP. OF BROADCASTING..27 14.LINK BUDGET..28

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TRAINING CERTIFICATE
This is to certify that RAHUL KUMAR AWASTHI , student of S R INSTITUTE OF MANAGEMENT & TECHNOLOGY, pursuing the course of Bachelor of technology, 4th year, ELECTRONICS & COMMUNICATION ENGINEERING branch has undergone industrial training in DOORDARSHAN KENDRA, LUCKNOW from 11thJuly, 2012 to 6thJuly, 2012.

(Signature) Er. R. Naithani ASE,(Module & Training Co-ordinator) Doordarshan Kendra, Lucknow

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ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
At the very beginning , I would like to thank DOORDARSHAN KENDRA , LUCKNOW and all the volunteers of this esteemed organization for lending me the helping hands by whom active response , I have been able to complete this summer vocational training. I shall be highly obliged to Mr. V.B. PATEL (head) and Mr. R. NAITHANI (coordinator) for rendering his valuable guidance and help to know more about the broadcasting system. The task of teaching with the necessary materials and equipments was much eased by the continued support from the staff of different sections and in particular, by the guidance of Mr. TARUN SAXENA , A.E. , studio maintenance Section ; Mr. G.D. MISHRA, A.E. , recording & post production section ; Mr. ROHIT BHATT , A.E., television transmitter section ; Mr. R. NAITHANI, A.E., Earth station; in office who provided tremendous assistance over about one month . I would like to thank them for all their assistance. I shall also thank all the devoted members of the Doordarshan Family without whose help this couldnt be a reality.

RAHUL KUMAR AWASTHI B.tech [E.C. IV Yr]

0948513040

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PREFACE
Project is a particular mode of expression in theoretical knowledge .It plays an important role in technical profession. By training, a specific type of experience and knowledge is developed in the student by this training . I understood that there is a huge difference between a theoretical and practical knowledge. During my training, I learnt so many things including various management systems being followed at D.D.K LUCKNOW. E.g. Inventory management system, material procurement and broadcasting system. I became familiar with the working of the organization and came to know the role of the development of the broadcasting and the satellite communication.

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CONTENTS

An Introduction Doordarshan kendra, Lucknow01 Four departments of DDK Lucknow..03 Studio Earth station Electronics news gathering (ENG) Transmitter Studio:03 Fundamental of monochrome and Color TV System Color Composite Video Signal (CCVS) Central Apparatus Room (CAR) TV Camera Principles of Audio PAL System Switching From SDTV to HDTV Earth Station:12 Block diagram Earth station overview Uplink Chain Downlink Chain Electronic News Gathering(ENG)20 DSNG OB Van Transmitter:...22 Introduction Polarization

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Satellite Communication26 Introduction Advantages of satellite communication Architecture of satellite communication Link Budgets28 Conclusion ...30 Bibliography.31

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INTRODUCTIOn TO DOORDARSHAN KENDRA, Lucknow

DOORDARSHAN KENDRA LUCKNOW started functioning on 27th Nov 1975 with an interim setup at 24, Ashok Marg , Lucknow. The color transmission service of National Channel (with Transmitter) started from 15 Aug 1982.While the regular color transmission service from studio in 1984 with ENG gadgets. UP regional Service telecast with up linking facility from DD KENDRA started in analog mode along with digital simulcast facility for news coverage in 1998 on ARAB SAT. The news feeds are feeds are uplinked to Delhi occasionally from Lucknow Earth Station .But later on, anew digital earth station has been started from Oct 2004 along with the facility of transmitting two digital signals simultaneously via INSAT 3A satellite. At present Doordarshan has two high power transmitters (10 KW), installed at HARDOI Road, one for DD-1 & regional service and other for DD-2(DD News Service). Van came to Kendra for outdoor telecast having four color camera chain, recording equipments, portable microwave link. In March 1989 new studio complex started functioning. EFP Van came to DOORDARSHAN KENDRA LUCKNOW in 1989 with compliment of three color camera chain and recording setup of outdoor telecast. Old site of 22nd ASHOK MARG, Lucknow is being utilized by Training Institute having one studio (12m*6m) and color camera chain. It was inaugurated in September 1995. Program is transmitted from 10 KW-TV Transmitter through Studio Transmitter Microwave Link. One 6.3 meter PDA is being used at TV Transmitter site to receive the down link signal of Regional Service telecast from studio via INSET 3A and two other 6.3 meters dishes are there for receiving DD-1 & DD-2 services VIA INSAT 3C and PAS-10 satellites. [1]

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It produced some of the best programs in the country as BIBI NATIYON WALI,NEEM KA PED,EK JUTA CHANDI KA and HATIM TAI etc. To entertain cross-section of the society. Doordarshan Kendra Lucknow commissioned on 27.11.1975 on two adjacent bungalows at 22 & 24 Ashok Marg with an area of 9.362 acres.The old studio building which is being used presently as Doordarshan training Institute having Studio of size 800 sq. ft. Lucknow. It was shifted to the present premises on 11 th March,1989. The Kendra has three studios, ENG units,EFP VAN O.B. Van and two DSNG units (one vehicle mounted, type ,C-band & other Fly away type, Ku-band) along with one hired vehicle mounted DSNG C-band.

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Departments Of Doordarshan Kendra

STUDIO

FUNDAMENTAL OF MONOCHROME AND COLOUR TV SYSTEM

Picture Information:
A picture can be considered to contain a number of small elementary areas of light or shade which are called PICTURE ELEMENTS. The elements thus contain the visual image of the scene. In the case of a TV camera the scene is focused on the photosensitive surface of pick up device and a optical image is formed. The photoelectric properties of the pick up device and a optical image is formed. The photoelectric properties of the pickup device convert the optical image to a electric charge image depending on the light and shade of the scene. It is necessary to pick up this information and transmit it. For this purpose scanning is employed. Electron beam scans the charge image and transmit it. For this purpose scanning is employed and scans the charge image and produces optical image. The electron beam scans the image line by line field by field to provide signal variations in a successive order. [3]

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The scanning is both in horizontal and vertical direction simultaneously. The horizontal scanning frequency is 15,625Hz. The vertical is 50 Hz. The frame is divided in two fields. Odd lines are scanned first and then even The odd and even lines are interlaced. Since the frame is divided into 2 fields flicker reduces. The field rate is 50 Hz. The frame rate is 25Hz(fields rate is the same as power supply frequency).

Number of TV Lines per Frame:

If the number of TV lines is high larger bandwidth of video and hence larger R.F channel width is required. If we go for larger RF channel width then under of channels in the R.F. spectrum will be reduced. However, with more no. of TV line so the screen the clarity of the picture i.e. resolution improves. A compromise between quality and conservation of R.F. spectrum led to the selection of 625 lines in CCIR system B. Odd number is preferred for ease of sync pulse generator(SPG) circuitry to enable interlace of fields.

Resolution:
The scanning spot(beam) scans from left to right. The beam starts at the left hand edge of the screen and goes to right hand edge in a slightly slant way as the beam is progressively pulled down due to vertical deflection of beam (as top to bottom scanning is to take place simultaneously). When the beam reach the right hand edge of the screen the direction of beam is reversed and goes at a faster rate to the left hand edge (below the line scanned).

Gray Scale:
In black and white (monochrome) TV system all the color appear as gray on10step gray scale chart.TV white corresponds to a reflectance of 60% and black 3% giving rise to a Contrast Ratio of 20:1 (Film can handle more than 30:1 and eyes capabili ty is much more).
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It consist of :

COLOR COMPOSITE VIDEO SIGNAL (CCVS):

Video signal along with synchronizing signal, composed of line and field synchronizing pulses to ensures the locking of scanning systems of a source and destination. Blanking pulses to blank retrace period around the horizontal and vertical synchronizing periods. Burst gate signal (responsible for the correct positioning of the color burst with in the blanking interval ) and swinging burst.

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Additive Color Mixing: The figure 4 shows the effects of projecting red, green ,blue beams of light sothatthey overlap on screen Y=0.3 Red+0.59 Green +0.11 Blue

Color television has the constraint of compatibility and reverse compatibility with the monochrome television system which makes it slightly complicated.

CENTRAL APPARATUS ROOM (CAR):

Most studio centers have the concept of a central area which , amongst others, carries out the routing functions. The central area also houses the sync pulse generators, distributing their outputs to the various areas. This area is called CAR (Central apparatus room) and it also houses electronics for cameras, switcher, special effect generator etc. Vision mixer needs the sources to be synchronous. That is the source signals must remains within very tightly controlled limits. Tolerances, outside which sources will be rejected by the mixer.

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TV CAMERA:
Types of Pick-up Devices
a)

b)

Photo conductive material: The conductivity of these material changes with amount of light falling on them. The material with variable conductivity is made part of an electrical circuit and the signal is thus recovered. First cameras based on this principle were Videocon Cameras used in the monochrome telecome chain. Charge coupled devices: These semiconductor devices convert light into a charge image which is collected at a high speed to from a signal.

PRINCIPLE OF AUDIO:

The final link in the sound reproduction chain is the human ear.A basic knowledge of how it works can help in the understanding of many of the problems in thefield of audio engineering.

PAL SYSTEM :

The Color Television: It is possible to obtain any desired color by mixing three primary colors i.e. red ,blue and green in suitable proportion. Thus it is only required to convert optical information of these three colors to electrical signals and transmit it on different carriers to be decoded by the receiver. This can then be converted back to the optical image at the picture tube. The phosphors for all the three colors i.e. R, G and B are easily available to the manufacturers of the picture tube. The phosphors for all the three colors i.e. R, G and B are easily available to the manufacturers of the picture tube. So the pick up from the cameras and output for the picture tube should consists of three signals i.e. R,G and B. It is only in between the camera and the picture tube of the receiver we need a system to transmit this information.
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Reverse compatibility means that when Black & White TV signal is radiated the color TV sets should display the Black & White pictures. In view of the above the color TV system should have :

a) Same line and field standards as that of existing monochrome. b) The same bandwidth as that of the existing monochrome system. The monochrome information in the Luminance signal along with color signal. In such a case what happens with a color TV set when we transmit black and white signal. R and B are zero,but G gun gets 1.7 Y. The net result is black &whitepictures on a color TV screen appear as Green pictures. So reverse compatibility isnot achieved. Color Difference Signals: To achieve reverse compatibility, when we transmit Y,R-Y and B-Y instead of Y, R & B, we do not take G-Y as this will always be much lower than R-Y and B-Y and hence will needs more amplification and will cause more noise into the system. GY can be derived electronically in the TV receiver. Color difference signals fulfill the compatibility and reverse compatibility. Because in this case the color difference signals are zero if the original signal is monochrome (i.e. R=B=G) As such color difference signals are zero for while or any shade of gray whereas, Y carries the entire Luminance information .It is to be noted while R, G, B signals always have positive value R-Y,B-Y and G-Y signals can either be positive or negative or even zero. [8]

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Band width Requirement: We have already seen that compatibility calls for ulilizing the same bandwidth as that of existing monochrome. In the system we are following it is 5 Megahertz for Video. Restricting the bandwidth of Luminance results in poor resolution.Then how to shere the same 5 megahertz bandwidth between Y and the color difference signals R-Y and B-Y. A way is to be found to accommodate the color difference signal within the luminance bandwidth WITHOUT CAUSING ANY SIGNIFICANT INTERFERENCE. Also Luminance signal is to be transmitted in the same way as monochorome receiver can receive it. Hence a method of inter leaving is to be adopted to suit compatibility.

Color Carrier And Modulation of R-Y and B-Y Signals Spectral analysis of luminance Signal shows that various frequency components occur at multiples of line (H frequency) due to the periodic scanning. The space between the two energy contents is utilized to accommodate Chrominance signal within Luminance Signal. Assume an oscillator output is connected to the TV picture tube input. Severe patterns appear on the screen. When the Oscillator frequency is a multiple of TV line frequency (H frequency ) the patterns become stable.As the oscillator frequency rises through the Luminance band the pattern becomes finer eventually becoming a series of dots. If the oscillator frequency is an odd multiple of line frequency then the dots pattern of one field lies exactly between the dots produced two fields later.Perisistence of vision will cause dot pattern to go to a minimum. This has led to the selection of a carrier frequency that gets modulated by the color difference signal which is close to the edge of bandwidth on the high frequency side.

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As we know the video spectrum is occupied only at multiples of Line frequency and in their vicinity.The spectrum exhibits gap in between these frequency. So if the chrominance spectrum is placed in these gaps the interference will be negligible. That means the sub carrier frequency should be an odd multiple of half line frequency. From the above it is clear that sub carrier frequency should be near to the upper edge of video bandwidth(i.e. as high as possible) and also should be an odd multiple of half line frequency. Fsc=(284-1/4)fh+fv=4.43361875MHz fh=Line Frequency=15625 fv=Frame Frequency=25 This sub-carrier gets modulated by color difference signals RY and B-Y to produce Chrominance that gets interleaved with Luminance signal. It is the PROCESS OF MODULATING SUB CARRIER that differs in the NTSC,PAL and SECAM system. The sub-carrier frequency is 4.43 Mega Hertz. The two modulated signals at 90 degrees to each other produces the resultant chrominance signal which gets added to Luminance signal to form Composite color Video Signal(CCVS). The R-Y and B-Y chrominance signals may be recovered at the television receiver by suitable syncronousdemodulation.But sub-carrier is to be generated by a local of transmitted sub-carrier and also the same phase. This is achieved by transmitting 10 cycles of sub-carrier frequency on the back porch of H synchronizing pulse.This 10 cycles sub-carrier signal is known as BURST or color BURST.
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Weighted Color Difference Signals Resultant of the two vectors of modulated R-Y and B-Y has to be added with Y to get a CCVS signal. If we allow this we find peak excursions going up to 1.79 in case of saturated yellow and similarly for some other cases it may go even below the black level. This amplitude is considered too great for transmission over equipment used also for monochrome, and for convenience the chrominance information is reduced in amplitude such that for saturated yellow the peak excursion is limited to 1.33 only. This requires reduction in all the color vectors by a suitable weighing factor

Switching From SD To HD :

The rise in popularity of large screens and projectors has made the limitations of conventional Standard Defination TV (SDTV) increasingly evident.An HD TV compatible television set will not improve the quality of SDTV channels. To get a better picture HDTV telivisions require a High Definition(HD)signal.And this signal has to be generated just at the beginning of the transmission chain-by an HD OB Van or in an HD Studio. [11]
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While we mean while see a quite mature population of HD OB Vans in and around Europe(-150 HD OB Vans are on the road) the population of HD Studios is just at the dawn of its rise because in August 2007 we see 43 HD Studios in operation out of a total number of -1.000 TV Studios in and around Europe. And with our MEDIEN BULLETIN Special on HD Studios we are kicking-off the migration to HD for the remaining SD Studios in the next three to 4 years. HDTV technology allows production and broadcast of TV signals with much higher visual information than the traditional standards like PAL, NTSE etc.Present TV system is known as Standard DefinationSDTV. Main features of HDTV are as follows:

Up to five times the resolution than SDTV Wider Aspect Ratio of 16:9 as against 4:3

As the screen occupy a greater field of view, it significantly increases the sense of being there.

Supports 5.1channel Surround Sound. Picture quality comparable to 35 mm film.

MOVE TOWARDS HDTV:

Original impetus for HDTV came from wide screen movies. Present PAL/NTSC TV standards are half centry old. Progress of technology has brought improvement in domestic in domestic viewing quality in HD-DVD,Home theatre ,Virtual Reality games.

This has forced broadcasters to look for better picture quality. All technology based induustries undergo such transformations. No broadcaster can afford to ignore this technological innovation. As significant as introduction of color television. Conventional TV quality may be little cheaper. [12]
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PRODUCTION: HDTV production techniques are entirely different from SDTV. The HDTV production is much more complicated and time consuming than the SDTV producation. MAKE UP:The increased detail in the picture means that in close-ups one one sees more of the actor both good and bad. The good will be the increased clarity of the picture, the bad could be skin imperfections, beard growth and even the make up itself. Make-up artist may need air brush and new micro-powder products to give a seamless finish LIGHTING: Lighting will also be a key area to be focused during HD Production.All HD Cameras are less sensitive than their SD equivalent due to reduced pixel size, hence requires more light levels.More light levels will be annoying to the talent/performers and cause glare. Blemishes and marks on the fabric, costume,set and talent can be controlled through proper lighting. SHOT COMPOSITION & CAMERA HANDLING:Wide-screenmaens less need for close-ups and cutting between cameras.An action can develop on the 16:9 screen smoothly and continuously in a more cinematic style. Fewer fast cuts needed because we see more.Focus is very precise in HD and back focus is very critical.

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EARTH STATION

DDK Lucknow Earth Station has many special features. This is a 2+1 MCPC(multiple channels per carrier) type earth station. Here two services are going on one carrier. The heart of this earth station is MCC (MPEG-2 channel controller).Here MCC controls the redundancy changeover of all equipments in the compression rack.MCC has communication from all Encoders ,Multiplexers ,Modulators, Router and IF protection switch.MCC sense the generated alarm of any equipment and immediately acted upon on that alarm, resulting in a redundancy changeover of that equipments in the compression rack. MCC has communication from all Encoders ,Multiplexers, Modulators ,Router and IF protection switch. [14]
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MCC sense the generatedalarm of any equipment and immediately acted upon on that alarm, resulting in a redundancy changeover of that equipment. One of the major features of this earth station is statistical multiplexing also called variable bit-rate multiplexing in TDMA mode. Bit-rate of all services are controlled by one of the three encoder not by multiplexer .For that all three encoders have another communication called hd@hl ,which is apart from communication through ethernet port to MCC. Here one encoder works as a master encoder and controls the video bit-rate depending upon its richness. We can also monitor o/p of each encoder and multiplexer through application software DBS2930. We can add /ON AIR/OFF AIR any service component i.e. video,audio ,VBI and private data at any time in any of the running service. Apart from comparison equipments all other major equipments i.e. A/D converter, SDI video processor, AES audio processor, Router and IRDs are controlled/monitored by software called NMS (network management system) which is installed on another computer. The earth station is designed for uplink one TV and two sound programs to any of the C-band transponders and receive television programs from any of the C-band transponders geostationary communication satellite. The system normally operates in (1+1) configuration with an optional combiner .The system configuration can be changed to (2+0) configuration system are to be re-configured for extended C-band operation with an optional conversion kit for operating in the frequency range 6.725 to 7.025GHz for transmit and 4.5 to 4.8 GHz for receive signals.

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BLOCK DIAGRAM OF EARTH STATION:

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EARTH STATION OVERVIEW:

As in the block diagram of the earth station uplink chain, first we get analog audio and video signals of line 1 and line 2 from MSR switcher. Then it goes into the studio rack of the earth station. In this rack three 10-bit video and three 16-bit audio A/D converter cards are installed in the Roll-Call housing. Here analog video is converted into 270Mbps SDI or 4:2:2 signal and analog audio is converted into AES signal. In the fiber optic receiver in the input rack of the earth station all received optical signal are again converted into digital signal. Optical transmitter required only digital signal so any core can be used for audio or video signal in the digital format. All of these signals are then fed to the input of the (16x16) Leitch switcher. this is an (AES) audio follower (SDI) video switcher and also can be used for switching ASI signal. Two outputs of this switcher are connected to the two monitors for monitoring of downlink. One OUTPUT is connected to the VM 700 for measurement purposes. One OUTPUT is connected to the audio monitor and one output to the audio monitor. Three outputs of this switcher go to Video processor & audio delay card in the Roll-Call housing in the input rack. Here we can adjust audio delay for lip-sync and many parameters of the video such as Luma, Chroma, Black Level , etc. as required from the NMS computer. From Roll-Call housing all video and audio signals go to the input of (8x8) Philips triton switcher through patch panel in the compression rack. Philips triton switcher is a semi-intelligent type switcher. This is fully programmable and controlled through MCC only. By DBS 2930 application software this switcher is virtually divided into two parts. First five inputs are declared as SDI/AES switcher and last three inputs are as ASI switcher.First three outputs of this switcher go to the ENCI,2& 3 respectively through patch panel. Now compression takes place in the two encoders. One encoder works for Regional service and one encoder works for news feed. Remaining one encoder works as redundant for two normal encoders .Both encoders work in one pool.

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UPLINK CHAIN:

Block diagram of the Earth Station is shown in the fig. 1 one rack is installed in the MSR where composite video & analog audio outputs of the MSR are converted into the Digital format (SDI Video, AES Audio) and then sent to the Fiber optic transmitter. Here only three video A/D and three audio A/D converter cards are installed in the Roll Call housing. The outputs of the Fiber optic transmitter (Optical signal) are then sending through 12-core fiber optic cable to the optical receiver in the E/S input rack. In the input rack of the E/S, optical signal convert into the electrical signal in the optical receiver. Then these signals go to the 16x16 Leitch Router through patch panel. Video of line 1 output from the Leitch switcher goes to the picture fixer card installed in the Roll call housing in input rack of the E/S. Audio line 1 output from the Leitch switcher goes to the audio processor (orban) installed in the input rack of the E/S. Similarly video of line 2 output from the Leitch switcher goes to another picture fixer installed in the Roll call housing in input rack of the E/S. But there is no audio processor in the audio of line 2 output from the Leitch switcher. Output of picture fixer and audio processor goes through patch panel to the (8x8) Philips triton switcher. This switcher is installed in the compression rack. Compression rack consist three encoders, two multiplexers, two modulators, one IF protection switch and one MCC (MPEG-2 channel controller). All these equipments have a communication to MCC via Ethernet or RS-485. Output 1, 2 and 3 of the 8x8 Philips triton switcher are then go to the ENC 1, 2 and 3 respectfully. Each encoder has three outputs. One output of each encoder goes to 1st,2nd and 3rd input of the nominal multiplexer through patch panel and similarly second output of the each encoder goes to the redundant multiplexer. All three encoders are also wired through another communication called hd@hl. The outputs of both multiplexers are then goes to the (8x8) Philips triton switcher through patch panel. Through patch panel Output of this switcher goes to the both modulator inputs.

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DOWN LINK CHAIN:

In the down link chain as in, downlink signal from feed came at the diplexer in the PDA. Diplexer isolates downlink C-band signal from uplink C-band signal. Diplexer Output goes to RF divider. Two outputs of this divider go to the two LNBCs in the PDA. Both LNBC output (L-band) came the RF switch in the PDA, whos remote is installed in the RF rack. Through remote we can select redundant LNBC. Final output of this RF switch goes to the L-band divider installed in the input rack. This divider also gives 18 volts supply for LNBC.

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ELECTRONIC NEWS GATHERING (ENG)

ENG is a broadcasting (usually television) industry acronym which stands for electronic news gathering. It can mean anything from a single reporter taking a single camcorder out to get a story, to an entire television crew taking a satellite truck on location to do a live report for a newscast. In its early days, the term ENG was used by newsroom staff to differentiate between the NG (news gathering) crews that collected TV news with traditional film cameras and the new ENG crews who collected TV news with new electronic analogue tape formats like low band inch U-matrix. The requirement for the differentiate stems from the radically different methods of post-production involved in video versus film. Film needed to be processed before editing,unlike tape where footage could be edited fairly quickly, thus dramatically reducing the turn-around time for a story. ENG is miniature of studio.

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DIGITAL SATELLITE NEWS GATHERING (DSNG):

ENG originally referred to the use of point to point terrestrial microwave signals to backhaul the remote signal to the studio in the modern news operations, it also includes SNG(satellite news gathering ) and DSNG(digital satellite news gathering). ENG is almost always done using a specially modified truck or van. Terrestrial microwave vehicles can usually be identified by their masts which can be extended up to 50 feet in the air,while satellite trucks always use a larger dish that unfolds and points towards one of the geostationary communication satellites.

OB VAN

This van is a complete studio having cameras, 15-16 mikes and the audio and video console units for making the programs. OUTSIDE BROADCASTS (OB) form a substantial portion of programs radiated from a DOORDARSHAN station.Major events that occur at different part of a country can be covered by OB Vans

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TRANSMITTER

INTRODUCTION:

Antenna is usually a metallic device (a rod or a wire) used for radiating or receiving electromagnetic waves. The radio frequency power developed in the final stage of a transmitter is delivered through cables/feeders,without themselves consuming any power to the transmitting antenna.The RF energy gets converted into electromagnetic waves and travels in the free space at the speed of light. The receiving antenna picks up the radio waves and delivers useful signal at the input of a receiver for reception of signals. The transmitting and receiving antenna are reciprocal in the sense, any characteristics of the antenna in general applies equally to both.

Antenna Radiation Resistance: The input impedance Zin of an antenna is the ratio of voltage to current at its input terminals, where the power is fed to the antenna. Zin=Ra+jXa ,where Ra =Resistive part of impedance Xa =Reactive part of impedance [22]
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Ra =Rf+Ri Rf=Radiation resistance of the antenna Ri =Ohmic loss resistance of the antenna. Power is transferred from the RF wave at antenna input to the free space wave through the component of radiation resistance Rf. Radiation Resistance is a fictitious term.It is equivalent of resistance which would dissipate the same amount of power as being radiated by the antenna when fed with the same amount of power. Ri denoted the intrinsic resistance of the antenna and represents the power loss within the structure of the antenna. The reactive part of the input impedance is due to the storage of electromagnetic field (capacitive and inductive reactances) in the near field of the antenna. Field Regions: Reactive near field (induction field )upto a distance 0.62(D3/)^1/2 a)Radiating near field (Fresnel Field) beyond near field upto a distance of 2D2/ b)Far field(Franhoferfield )beyondFresnal field where D is the largest dimension of the antenna. The measurements of a radiation pattern, gain, etc must be made only in the far field region. Isotropic Antenna: It is an imaginary (non-existent) point (dimensionless) antenna, which radiated equally with unity gain in all directions in three dimensional planes. Half Power (3 dB ) Beam Width: The angle between the two directions in which the radiation intensity is one half (3 dB below ) of the maximum value is called half power beam width. [23]

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Bandwidth of Antenna: The range of frequencies within which the performance of the antenna with respect to certain characteristics (such as input impedance, pattern ,beam width , polarization ,side lobe level, beam direction, gain) conforms to a specified standard is called the bandwidth of the antenna. More commonly in broadcasting the characteristics of importance are gain and input impedance.

POLARIZATION:

The plane containing the electric vector in the electromagnetic wave describes the polarization of the radiated wave. Ideally, maximum signal is coupled if the antenna (both transmitting and receiving ) are oriented in the plane of polarization of the electromagnetic wave. A vertical radiator radiates/picks up vertically polarized wave, horizontal radiator radiates/picks up horizontally polarized wave. There are a number of well definedpolarizations such as horizontal(HP),vertical (VP),slant+ 450 (SP), circular (left or right) (LCP,RCP), dual(DP),mixed (MP),elliptical (left or right) (LEP/REP), etc.

Aperture of an Antenna A: This term usually relates only to receiving antenna. Aperture (or effective area) of a receiving antenna is the ratio of power delivered to the load (connected to the antenna) to the incident power density. A =G 2/4, where G is the gain with respect to the isotropic antenna. Modulation: In TV broadcast both the sound signal and video signal are to be conveyed to the viewer using radio frequency. These two signals have very distinct features. The audio signal is very symmetrical signal without continuous current but the frequency does not exceed 20 KHz. [24]

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The video signal consists of a logical component the sync and field sync and an analogue part accordingly to the line picture scanning. This unsymmetrical signal thus has a continuous component. The frequency bandwidth also extends from 0 to 5MHz.

Vestigial Side Band Transmission: Low frequency components in the video signal give bands very close to the carrier frequency. These side bands are difficult to remove by physically realizable filters. Low video frequencies contain the most important information of the picture and their suppression would lead to phase distortion and will be seen by the eye as smear on TV screen. Therefore, as a compromise, only a part of the LSB is suppressed. The Radiated signal consistsofFull upper sidebandCarrierandThe VESTIGE (remaining part of partially suppressed LSB). This type of transmission is called VSB

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SATELLITE COMMUNICATION

INTRODUCTION:

Satellite communication is the outcome of the desire of man to archive the concept of global village. Penetration of frequencies beyond 30 mega hertz through ionosphere force people to think that if an object (reflector) could be placed in the space above ionosphere then it could be possible to use spectrum for communication purpose.

ADVANTAGES OF SATELLITE COMMUNICATION:

The following are the advantages of satellite communication. This is only means which can provide multi access two way communication. Within the coverage area, it is possible to establish one way or two way communication between any two points. [26]

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Satellites can provide uniform signals for urban areas or rural areas unlike terrestrial service which will lay more signal to urban areas (where the transmitters are located ) as compared to rural areas. It is easy and quicker to establish new satellite link using SNG terminal or VSAT terminal from any other point as compared to any other means.It is easy and quicker to establish new satellite link using SNG terminal or VSAT terminal from any other point as compared to any other means.

ARCHITECTURE OF A SATELLITE COMMUNICATION SYSTEM:

Satellites can provide uniform signals for urban areas or rural areas unlike terrestrial service which will lay more signal to urban areas (where the transmitters are located as compared to rural areas. It is easy and quicker to establish new satellite link using SNG terminal or VSAT terminal from any other point as compared to any other means. 1)Ground Segments 2)Space Segments The space segments contains the satellite and all terrestrial for the control and monitoring of the satellite .

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LINK BUDGET

You are planning for a vacation .You estimate that you will need $1000 to pay for the hotels, restaurants, food etc. You starts your vacation and watch the money get spent at each stop. When you get home, you pat yourself on the back for job well done because you still have $50 left in your wallet. We do something similar with communication links, called creating a link budget. The traveler is the signal and instead odd dollars it starts out with power. It spends its power(or attenuates, in engineering terminology) as it travels, be it wired or wireless. Just as you can use a credit card along the way for extra money infusions, the signal can get extra power infusion along the way from intermediate amplifiers such as microwave repeaters for telephone links or from satellite transponders for satellite links. The designer hopes that the signal will complete its trip with just enough power to be decoded at the receiver with the desired signal quality. In our example, we started our trip with $1000 because we wanted a budget vacation. But what if our goal was a first-class vacation with stays at five-star hotels, best shows and travel by QE2? [28]

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A $1000 budget would not be enough and possibly we will need instead $5000. The quality of the trip desired determines how much money we need to take along. With signals, the quality is measured by the Bit error rate (BER) . If we want our signal to have a low BER, we would start it out with higher power and then make sure that along the way it has enough power available at every stop to maintain this BER. The BER as measure of signal quality, is the most important figure of merits in all link budgets. The BER is a function of a quality called Eb/No, the bit energy per noisedensity of the signal. For a QPSK signal in an additive white-Gaussian-noise (A WGN) channel, the BER is given by BER=1/2 erfc((Eb/No)^1/2) This formula says that the BER of any signal is related to its Eb/No by the function, erfc.he function erfc, called the complementary error function describes the cumulative probability curve of a Gaussian distribution.It is founded tabulation is most communication text books and is available as a built-in function in most maths programs. The above equation when plotted has a classic waterfall shape when plotted on a log-log scale.BER is inversely proportion to Eb/No. Higher Eb/No means better quality.

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CONCLUSION
Working in a industry like had been an exhilarating and enriching experience. Here during the training I came to know about all processes being followed up-keeping of various machines maintaining the production tempo to archive budgeted production and keeping high morale of the down below persons. There was a close encounter with the customers requirements and the modifications being into the production processes. The way the data being kept and the way of generating reports is to enlighten and information to the higher authorities.A small discussion is also made on Digital Satellite News Gathering and OB Van. All the topics are covered under each section. Under Transmitter antenna and modulation is covered.To sum up, within this six weeks I had come across all the processes happing inside the plant and to archive production targets.

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Bibliography
1)

1) Modern trends in television transmissions by N.N. Maurya

2) Broadcast Engineers by E.P.J. Tosser

2)

3) Internet sources

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