Natural convection is a mechanism, or type of heat transport, in which the fluid motion is not generated by any external source

(like a pump, fan, suction device, etc.) but only by density differences in the fluid occurring due to temperature gradients. In natural convection, fluid surrounding a heat source receives heat, becomes less dense and rises. The surrounding, cooler fluid then moves to replace it. This cooler fluid is then heated and the process continues, forming a convection current; this process transfers heat energy from the bottom of the convection cell to top. The driving force for natural convection is buoyancy, a result of differences in fluid density. Because of this, the presence of a proper acceleration such as arises from resistance to gravity, or an equivalent force (arising from acceleration, centrifugal force or Coriolis force), is essential for natural convection. For example, natural convection essentially does not operate in free-fall (inertial) environments, such as that of the orbiting International Space Station, where other heat transfer mechanisms are required to prevent electronic components from overheating. Natural convection has attracted a great deal of attention from researchers because of its presence both in nature and engineering applications. In nature, convection cells formed from air raising above sunlight warmed land or water, are a major feature all weather systems. Convection is also seen in the rising plume of hot air from fire, oceanic currents, and seawind formation (where upward convection is also modified by Coriolis forces). In engineering applications, convection is commonly visualized in the formation of microstructures during the cooling of molten metals, and fluid flows around shrouded heatdissipation fins, and solar ponds. A very common industrial application of natural convection is free air cooling without the aid of fans: this can happen on small scales (computer chips) to large scale process equipment.

Parameters
[edit] Onset
The onset of natural convection is determined by the Rayleigh number (Ra). This dimensionless number is given by

where is the difference in density between the two parcels of material that are mixing g is the local gravitational acceleration L is the characteristic length-scale of convection: the depth of the boiling pot, for example D is the diffusivity of the characteristic that is causing the convection, and is the dynamic viscosity. Natural convection will be more likely and/or more rapid with a greater variation in density between the two fluids, a larger acceleration due to gravity that drives the convection, and/or a larger distance through the convecting medium. Convection will be less likely and/or less rapid with more rapid diffusion (thereby diffusing away the gradient that is causing the convection) and/or a more viscous (sticky) fluid.

For thermal convection due to heating from below, as described in the boiling pot above, the equation is modified for thermal expansion and thermal diffusivity. Density variations due to thermal expansion are given by: = 0T where 0 is the reference density, typically picked to be the average density of the medium, is the coefficient of thermal expansion, and T is the temperature difference across the medium. The general diffusivity, D, is redefined as a thermal diffusivity, . D= Inserting these substitutions produces a Rayleigh number that can be used to predict thermal convection.[1]

[edit] Turbulence
The tendency of a particular naturally convective system towards turbulence relies on the Grashof number (Gr).[2]

In very sticky, viscous fluids (large ), fluid movement is restricted, and natural convection will be non-turbulent. Following the treatment of the previous subsection, the typical fluid velocity is of the order of gL2 / , up to a numerical factor depending on the geometry of the system. Therefore Grashof number can be thought of as Reynolds number with the velocity of natural convection replacing the velocity in Reynolds number's formula. However In practice, when referring to the Reynolds number, it is understood that one is considering forced convection, and the velocity is taken as the velocity dictated by external constraints (see below).

[edit] Behavior
This article is incomplete and may require expansion or cleanup. Please help to improve the article, or discuss the issue on the talk page. The Grashof number can be formulated for natural convection occurring due to a concentration gradient, sometimes termed thermo-solutal convection. In this case, a

concentration of hot fluid diffuses into a cold fluid, in much the same way that ink poured into a container of water diffuses to dye the entire space. Then:

Natural convection is highly dependent on the geometry of the hot surface, various correlations exist in order to determine the heat transfer coefficent. A general correlation that applies for a variety of geometries is

The value of f4(Pr) is calculated using the following formula

Nu is the Nusselt number and the values of Nu0 and the characteristic length used to calculate Ra are listed below (see also Discussion): Geometry Inclined Plane Inclined Disk Vertical Cylinder Cone Horizontal Cylinder Characteristic Length Nu0 x (Distance along plane) 0.68 9D/11 (D = Diameter) 0.56 x (height of cylinder) 0.68 4x/5 (x = distance along sloping surface) 0.54 D / 2 (D = Diameter of cylinder) 0.36

Warning: The values indicated for the Horizontal Cylinder are wrong, see discussion.

[edit] Natural Convection from a Vertical Plate

In this system heat is transferred from a vertical plate to a fluid moving parallel to it by natural convection. This will occur in any system wherein the density of the moving fluid varies with position. These phenomena will only be of significance when the moving fluid is minimally affected by forced convection.[3] When considering the flow of fluid is a result of heating, the following correlations can be used, assuming the fluid is an ideal diatomic, has adjacent to a vertical plate at constant temperature and the flow of the fluid is completely laminar.[4] Num = 0.478(Gr0.25)[4] Mean Nusselt Number = Num = hmL/k[4]

Where hm = mean coefficient applicable between the lower edge of the plate and any point in a distance L (W/m2. K) L = height of the vertical surface (m) k = thermal conductivity (W/m. K) Grashof Number = Gr = Where g = gravitational acceleration (m/s2) L = distance above the lower edge (m) ts = temperature of the wall (K) t = fluid temperature outside the thermal boundary layer (K) v = kinematic viscosity of the fluid (m2/s) T = absolute temperature (K) When the flow is turbulent different correlations involving the Rayleigh Number (a function of both the Grashof and the "Prandtl Number" must be used).[4]
[3][4]

[edit] Pattern formation

A fluid under Rayleigh-Bnard convection: the left picture represents the thermal field and the right picture its two-dimensional Fourier transform. Convection, especially Rayleigh-Bnard convection, where the convecting fluid is contained by two rigid horizontal plates, is a convenient example of a pattern forming system. When heat is fed into the system from one direction (usually below), at small values it merely diffuses (conducts) from below upward, without causing fluid flow. As the heat flow is increased, above a critical value of the Rayleigh number, the system undergoes a bifurcation from the stable conducting state to the convecting state, where bulk motion of the fluid due to heat begins. If fluid parameters other than density do not depend significantly on temperature,

the flow profile is symmetric, with the same volume of fluid rising as falling. This is known as Boussinesq convection. As the temperature difference between the top and bottom of the fluid becomes higher, significant differences in fluid parameters other than density may develop in the fluid due to temperature. An example of such a parameter is viscosity, which may begin to significantly vary horizontally across layers of fluid. This breaks the symmetry of the system, and generally changes the pattern of up- and down-moving fluid from stripes to hexagons, as seen at right. Such hexagons are one example of a convection cell. As the Rayleigh number is increased even further above the value where convection cells first appear, the system may undergo other bifurcations, and other more complex patterns, such as spirals, may begin to appear.

[edit] Mantle convection

Main article: Mantle convection Convection within Earth's mantle is the driving force for plate tectonics. Mantle convection is the result of a thermal gradient: the lower mantle is hotter than the upper mantle, and is therefore less dense. This sets up two primary types of instabilities. In the first type, plumes rise from the lower mantle, and corresponding unstable regions of lithosphere drip back into the mantle. In the second type, subducting oceanic plates (which largely constitute the upper thermal boundary layer of the mantle) plunge back into the mantle and move downwards towards the core-mantle boundary. Mantle convection occurs at rates of centimeters per year, and it takes on the order of hundreds of millions of years to complete a cycle of convection. Neutrino flux measurements from the Earth's core (see kamLAND) show the source of about two-thirds of the heat in the inner core is the radioactive decay of 40K, uranium and thorium. This has allowed plate tectonics on Earth to continue far longer than it would have if it were simply driven by heat left over from Earth's formation; or with heat produced from gravitational potential energy, as a result of physical rearrangement of denser portions of the Earth's interior toward the center of the planet (i.e., a type of prolonged falling and setting)

Natural convection
Main article: Natural convection Natural convection, or free convection, occurs due to temperature differences which affect the density, and thus relative buoyancy, of the fluid. Heavier (more dense) components will fall while lighter (less dense) components rise, leading to bulk fluid movement. Natural convection can only occur, therefore, in a gravitational field. A common example of natural convection is a pot of boiling water in which the hot and less-dense water on the bottom layer moves upwards in plumes, and the cool and more dense water near the top of the pot likewise sinks.

Natural convection will be more likely and/or more rapid with a greater variation in density between the two fluids, a larger acceleration due to gravity that drives the convection, and/or a larger distance through the convecting medium. Convection will be less likely and/or less rapid with more rapid diffusion (thereby diffusing away the gradient that is causing the convection) and/or a more viscous (sticky) fluid. The onset of natural convection can be determined by the Rayleigh number (Ra). Note that differences in buoyancy within a fluid can arise for reasons other than temperature variations, in which case the fluid motion is called gravitational convection (see below).

In natural convection fluid motion is due solely to local buoyancy differences caused by the presence of the hot or cold body surface. Most fluids near a hot wall, for example, will have their densitiy decreased, and an upward near-wall motion will be induced. Natural convection velocities are relatively gentle and the resultant wall heat flux will generally be less than in forced motion.

Natural Convection

When heat is added to a gas, it expands, and thus changes density. If gravity is present (i.e. pretty much all the cases we're interested in!) this change in density induces a change in the body forces, and the forces may caus the fluid to move "by itself" without any externally imposed flow velocity. This is the phenomenon of natura convection, ubiquitous in our daily experience: rising clouds of cigarette or campfire smoke, ripples of heat fr a car's hood, thunderheads reaching into the stratosphere. Natural convection is usually very undesirable in a CVD reactor, since it represents an uncontrolled gas flow. We won't try to deal with the full complexity of na convection flows, but will treat a particularly simple geometry to illustrate the typical sorts of quantities that arise, and how to estimate whether natural convection is likely to be important in a given configuration.

As in our treatment of boundary layer flows, we consider a flow composed of a "free stream" region, in this case with a constant temperature and density as well as velocity, and a relatively narrow thermal boundary layer over which temperature, velocity, and density change. [In the general case one ought to consider two boundary layers one for velocity and one for temperature; however, most gases have similar momentum and energy diffusion rates so we simplify things a bit.] We introduce the modulus of thermal expansion to relate the density to the change in temperature. To estimate the velocity, we balance the heat carried through the boundary layer of height H by convection (i.e. transport up) with diffusion of heat into the boundary

layer (i.e. transport to the right): in steady state these must be equal. We thus obtain an expression for the velocity in terms of the boundary layer thickness. We then balance the force due to buoyancy (in a region of unit depth and height in the boundary layer) with the frictional force, to obtain an expression for the boundary layer thickness. By combining these expressions we obtain the boundary layer thickness and velocity. These can both be expressed in terms of another dimensionless number: the Rayleigh number Ra, in this case based on the height of the region of interest.

Thus, to figure out if natural convection is significant in a chamber, calculate Ra for the system. If the natural convection velocity is much smaller than the "forced convection" fluid velocity calculated from known inlet flows, then natural convection can be safely ignored. In the other extreme, fluid flow in the reactor is dominat by natural convection, likely leading to recirculations, powder formation due to long residence times in the ga phase, and other undesirable results. We can see that the velocity is strongly influenced by the height: to avoid natural convection in practical situations, make reactors short! Note that the situation is somewhat different in the "boiling water" geometry: a large flat cylinder with a hot bottom and cool top. In this case there is no convection at all until Ra reaches a value of about 2000, after whi convection cells, of diameter roughly equal to the system height, begin to form.

Serangan
The onset of natural convection is determined by the Rayleigh number ( Ra ). Permulaan konveksi alami ditentukan oleh nomor Rayleigh (Ra). This dimensionless number is given by Ini nomor berdimensi diberikan oleh

where mana is the difference in density between the two parcels of material that are mixing adalah perbedaan densitas antara dua bidang materi yang mencampurkan g is the local gravitational acceleration g adalah lokal percepatan gravitasi L is the characteristic length-scale of convection: the depth of the boiling pot, for example L adalah skala karakteristik-panjang konveksi: kedalaman panci mendidih, misalnya D is the diffusivity of the characteristic that is causing the convection, and D adalah difusivitas karakteristik yang menyebabkan konveksi, dan is the dynamic viscosity . adalah viskositas dinamis .

Natural convection will be more likely and/or more rapid with a greater variation in density between the two fluids, a larger acceleration due to gravity that drives the convection, and/or a larger distance through the convecting medium. konveksi alam akan lebih cenderung dan / atau lebih cepat dengan variasi yang lebih besar dalam kepadatan antara kedua cairan, sebuah percepatan yang lebih besar karena gravitasi yang mendorong konveksi, dan / atau jarak yang lebih besar melalui media convecting. Convection will be less likely and/or less rapid with more rapid diffusion (thereby diffusing away the gradient that is causing the convection) and/or a more viscous (sticky) fluid. Konveksi akan cenderung dan / atau kurang cepat dengan difusi yang lebih cepat (sehingga menyebar jauh gradien yang menyebabkan konveksi) dan / atau cairan (lengket) lebih kental. For thermal convection due to heating from below, as described in the boiling pot above, the equation is modified for thermal expansion and thermal diffusivity. Untuk konveksi termal akibat pemanasan dari bawah, seperti dijelaskan dalam panci mendidih di atas, persamaan ini dimodifikasi untuk ekspansi termal dan difusivitas termal. Density variations due to thermal expansion are given by: Kepadatan variasi karena ekspansi termal diberikan oleh: = 0 T = 0 T where mana 0 is the reference density, typically picked to be the average density of the medium, 0 adalah densitas referensi, biasanya memilih untuk menjadi rata-rata kepadatan medium, is the coefficient of thermal expansion , and adalah koefisien ekspansi termal , dan T is the temperature difference across the medium. T adalah perbedaan suhu di seluruh media. The general diffusivity, D , is redefined as a thermal diffusivity , . The difusivitas umum, D, didefinisikan ulang sebagai difusivitas termal , . D=D= Inserting these substitutions produces a Rayleigh number that can be used to predict thermal convection. [ 1 ] Memasukkan penggantian ini menghasilkan sejumlah Rayleigh yang dapat digunakan untuk memprediksi konveksi termal. [1]

[ edit ] Turbulence [ sunting ] Turbulensi

The tendency of a particular naturally convective system towards turbulence relies on the Grashof number (Gr). [ 2 ] Kecenderungan sistem alami konvektif khususnya terhadap turbulensi bergantung pada nomor Grashof (Gr). [2]

In very sticky, viscous fluids (large ), fluid movement is restricted, and natural convection will be non-turbulent. Dalam sangat lengket, cairan kental ( besar), gerakan cairan dibatasi, dan konveksi alam akan menjadi non-turbulen. Following the treatment of the previous subsection, the typical fluid velocity is of the order of g L 2 / , up to a numerical factor depending on the geometry of the system. Setelah perlakuan terhadap ayat sebelumnya, kecepatan fluida khas adalah urutan g L 2 / , sampai dengan faktor numerik tergantung pada geometri sistem. Therefore Grashof number can be thought of as Reynolds number with the velocity of natural convection replacing the velocity in Reynolds number's formula. Oleh karena itu nomor Grashof dapat dianggap sebagai bilangan Reynolds dengan kecepatan konveksi alamiah menggantikan kecepatan dalam jumlah's formula Reynolds. However In practice, when referring to the Reynolds number, it is understood that one is considering forced convection, and the velocity is taken as the velocity dictated by external constraints (see below). Namun Dalam prakteknya, ketika mengacu ke nomor Reynolds, dipahami bahwa salah satu sedang mempertimbangkan konveksi paksa, dan kecepatan diambil sebagai kecepatan didikte oleh kendala eksternal (lihat di bawah).

[ edit ] Behavior [ sunting ] Perilaku

This article is incomplete and may require expansion or cleanup . Artikel ini tidak lengkap dan mungkin membutuhkan ekspansi atau pembersihan . Please help to improve the article, or discuss the issue on the talk page . Harap membantu memperbaiki artikel, atau membahas persoalan di halaman pembicaraan . The Grashof number can be formulated for natural convection occurring due to a concentration gradient , sometimes termed thermo-solutal convection. Para Nomor Grashof dapat dirumuskan untuk konveksi alami terjadi karena gradien konsentrasi , kadang-kadang disebut-solutal konveksi termo. In this case, a concentration of hot fluid diffuses into a cold fluid, in much the same way that ink poured into a container of water diffuses to dye the entire space. Dalam hal ini, konsentrasi berdifusi fluida panas ke fluida dingin, dalam banyak cara yang sama bahwa tinta dituangkan ke dalam wadah air berdifusi untuk mewarnai seluruh ruang. Then: Kemudian:

Natural convection is highly dependent on the geometry of the hot surface, various correlations exist in order to determine the heat transfer coefficent. konveksi alami sangat tergantung pada geometri dari permukaan yang panas, ada berbagai korelasi untuk menentukan koefisien perpindahan panas. A general correlation that applies for a variety of geometries is Suatu korelasi umum yang berlaku untuk berbagai geometri adalah

The value of f 4 (Pr) is calculated using the following formula Nilai dari f 4 (Pr) dihitung dengan menggunakan rumus berikut

Nu is the Nusselt number and the values of Nu 0 and the characteristic length used to calculate Ra are listed below (see also Discussion): Nu adalah bilangan Nusselt dan nilai-nilai Nu 0 dan panjang karakteristik digunakan untuk menghitung Ra tercantum di bawah ini (lihat juga Diskusi): Geometry Geometri Characteristic Length Karakteristik Panjang Inclined Plane Inclined x (Distance along plane) x (Jarak sepanjang pesawat) Plane Inclined Disk Disk 9D/11 (D = Diameter) 9D/11 (D = Diameter) cenderung Vertical Cylinder Silinder x (height of cylinder) x (tinggi silinder) Vertikal 4x/5 (x = distance along sloping surface) 4x / 5 (x = Cone Kerucut jarak sepanjang permukaan miring) Horizontal Cylinder D / 2 (D = Diameter of cylinder) D / 2 (D = Horizontal Cylinder Diameter silinder) Nu 0 Nu 0 0.68 0.68 0.56 0.56 0.68 0.68 0.54 0.54 0.36 0,36

Warning : The values indicated for the Horizontal Cylinder are wrong , see discussion. Peringatan: Nilai diindikasikan untuk Horizontal Cylinder salah, lihat diskusi.

[ edit ] Natural Convection from a Vertical Plate [ sunting ] Alam Konveksi dari Plate Vertikal
In this system heat is transferred from a vertical plate to a fluid moving parallel to it by natural convection. Dalam sistem ini panas dipindahkan dari sebuah pelat vertikal yang sejajar bergerak cairan kepadanya oleh konveksi alami. This will occur in any system wherein the density of the moving fluid varies with position. Ini akan terjadi pada setiap sistem dimana kepadatan cairan bergerak bervariasi dengan posisi. These phenomena will only be of significance when the moving fluid is minimally affected by forced convection. [ 3 ] Fenomena ini hanya akan penting ketika cairan bergerak minimal dipengaruhi oleh konveksi paksa. [3] When considering the flow of fluid is a result of heating, the following correlations can be used, assuming the fluid is an ideal diatomic, has adjacent to a vertical plate at constant temperature and the flow of the fluid is completely laminar. [ 4 ] Ketika mempertimbangkan aliran fluida adalah hasil dari pemanasan, korelasi berikut dapat digunakan, dengan asumsi fluida merupakan diatomik yang ideal, telah berdekatan dengan sebuah pelat vertikal pada suhu konstan dan aliran fluida benar-benar laminer. [4] Nu m = 0.478(Gr 0.25 ) [ 4 ] Nu m = 0,478 (Gr 0,25) [4] Mean Nusselt Number = Nu m = h m L/k [ 4 ] Mean Nusselt Nomor = m Nu = L h k m / [4] Where Mana

h m = mean coefficient applicable between the lower edge of the plate and any point in a distance L (W/m 2 . K) m h = berarti koefisien yang berlaku antara tepi bawah piring dan setiap titik dalam jarak L (m / W 2. K) L = height of the vertical surface (m) L = tinggi permukaan vertikal (m) k = thermal conductivity (W/m. K) k = konduktivitas termal (W / m K) Grashof Number = Gr = Grashof Nomor = Gr = Where Mana g = gravitational acceleration (m/s 2 ) percepatan gravitasi g = (m / s 2) L = distance above the lower edge (m) L = jarak di atas tepi bawah (m) t s = temperature of the wall (K) t = suhu dinding (K) t = fluid temperature outside the thermal boundary layer (K) t = temperatur fluida di luar lapisan batas termal (K) v = kinematic viscosity of the fluid (m2/s) T = absolute temperature (K) v = viskositas kinematik dari cairan (m2 / s) T = suhu mutlak (K) When the flow is turbulent different correlations involving the Rayleigh Number (a function of both the Grashof and the "Prandtl Number" must be used). [ 4 ] Bila aliran turbulen korelasi berbeda melibatkan Nomor Rayleigh (fungsi dari kedua Grashof dan "Prandtl Nomor" harus digunakan). [4]
[ 3 ] [ 4 ] [3] [4]

[ edit ] Pattern formation [ sunting ] Pola pembentukan

A fluid under Rayleigh-Bnard convection : the left picture represents the thermal field and the right picture its two-dimensional Fourier transform . Suatu cairan di bawah konveksi Rayleigh-Benard : gambar kiri mewakili bidang termal dan kanan gambar dua dimensi transformasi Fourier . Convection, especially Rayleigh-Bnard convection, where the convecting fluid is contained by two rigid horizontal plates, is a convenient example of a pattern forming system .

Konveksi, terutama Rayleigh-Benard konveksi, di mana cairan convecting dikandung oleh dua piring horisontal kaku, adalah contoh mudah dari sebuah sistem yang membentuk pola . When heat is fed into the system from one direction (usually below), at small values it merely diffuses ( conducts ) from below upward, without causing fluid flow. Ketika panas dimasukkan ke dalam sistem dari satu arah (biasanya di bawah), pada nilai kecil itu hanya berdifusi (melakukan) dari bawah ke atas, tanpa menyebabkan aliran fluida. As the heat flow is increased, above a critical value of the Rayleigh number , the system undergoes a bifurcation from the stable conducting state to the convecting state, where bulk motion of the fluid due to heat begins. Sebagai aliran panas meningkat, di atas nilai kritis dari nomor Rayleigh , sistem mengalami bifurkasi dari negara melakukan stabil untuk negara convecting, di mana gerakan sebagian besar akibat cairan panas dimulai. If fluid parameters other than density do not depend significantly on temperature, the flow profile is symmetric , with the same volume of fluid rising as falling. Jika parameter fluida selain kepadatan tidak tergantung secara signifikan pada temperatur, profil aliran simetris , dengan volume yang sama cairan yang meningkat karena jatuh. This is known as Boussinesq convection. Hal ini dikenal sebagai Boussinesq konveksi. As the temperature difference between the top and bottom of the fluid becomes higher, significant differences in fluid parameters other than density may develop in the fluid due to temperature. Karena perbedaan suhu antara bagian atas dan bawah dari cairan menjadi lebih tinggi, perbedaan yang signifikan dalam parameter fluida selain kepadatan mungkin berkembang dalam cairan karena suhu. An example of such a parameter is viscosity , which may begin to significantly vary horizontally across layers of fluid. Salah satu contoh parameter adalah viskositas , yang mungkin mulai bervariasi secara signifikan horizontal di lapisan cairan. This breaks the symmetry of the system, and generally changes the pattern of up- and down-moving fluid from stripes to hexagons, as seen at right. Ini melanggar simetri dari sistem, dan umumnya perubahan pola cairan up-dan turun-bergerak dari garis ke segi enam, seperti yang terlihat di sebelah kanan. Such hexagons are one example of a convection cell . segi enam tersebut adalah salah satu contoh dari sel konveksi . As the Rayleigh number is increased even further above the value where convection cells first appear, the system may undergo other bifurcations, and other more complex patterns, such as spirals , may begin to appear. Karena nomor Rayleigh meningkat lebih jauh di atas nilai mana sel-sel konveksi pertama muncul, sistem mungkin mengalami bifurcations lainnya, dan pola yang lebih kompleks lainnya, seperti spiral , mungkin mulai muncul.

[ edit ] Mantle convection [ sunting ] konveksi Mantle

Main article: Mantle convection Artikel utama: konveksi Mantle Convection within Earth's mantle is the driving force for plate tectonics . Konveksi dalam mantel bumi adalah kekuatan pendorong untuk lempeng tektonik . Mantle convection is the result of a thermal gradient: the lower mantle is hotter than the upper mantle, and is therefore less dense. konveksi Mantle adalah hasil dari gradien termal: dalam mantel bagian bawah lebih panas dari mantel atas, dan karena itu kurang padat. This sets up two primary types of instabilities. Ini menentukan dua jenis utama ketidakstabilan. In the first type, plumes rise from the lower mantle, and corresponding unstable regions of lithosphere drip back into the mantle. Pada tipe pertama, bulu bangkit dari dalam mantel bagian bawah, dan daerah tidak

stabil yang sesuai litosfer menetes kembali ke dalam mantel. In the second type, subducting oceanic plates (which largely constitute the upper thermal boundary layer of the mantle) plunge back into the mantle and move downwards towards the core-mantle boundary . Pada jenis kedua, subduksi lempeng samudera (yang sebagian besar merupakan batas termal lapisan atas dari mantel) terjun kembali ke dalam dan bergerak menuju ke bawah mantel -mantel batas inti . Mantle convection occurs at rates of centimeters per year, and it takes on the order of hundreds of millions of years to complete a cycle of convection. konveksi Mantle terjadi dengan tarif cm per tahun, dan mengambil urutan ratusan juta tahun untuk menyelesaikan siklus konveksi. Neutrino flux measurements from the Earth's core (see kamLAND ) show the source of about two-thirds of the heat in the inner core is the radioactive decay of 40 K , uranium and thorium. pengukuran fluks Neutrino dari inti Bumi (lihat kamLAND ) menunjukkan sumber sekitar dua-pertiga dari panas dalam inti batin adalah peluruhan radioaktif dari 40 K , uranium dan thorium. This has allowed plate tectonics on Earth to continue far longer than it would have if it were simply driven by heat left over from Earth's formation; or with heat produced from gravitational potential energy , as a result of physical rearrangement of denser portions of the Earth's interior toward the center of the planet (ie, a type of prolonged falling and settling). Hal ini telah memungkinkan lempeng tektonik di Bumi untuk melanjutkan jauh lebih lama dari itu akan ada jika hal itu hanya didorong oleh panas yang tersisa dari itu pembentukan bumi, atau dengan panas yang dihasilkan dari gravitasi energi potensial , sebagai akibat dari penataan fisik dari bagian padat dari Bumi interior menuju pusat dari planet (yaitu, jenis berkepanjangan jatuh dan menetap).