A PROJECT REPORT ON

R.C. HELICOPTER
Submitted in partial fulfillment of the award of the

BACHELOR OF TECHNOLOGY
Degree In

ELECTRONICS & COMMUNICATION ENGINEERING

SUBMITTED BY
ANKITA SINGH (0916331017) ARPIT BAJPAI (0916331020) SANJEEV JOSHI (0916331079) VIRENDRA KUMAR (0916331094)

DEPARTMENT OF ELECTRONICS & COMMUNICATION ENGINEERING

Dr. M. C. Saxena College of Engineering & Technology

AFFILIATED TO GAUTAM BUDDH TECHNICAL UNIVERSITY LUCKNOW

2012-13
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CERTIFICATE

This is to certify that the dissertation work entitled R.C. Helicopter is the work done by Arpit Bajpai, Ankita singh, Sanjeev Joshi, Virendra kumar submitted in partial fulfilment for the award of Bachelor of Technology (B.Tech) in Electronics & Communication Engineering from Dr. M. C. Saxena College of Engineering & Technology affiliated to G. B. Technical University, Lucknow. The project embodies result of original work and studies carried out by student himself and the contents of the project do not form the basis for the award of any other degree to the candidate or to anybody else.

H.O.D(E.C. Deptt) Date Mr. Pankaj Kumar

ACKNOWLEDGEMENT

The satisfaction and euphoria that accompany the successful completion of my task would be incomplete without the mentioning of the people whose constant guidance and encouragement made it possible. We take pleasure in presenting before you, our project, which is result of studied blend of both research and knowledge. We express our earnest gratitude to our internal guide, Mr. Vaibhav Siddharth, Department of ECE, our project guide, for his constant support, encouragement and guidance. We are grateful for his cooperation and his valuable suggestions. Finally, we express our gratitude to all other members who are involved either directly or indirectly for the completion of this project.

DECLARATION

We, the undersigned, declare that the project entitled R.C. Helicopter being submitted in partial fulfillment for the award of Bachelor of Technology Degree in Electronics and Communication Engineering, affiliated to Gautam Budha Technical University, Lucknow, is the work carried out by us.

Name: Arpit Bajpai Ankita Singh Sanjeev Joshi Virendra Kumar

Roll No: 0916331020 0916331017 0916331079 0916331094

Signature:

Contents
1 2 3

Page No.

ABSTRACT: ............................................................................................................... 8 INTRODUCTION: ..................................................................................................... 9 ELECTRONIC COMPONENT: ............................................................................... 10 3.1 RESISTOR: ....................................................................................................... 10 COLOUR CODE: ....................................................................................... 12 METHOD OF MAKING RESISTORS: .................................................... 14

3.1.1 3.1.2 3.2

CAPACITOR ..................................................................................................... 15 CAPACITANCE: ....................................................................................... 16 STORED ENERGY: .................................................................................. 17 TYPES OF CAPACITOR: ......................................................................... 17 METHOD OF MAKING CAPACITOR: ................................................... 19

3.2.1 3.2.2 3.2.3 3.2.4 3.3

DIODE: .............................................................................................................. 19 SEMICONDUCTOR DIODE: ................................................................... 20 LED: ........................................................................................................... 21

3.3.1 3.3.2 3.4 3.5

BATTERY: ........................................................................................................ 24 RELAY: ............................................................................................................. 25 AUTOMOTIVE STYLE MINIATURE RELAY: ..................................... 25 USE OF RELAY: ....................................................................................... 26

3.5.1 3.5.2 4

ENCODER (HT12E IC) ........................................................................................... 27 4.1 4.2 4.3 FEATURE: ........................................................................................................ 27 PIN DIAGRAM: ................................................................................................ 28 BLOCK DIAGRAM .......................................................................................... 29

DECODER (HT12D IC): .......................................................................................... 30 5.1 5.2 5.3 FEATURE: ........................................................................................................ 30 PIN DIAGRAM: ................................................................................................ 31 BLOCK DIAGRAM .......................................................................................... 32

RF MODULE: ........................................................................................................... 33 6.1 RF TRANSMITTER: ........................................................................................ 33 MECHANICAL DIMENSIONS AND PIN DESCRIPTION:................... 34 FEATURES: ............................................................................................... 34 5

6.1.1 6.1.2

6.2

RF RECIEVER: ................................................................................................. 34 MECHANICAL DIMENSIONS AND PIN DESCRIPTION: ................... 36 FEATURES: ............................................................................................... 36

6.2.1 6.2.2 7

PCB DESIGN: .......................................................................................................... 37 7.1 FLOW CHART OF PCB DESIGNING ............................................................ 37 PROCESSING ............................................................................................ 39 CLEANING ................................................................................................ 40 ETCHING................................................................................................... 41 DRILLING ................................................................................................. 42 COMPONENT PLACEMENT .................................................................. 43 MASKING ................................................................................................. 43

7.1.1 7.1.2 7.1.3 7.1.4 7.1.5 7.1.6 8

AIRFOILS ................................................................................................................. 44 8.1 AIRFOIL SECTIONS........................................................................................ 44

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ROTATORY WING PLANFORM .......................................................................... 46 RELWTIVE WIND ............................................................................................... 48 ANGLE OF ATTACK....................................................................................... 50 HELICOPTER DYNAMIC................................................................................... 52 BLADE THEORY ............................................................................................. 52 EQUATION OF MOTION:............................................................................... 53 THRUST APPROXIMATION .......................................................................... 55 BASIC CONFIGURATIONS CONSIDERD .................................................... 56 RC HELICOPTER TAIL ROTOR ........................................................................ 57 BLOCK DIAGRAM ............................................................................................. 59 TRANSMITTER: .............................................................................................. 59 RECIEVER: ....................................................................................................... 59 CONCLUSION ..................................................................................................... 61 BIBLIOGRAPHY ................................................................................................. 62

10.1 11 11.1 11.2 11.3 11.4 12 13 13.1 13.2 14 15

APPENDIX ...................................................................................................................... 63

LIST OF FIGURE:
Figure 1: Internal Resistor ................................................................................................ 11 Figure 2: variable resistor ................................................................................................. 14 Figure 3: Plate Separation in capacitor ............................................................................. 16 Figure 4: Mica Capacitor .................................................................................................. 18 Figure 5: Symbol of Diode ............................................................................................... 20 Figure 6: I-V Characterstics ............................................................................................. 20 Figure 7: LED ................................................................................................................... 22 Figure 8 Encoder pin diagram .......................................................................................... 28 Figure 9 Encoder block doagram ..................................................................................... 29 Figure 10 Decoder pin diagram ........................................................................................ 31 Figure 11 Decoder block diagram .................................................................................... 32 Figure 12 RF transmitter .................................................................................................. 33 Figure 13 RF reciever ....................................................................................................... 35 Figure 14 Airfoil terminology .......................................................................................... 45 Figure 15 fully Articulated rotor system .......................................................................... 46 Figure 16 Semigrid rotor system ...................................................................................... 46 Figure 17 Angle of attack ................................................................................................. 51 Figure 18:R C helicopter Tail Rotor ................................................................................. 58

1 ABSTRACT:

Through mathematical modeling, control scheme development, and extensive testing, this project has taken the first steps in rendering a miniature helicopter autonomous. This report contains the relevant equations of motion, the associated control schemes, as well as the steps taken to create a sensor-driven flight computer allowing autonomous operation. Further development and testing of the control board is necessary to apply the completed control scheme which allows autonomous flight of a remote control helicopter to a preselected position.

2 INTRODUCTION:
The helicopter plays an invaluable role in many fields, incurring countless uses; from military combat to scenic tourism and everything in between. Helicopters today undertake a myriad of different and highly specialized missions; such as search and rescue, seek and destroy, and simple transportation. The purpose of this project is to take the first steps in creating a helicopter capable of completing such a mission entirely on its own. The goal is to create an autonomous helicopter. While the implementation of an autonomously operated helicopter has obvious benefits in almost every conceivable mission, it is the surveillance based ones that make the most use of this technology. Surveillance, with its demand for covertness and inherent danger in the case of enemy and unfriendly observation profits from autonomization in two ways. It does not put the pilot in danger, as it does in any mission; but it also allows the helicopter to be built on the scale of an R/C toy, something a transportation mission could never accommodate. It is this platform that the team has chosen to use to develop a computer controlled guidance system for. For the purposes of this project, the final goal will be to design an R/C helicopter capable of following a lead ground vehicle at a predetermined height with a payload of a video capture device relaying images back to base. The real world corollaries to this demonstration are clear. A direct comparison would be a network of autonomous helicopters following a mission sensitive ground unit, such as a military transportation vehicle, at a predetermined radius and height alerting the vehicle of any present danger in its vicinity well before it is ever encountered. The project entails technical work from many disciplines. The helicopter has been optimized to operate efficiently and for long periods of time. This requires improvements in the aeronautical and electronic mechanisms. The system of circuits of sensors and processors required to allow such operation had to be designed and constructed. Lastly, the computer program, based on algorithms derived from aeronautical laws and equations was written. For this project, these subjects came together to create a helicopter that will pave the way for future autonomous vehicles.

3 ELECTRONIC COMPONENT:
3.1 RESISTOR:
Electrical resistance is a measure of the degree to which an object opposes an electric current through it. The SI unit of electrical resistance is the ohm. Its reciprocal quantity is electric conductance measured in seimens. Electrical resistance shares some conceptual parallels with the mechanical notion of friction. All conductors represent a certain amount of resistance, since no conductor is 100% efficient. To control the electron flow (current) in a predictable manner, we use resistors. Electronic circuits use calibrated lumped resistance to control the flow of current. Broadly speaking, resistor can be divided into two groups viz. fixed & adjustable (variable) resistors. In fixed resistors, the value is fixed & cannot be varied. In variable resistors, the resistance value can be varied by an adjuster knob. It can be divided into (a) Carbon composition (b) Wire wound (c) Special type. The most common type of resistors used in our projects is carbon type. The resistance value is normally indicated by colour bands. Each resistance has four colours, one of the band on either side will be gold or silver, this is called fourth band and indicates the tolerance, others three band will give the value of resistance (see table). For example if a resistor has the following marking on it say red, violet, gold. Comparing these coloured rings with the colour code, its value is 27000 ohms or 27 kilo ohms and its tolerance is 5%. Resistor comes in various sizes (Power rating). The bigger, the size, the more power rating of 1/4 watts. The four colour rings on its body tells us the value of resistor value as given below. There is always some resistance in every circuit. A circuit is always made up of some wire, so there will be some resistance there. Even the battery has parts that offer resistance to the flow of electrons. The only circuits that come near to zero resistance are superconductors. This resistance that is from the parts of the circuit itself (especially the battery) is called internal resistance. This internal resistance is usually drawn into a circuit diagram (schematic) as shown in

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Figure 1: Internal Resistor Notice the squiggly line just before the positive terminal of the battery? Thats to show the internal resistance of the circuit. That symbol, drawn any other place in the circuit, represents an actual resistor placed in the circuit. A resistor is a device found in circuits that has a certain amount of resistance. Why would you ever want to add resistance to a circuit by using a resistor? The most common reason is that we need to be able to adjust the current flowing through a particular part of the circuit. If voltage is constant, then we can change the resistor to change the current. I=V/ R If V is constant and we change R, I will be different.

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3.1.1 COLOUR CODE:

How can the value of a resistor be worked out from the colours of the bands? Each colour represents a number according to the following scheme: The first band on a resistor is interpreted as the FIRST DIGIT of the resistor value. For the resistor shown below, the first band is yellow, so the first digit is 4:

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The second band gives the SECOND DIGIT. This is a violet band, making the second digit 7. The third band is called the MULTIPLIER and is not interpreted in quite the same way. The multiplier tells you how many noughts you should write after the digits you already have. A red band tells you to add 2 noughts. The value of this resistor is therefore 4 7 0 0 ohms, that is, 4 700 , or 4.7 . Work through this example again to confirm that you understand how to apply the colour code given by the first three bands. The remaining band is called the TOLERANCE band. This indicates the percentage accuracy of the resistor value. Most carbon film resistors have a gold-coloured tolerance band, indicating that the actual resistance value is with + or - 5% of the nominal value. Other tolerance colours are:

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3.1.2 METHOD OF MAKING RESISTORS:

There are two main methods that are used to make resistors. The most common is to just have a bunch of wire wound up inside that little cylinder. Known as wire-wound resistors, they depend on the fact that a certain length of a certain piece of wire will have a certain resistance. These resistors tend to be very reliable (with low tolerances), but cost more because of the price of metals used in them and the machinery needed to carefully cut and wind the wire. The other type of resistor is made of a piece of Carbon Known as a composition resistor, they depend on the size of the piece of carbon, and the fact that carbon is a metalloid (has some metal-like properties) that does conduct electricity. Because they are made from cheap Carbon, composition resistors can cost much less than similar wire-wound resistors. The drawback is that the carbon can be cracked while making them, or become cracked in use. They have higher tolerances because of the uncertainty in cutting the carbon. In some cases it is necessary to have a circuit with resistors that you can adjust. These resistors are known as potentiometers or variable resistors. Often they are just a modified version of a wire-wound resistor, although newer versions use advanced electronics instead. Youve used one if youve ever used a dimmer switch for lights in a room, or played with an electric race car set. Most variable resistors are designed so that by turning a dial or sliding a switch, you change the amount of conducting material the current has to go through. The more conducting material the current has to go through, the higher the resistance less material and the resistance is less.

Figure 2: variable resistor

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3.2 CAPACITOR
The function of capacitors is to store electricity, or electrical energy. The capacitor also functions as filter, passing AC, and blocking DC. The capacitor is constructed with two electrode plates separated by insulator. They are also used in timing circuits because it takes time for a capacitor to fill with charge. They can be used to smooth varying DC supplies by acting as reservoir of charge. The capacitor's function is to store electricity, or electrical energy. The capacitor also functions as a filter, passing alternating current (AC), and blocking direct current (DC). This symbol ( )is used to indicate a capacitor in a circuit diagram. The capacitor is

constructed with two electrode plates facing each other but separated by an insulator. When DC voltage is applied to the capacitor, an electric charge is stored on each electrode. While the capacitor is charging up, current flows. The current will stop flowing when the capacitor has fully charged. Commercial capacitors are generally classified according to the dielectric. The most used are mica, paper, electrolytic and ceramic capacitors. Electrolytic capacitors use a molecular thin oxide film as the dielectric resulting in large capacitance values. There is no required polarity, since either side can be the most positive plate, except for electrolytic capacitors. These are marked to indicate which side must be positive to maintain the internal electrolytic action that produces the dielectric required to form the capacitance. It should be noted that the polarity of the charging source determines the polarity of the changing source determines the polarity of the capacitor voltage.

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3.2.1 CAPACITANCE:
When electric charge accumulates on the plates, an electric field is created in the region between the plates that is proportional to the amount of accumulated charge. This electric field creates a potential difference V = Ed between the plates of this simple parallelplate capacitor.

Figure 3: Plate Separation in capacitor The capacitor's capacitance (C) is a measure of the amount of charge (Q) stored on each plate for a given potential difference or voltage (V) which appears between the plates:

In SI units, a capacitor has a capacitance of one farad when one coulomb of charge is stored due to one volt applied potential difference across the plates. Since the farad is a very large unit, values of capacitors are usually expressed in microfarads (F), nanofarad (nF), or picofarad (pF).The capacitance is proportional to the surface area of the conducting plate and inversely proportional to the distance between the plates. It is also proportional to the permittivity of the dielectric (that is, non-conducting) substance that separates the plates. The capacitance of a parallel-plate capacitor is given by:

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where is the permittivity of the dielectric, A is the area of the plates and d is the spacing between them.

3.2.2 STORED ENERGY:

As opposite charges accumulate on the plates of a capacitor due to the separation of charge, a voltage develops across the capacitor owing to the electric field of these charges. Ever-increasing work must be done against this ever-increasing electric field as more charge is separated. The energy (measured in joules, in SI) stored in a capacitor is equal to the amount of work required to establish the voltage across the capacitor, and therefore the electric field. The energy stored is given by:

where V is the voltage across the capacitor. The maximum energy that can be (safely) stored in a particular capacitor is limited by the maximum electric field that the dielectric can withstand before it breaks down. Therefore, all capacitors made with the same dielectric have about the same maximum energy density (joules of energy per cubic meter).

3.2.3 TYPES OF CAPACITOR: MICA CAPACITOR:

Mica is such a material, which is available in a thin layer in the nature. Its dielectric constant is very high, Especially for high frequency. It works as a good insulator even on high temperature. There is very low frequency loss in it, because of these silent features it is used as dielectric material in the capacitors. These types of capacitors are known as mica capacitor. Since winding of mica is not possible therefore mica capacitor are always flat in shape. These capacitors are used where more accuracy and high dielectric constant is needed.

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Figure 4: Mica Capacitor

PAPER CAPACITOR:
It is such a capacitor which is used for high voltage DC&AC on medium loss and medium accuracy of capacitance stability. Wrapping thin layer of aluminum with the layers of tissue paper makes it and to remove the moisture from paper, thin layer of wax is used on it. In the metallised paper capacitor, metal film is used in place of aluminum for electrodes. The value of paper capacitor is generally in between 0.001 microfarad to 0.2 microfarad. Their voltage capacity is maximum up to 100 V. now- a- days, polyester plastic film is used on the tissue paper in the paper capacitors. Due to the use of this film, its dielectric constant raises as a result it does not damage on the high voltage.

CEREMIC CAPACITOR
Such capacitors, which have ceramic material as a dielectric, are known as ceramic capacitors. The functions of these capacitors are decided according to the electrical characteristics of the used ceramic material. The size of the ceramic capacitors is very small as compared to the other capacitors due to their high dielectric constant. Ceramic material is a very good insulator and high dielectric constant can be received from it by mixing various types of silicates in it. Ceramic capacitors are generally of two types i.e. disced type and tubular type. In the disc silver-plating both the sides of the ceramic plate makes type capacitors two conductive plates. A wire is taken out from each plate as an electrode. To protect the capacitor from moisture coating of insulating material is done over it. The other type of 18

capacitor, which is in the form of resistance, is known as tubular type ceramic capacitor. In these types of capacitors, silver Coating is done inside and outside the ceramic tube, Which acts as two conductive plates. A wire is taken out from each coating. Tubular capacitors from 1 PF to 500PF works similarly to the mica capacitors.

3.2.4 METHOD OF MAKING CAPACITOR:

One way of making capacitors is to use the two poly-silicon layers in our process. We create a parallel plate capacitor with poly1 and poly2 (electrode) forming the two parallel sides. The silicon dioxide between the two poly layers is thin enough to yield good capacitance values per unit area. This is called a poly-poly capacitor. The other way would be to use the gate oxide and actually build a transistor whose gate area (W x L) would actually give us the capacitance. These are called MOS capacitors, and they only work properly when the transistor is strongly inverted or depleted. Otherwise, the capacitance can vary with the voltage across it.

3.3 DIODE:
In electronics, a diode is a component that restricts the direction of flow of charge carriers. Essentially, it allows an electric current to flow in one direction, but blocks it in the opposite direction. Thus, the diode can be thought of as an electronic version of a check valve. Circuits that require current flow in only one direction will typically include one or more diodes in the circuit design. Early diodes included "cat's whisker" crystals and vacuum tube devices (called thermionic valves in British English Dialect). Today the most common diodes are made from semiconductor materials such as silicon or germanium. Thermionic and solid state diodes developed in parallel. The principle of operation of thermionic diodes was discovered by Frederick Guthrie in 1873.[1] The principle of operation of crystal diodes was discovered in 1874 by the German scientist, Karl Ferdinand Braun

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Figure 5: Symbol of Diode

3.3.1 SEMICONDUCTOR DIODE:

Conventional current can flow from the anode to the cathode, but not the other way around. Most modern diodes are based on semiconductor p-n junctions. In a p-n diode, conventional current flows from the p-type side (the anode) to the n-type side (the cathode), but not in the opposite direction. Another type of semiconductor diode, the Schottky diode, is formed from the contact between a metal and a semiconductor rather than by a p-n junction. A semiconductor diode's current-voltage, or I-V, characteristic curve is described to the behavior of the so-called depletion layer or depletion zone which exists at the p-n junction between the differing semiconductors. When a p-n junction is first created, conduction band (mobile) electrons from the N-doped region diffuse into the P-doped region where there is a large population of holes (places for electrons in which no electron is present) with which the electrons "recombine". When a mobile electron recombines with a hole, the hole vanishes and the electron is no longer mobile. Thus, two charge carriers have vanished. The region around the p-n junction becomes depleted of charge carriers and thus behaves as an insulator.

IV CHARACTERSTICS OF DIODE:

Figure 6: I-V Characterstics

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A diode's I-V characteristic can be approximated by two regions of operation. Below a certain difference in potential between the two leads, the depletion layer has significant width, and the diode can be thought of as an open (non-conductive) circuit. As the potential difference is increased, at some stage the diode will become conductive and allow charges to flow, at which point it can be thought of as a connection with zero (or at least very low) resistance. In a normal silicon diode at rated currents, the voltage drop across a conducting diode is approximately 0.6 to 0.7 volts. The value is different for other diode types - Schottky diodes can be as low as 0.2 V and light-emitting diodes (LEDs) can be 1.4 V or more (Blue LEDs can be up to 4.0 V). Referring to the I-V characteristics image, in the reverse bias region for a normal P-N rectifier diode, the current through the device is very low (in the A range) for all reverse voltages up to a point called the peak-inverse-voltage (PIV). Beyond this point a process called reverse breakdown occurs which causes the device to be damaged along with a large increase in current. For special purpose diodes like the avalanche or zener diodes, the concept of PIV is not applicable since they have a deliberate breakdown beyond a known reverse current such that the reverse voltage is "clamped" to a known value (called the zener voltage or breakdown voltage). These devices however have a maximum limit to the current and power in the zener or avalanche region.

We use Light Emitting Diode in this project. 3.3.2 LED:

A light-emitting diode (LED) is a semiconductor device that emits incoherent narrowspectrum light when electrically biased in the forward direction of the P-n junction. This effect is a form of electroluminescence. LEDs are small extended sources with extra optics added to the chip, which emit a complex intensity spatial distribution. The color of the emitted light depends on the composition and condition of the semiconducting material used, and can be infrared, visible or near-ultraviolet.

3.3.2.1 WORKING:
When a light-emitting diode is forward-biased (switched on), electrons are able to recombine with electron holes within the device, releasing energy in the form of photons. This effect is called electroluminescence and the color of the light (corresponding to the 21

energy of the photon) is determined by the energy gap of the semiconductor. A LED is often small in area (less than 1 mm2), and integrated optical components may be used to shape its radiation pattern. LEDs present many advantages over incandescent light sources including lower energy consumption, longer lifetime, improved physical robustness, smaller size, and faster switching. LEDs powerful enough for room lighting are relatively expensive and require more precise current and heat management than compact fluorescent lamp sources of comparable output.

Figure 7: LED

3.3.2.2 FEATURE AND BENIFIT:

Efficiency: LEDs emit more light per watt than incandescent light bulbs. The efficiency of LED lighting fixtures is not affected by shape and size, unlike fluorescent light bulbs or tubes. Colour: LEDs can emit light of an intended colour without using any colour filters as traditional lighting methods need. This is more efficient and can lower initial costs. Size: LEDs can be very small (smaller than 2 mm2) and are easily attached to printed circuit boards.

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On/Off time: LEDs light up very quickly. A typical red indicator LED will achieve full brightness in under a microsecond. LEDs used in communications devices can have even faster response times. Cycling: LEDs are ideal for uses subject to frequent on-off cycling, unlike fluorescent lamps that fail faster when cycled often, or HID lamps that requires a long time before restarting. Dimming: LEDs can very easily be dimmed either by pulse-width modulation or lowering the forward current. Cool light: In contrast to most light sources, LEDs radiate very little heat in the form of IR that can cause damage to sensitive objects or fabrics. Wasted energy is dispersed as heat through the base of the LED. Slow failure: LEDs mostly fail by dimming over time, rather than the abrupt failure of incandescent bulbs. Lifetime: LEDs can have a relatively long useful life. One report estimates 35,000 to 50,000 hours of useful life, though time to complete failure may be longer. Fluorescent tubes typically are rated at about 10,000 to 15,000 hours, depending partly on the conditions of use, and incandescent light bulbs at 1,000 to 2,000 hours. Several DOE demonstrations have shown that reduced maintenance costs from this extended lifetime, rather than energy savings, is the primary factor in determining the payback period for an LED product. Shock resistance: LEDs, being solid-state components, are difficult to damage with external shock, unlike fluorescent and incandescent bulbs, which are fragile. Focus: The solid package of the LED can be designed to focus its light. Incandescent and fluorescent sources often require an external reflector to collect light and direct it in a usable manner. For larger LED packages total internal reflection (TIR) lenses are often used to the same effect. However, when large quantities of light is needed many light sources are usually deployed, which are difficult to focus or collimate towards the same target.

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3.3.2.3 APPLICATION:
In general, all the LED products can be divided into two major parts, the public lighting and indoor lighting. LED uses fall into four major categories: Visual signals where light goes more or less directly from the source to the human eye, to convey a message or meaning. Illumination where light is reflected from objects to give visual response of these objects. Measuring and interacting with processes involving no human vision. Narrow band light sensors where LEDs operate in a reverse-bias mode and respond to incident light, instead of emitting light.

3.4 BATTERY:
Due to the mission requirements of this project, the selection of an efficient battery was of utmost importance. The most efficient type of battery that can be used on a RC model is the Lithium-Polymer pack. These batteries are split into multiple cells with the same standard voltage. Most Li-Po battery packs are 2-5 cells with a standard voltage of 3.7V per cell. Instead of the lithium-salt electrolyte being held in an organic solvent as in the Li-Ion battery, it is held in a solid polymer composite which provides a higher efficiency. The power/weight ratio of a Li-Po battery is ~2800 W/kg compared to 1800 W/kg of LiIon.

The battery chosen to mate with the helicopter was the APlus 3S1P, a 2200mAh Li-Po battery in a 3-cell series configuration. Each cell has a nominal voltage of 3.7V, giving it a total voltage of 11.1V. The battery is connected to the ESC, which connects to 10 the motor and the receiver. This battery is 100 x 34 x 23 mm, weighs 179g and has a standard discharge rate of 25C.

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3.5 RELAY:

3.5.1 AUTOMOTIVE STYLE MINIATURE RELAY:

A relay is an electrical switch that opens and closes under the control of another electrical circuit. In the original form, the switch is operated by an electromagnet to open or close one or many sets of contacts. It was invented by Joseph Henry in 1835. Because a relay is able to control an output circuit of higher power than the input circuit, it can be considered, in a broad sense, to be a form of an electrical amplifier. When a current flows through the coil, the resulting magnetic field attracts an armature that is mechanically linked to a moving contact. The movement either makes or breaks a connection with a fixed contact. When the current to the coil is switched off, the armature is returned by a force approximately half as strong as the magnetic force to its relaxed position. Usually this is a spring, but gravity is also used commonly in industrial motor starters. Most relays are manufactured to operate quickly. In a low voltage application, this is to reduce noise. In a high voltage or high current application, this is to reduce arcing. If the coil is energized with DC, a diode is frequently installed across the coil, to dissipate the energy from the collapsing magnetic field at deactivation, which would otherwise generate a spike of voltage and might cause damage to circuit components. If the coil is designed to be energized with AC, a small copper ring can be crimped to the end of the solenoid. This "shading ring" creates a small out-of-phase current, which increases the minimum pull on the armature during the AC cycle.

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3.5.2 USE OF RELAY:

To control a high-voltage circuit with a low-voltage signal, as in some types of modems,

To control a high-current circuit with a low-current signal, as in the starter solenoid of an automobile,

To isolate the controlling circuit from the controlled circuit when the two are at different potentials, for example when controlling a mains-powered device from a low-voltage switch. The latter is often applied to control office lighting as the low voltage wires are easily installed in partitions, which may be often moved as needs change. They may also be controlled by room occupancy detectors in an effort to conserve energy,

To perform logic functions. For example, the boolean AND function is realised by connecting NO relay contacts in series, the OR function by connecting NO contacts in parallel. The change-over or Form C contacts perform the XOR (exclusive or) function. Similar functions for NAND and NOR are accomplished using NC contacts. Due to the failure modes of a relay compared with a semiconductor, they are widely used in safety critical logic, such as the control panels of radioactive waste handling machinery.

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4 ENCODER (HT12E IC)

The 212 encoders are a series of CMOS LSIs for remote control system applications. They are capable of encoding information which consists of N address bits and 12_N data bits. Each address data input can be set to one of the two logic states. The programmed addresses data are transmitted together with the header bits via an RF or an infrared transmission medium upon receipt of a trigger signal. The capability to select a TE trigger on the HT12E or a DATA trigger on the HT12A further enhances the application flexibility of the 212 series of encoders.

4.1 FEATURE:
Operating voltage 2.4V~12V for the HT12E Low power and high noise immunity CMOS technology Low standby current: 0.1_A (typ.) at VDD=5V HT12A with a 38kHz carrier for infrared transmission medium Minimum transmission word four words for the HT12E. Built-in oscillator needs only 5% resistor. Data code has positive polarity. Minimal external components. HT12E: 18-pin DIP/20-pin SOP package.

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4.2 PIN DIAGRAM:

Figure 8 Encoder pin diagram

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4.3 BLOCK DIAGRAM

Figure 9 Encoder block doagram

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5 DECODER (HT12D IC):

The 1212 decoders are a series of CMOS LSIs for remote control system applications. They are paired with Holtek 1212 series of encoders. For proper operation, a pair of encoder/decoder with the same number of addresses and data format should be chosen. The decoders receive serial addresses and data from a programmed212 series of encoders that are transmitted by a carrier using an RF or an IR transmission medium. They compare the serial input data three times continuously with their local addresses. If no error or unmatched codes are found, the input data codes are decoded and then transferred to the output pins. The VT pin also goes high to indicate a valid transmission. The 212 series of decoders are capable of decoding information that consists of N bits of address and 12 N bits of data. Of this series, the HT12D is arranged to provide 8 address bits and 4 data bits.

5.1 FEATURE:
Operatingvoltage:2.4V~12V Low power and high noise immunity CMOS technology Low standby current Capable of decoding 12 bits of information Binary address setting Received codes are checked 3times Address/Data number combination 8address bits and 4 data bits Built-inoscillatorneedsonly5%resistor Valid transmission indicator Easy interface with an RF or an infrared transmission medium Minimal external components 18-pinDIP,

30

5.2 PIN DIAGRAM:

Figure 10 Decoder pin diagram

31

5.3 BLOCK DIAGRAM

Figure 11 Decoder block diagram

32

6 RF MODULE:
Radio Frequency Module is an integral part with a control module or unit and an antenna it is used for wireless identification. Main tasks of the RF module are to send an energizing signal via the antenna. The RF module delivers a digital data stream and a clock signal for further processing to its control unit or module. Furthermore a field strength dependent digital output is available for synchronization purposes. The RFM is tuned to resonance with the antenna by adjusting the inductance of the tuning coil at the RFM's output stage. RF Module can be categorized into two parts: Transmitter Receiver

6.1 RF TRANSMITTER:

Figure 12 RF transmitter

TWS-434: The transmitter output is up to 8mW at 433.92MHz with a range of

approximately 400 foot (open area) outdoors. Indoors, the range is approximately 200 foot, and will go through most walls..... The TWS-434 transmitter accepts both linear and digital inputs can operate from 1.5 to 12 Volts-DC, and makes building a miniature hand-held RF transmitter very easy. The TWS-434 is approximately the size of a standard postage stamp.

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6.1.1 MECHANICAL DIMENSIONS AND PIN DESCRIPTION:

The WZ_T434 or WZ_T418 transmitter output is up to 8mW the range is approximately 200 foot indoor, The WZ-T4343 transmitter is based on SAW resonator can operate from 2 to 12 Volts-DC. The operation voltage at 9V to 12V, the emission is about 16dBm.

6.1.2 FEATURES:

434 MHz or 315 MHz Transmitter Operation 500 Ft. Range - Dependent on Transmitter Power Supply 2400 or 4800bps transfer rate Low cost Extremely small and light weight

6.2 RF RECIEVER:
This receiver type is good for data rates up to 4800bps and will only work with the 434MHz o 315 MHz transmitter. Multiple 434MHz or 315MHz receivers can listen to one 434MHz transmitter or 315 MHz transmitter. This wireless data is the easiest to use, lowest cost RF link we have ever seen! Use these components to transmit position data, 34

temperature data, and even current program register values wirelessly to the receiver. These modules have up to 500 ft range in open space. The receiver is operated at 5V. We have used these modules extensively and have been very impressed with their ease of use and direct interface to an MCU. The theory of operation is very simple. What the transmitter 'sees' on its data pin is what the receiver outputs on its data pin. If you can configure the UART module on a uC, you have an instant wireless data connection. Data rates are limited to 4800bps. The typical range is 500ft for open area. This receiver has a sensitivity of 3uV. It operates from 4.5 to 5.5 volts-DC and has digital output. The typical sensitivity is -103dbm and the typical current consumption is 3.5mA for 5V operation voltage.

Figure 13 RF reciever RWS-434: The receiver also operates at 433.92MHz, and has a sensitivity of 3uV. The RWS-434 receiver operates from 4.5 to 5.5 volts-DC, and has both linear and digital outputs.

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6.2.1 MECHANICAL DIMENSIONS AND PIN DESCRIPTION:

6.2.2 FEATURES:

434 MHz or 315 MHz Operation 500 Ft. Range - Dependent on Transmitter Power Supply 4800 bps transfer rate Low cost Extremely small and light weight

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7 PCB DESIGN:
The connections on the PCB should be identical to the circuit diagram, but while the circuit diagram is arranged to be readable, the PCB layout is arranged to be functional, so there is rarely any visible correlation between the circuit and the layout. PCB layout can be performed manually (using CAD) or in combination with an Auto router. The best results are usually still achieved using at least some manual routing simply because the design engineer has a far better judgement of how to arrange circuitry. Surprisingly, many auto routed boards are often completely illogical in their track routing - the program has optimised the connections, and sacrificed any small amount of order that may have been put in place by manual routing. Generally auto routed boards are slightly harder for a technician to repair or debug, for this reason. Historically, PCBs used to be laid out by drawing or using stick on paper shapes on my lar film, - that really WAS manual routing!

7.1

FLOW CHART OF PCB DESIGNING PCB Designing includes the following steps:-

PROCESSING
1.

CLEANSING

PRINTING

ETCHING
37

DRILLING

SOLDERING

MASKING

The CAD PCB layout consists of several layers, for illustration purposes the holes, outline and component identification layers can be combined into one diagram. When we produce PCBs for clients, we use actual size check plots during the design process. A PCB will usually have mounting holes and may possibly have cut outs, by cutting an actual size check plot and placing it in the enclosure, you can see how it will be positioned in relation to other parts. We can also place components up against the pad markings as a quick double check of sizing. The secret to creativity is knowing how to hide your sources. -- Albert Einstein We put a bit of effort into the PCB design - it is somewhere where quality of design can make a difference. These days most circuit boards are automatically assembled and tested - but you will still have people working on your circuit boards, and having a quality design can make all the difference between a product that is pleasant to work on and one that they will hate. Machine test points, for ATE (Automated Test Equipment) bed of nails testing, just need to be pads or lands. Some test points, however, are not really intended for ATE but rather for engineering test or modification - we put labelled test points on for these, as illustrated.

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We put a complete silkscreen identification overlay on most of our boards, and the quality of this is another way we can make a better product. The silkscreen contains important information that assists people to service and install the product. Aside from functionality (which is rather obvious) the overlay is the chief distinguishing feature between a purpose-built product, such as we deliver, and a general-purpose product such as you might buy from a company like Rabbit. We would label terminals as: "+12v red" "-pwr black" "solenoid+" "solenoid-" whereas competitors may often just give you: "A1 A2 A3 A4". They don't have much of a choice - they have no idea what you will attach to the terminals.

For dense surface mount boards, we often need to leave off component values, and sometimes need to omit the component designators. The silkscreen is the primary method for labelling connectors, replaceable parts, orientation, and even installation notes (for instance "Remove J2 while replacing battery - observe battery polarity") The PCB layout also needs to take account of EMI and ESD compliance and we have a separate page on some techniques that we use to get our PCBs to comply.

7.1.1 PROCESSING
The layout of a PCB has to incorporate all the information on the board before one can go on to the artwork preparation. This means that a concept that clearly defines all the details of the circuit and partly also of the final equipment, is a prerequisite before the actual layout can start. The detail circuit diagram is very important for the layout designer and he must also be familiar with the design concept and with the philosophy behind the equipment. The General Considerations are Layout scale: - Depending on the accuracy required, artwork should be produced at a 1:1 or 2:1 or even 4:1 scale. The layout is best prepared on the same scale as the artwork. This prevents all the problems which might be caused by redrawing of layout to the artwork scale. Grid system or Graph Paper: - It is commonly accepted practice to use these for designing.

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Board types:-There are two side of a PCB board Component side & Solder side. Depending on these board are classified asSingle-sided Boards: - These are used where costs have to be kept at a minimum & a particular Circuit can be accommodated on such board. To jump over conductor tracks, components have to be utilized. If this is not feasible, jumper wires are used. (Jumper wires should be less otherwise double-sided PCB should be considered.

Double-sided Boards: - These are made with or without plated through holes. Plated through holes are fairly expensive.

7.1.2 CLEANING
The cleaning of the copper surface prior to resist application is an essential step for any type of PCB process using etches or plating resist. After scrubbing with the abrasive, a water rinse will remove most of the remaining slurry

Scrubbing Water Rinse Wet Brushing Acid dip Final Rinse Drying

Pumice/ Acid Slurry Tap Water Tap Water Hydrochloric Acid-HCl De-ionized Water Oven or Blowing of air.

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7.1.3 ETCHING
Etching speed Copper solving capacity Etchant price Pollution character Operation characteristics of different etchants:Corrosivenes s High High Neutralization Toxicit Required ventilation Low Medium

Factor Etchant FeCl3 CuCl2

Operation cost Medium Low

disposition problem y Medium Low Low Mediu m

Chromic acid Alkaline ammonia

High High

High Medium

High Mediu m

High High

High High

Table: Characteristics of different etchants We have uses FeCl3 (Conc. 120 g/litre 0.1 M) for etching. FeCl3 FeCl3 FeCl3 CuCl2 + 3H 2O Cu CuCl Cu FeCl2 FeCl2 2CuCl Fe(OH)3 + + + 3HCl (Free

acid attack to copper) + + + CuCl CuCl2

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7.1.4 DRILLING
Drilling is a cutting process that uses a drill bit to cut or enlarge a hole of circular crosssection in solid materials. The drill bit is a rotary cutting tool, often multipoint. The bit is pressed against the work-piece and rotated at rates from hundreds to thousands of revolutions per minute. This forces the cutting edge against the work-piece, cutting off chips from what will become the hole being drilled. Exceptionally, specially-shaped bits can cut holes of non-circular cross-section; a square cross-section is possible The importance of hole drilling into PCBs has further gone with electronic component miniaturization and its need for smaller holes diameters (diameters less than half the board thickness) and higher package density. The following hole diameter tolerances have been generally accepted wherever no other specifications are mentioned. Hole Diameter Hole Diameter (D) <= 1mm (D) > 3 mm + / - 0.05 mm + / 0.1 mm

Drill bits are made up of high-speed steel (HSS), Glass epoxy material, Tungsten Carbide.

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7.1.5 COMPONENT PLACEMENT

Component placement is an extremely important function of the designer Components should be placed according to their connections to other components, thermal considerations, mechanical requirements, as well as signal integrity and rout- ability Components which have connections to each other should be placed in the same vicinity For example, a processor should be placed very close to the RAM and Flash ICs on which it relies Components should also be placed on a grid, usually a 100 mil grid, in order to provide for a symmetric flow of routing where tracks and components are lined up

7.1.6 MASKING
It is done for the protection of conductor track from Oxidation. Solder mask or solder resist is a lacquer-like layer of polymer that provides a permanent protective coating for the copper traces of

43

8 AIRFOILS
A helicopter flies for the same basic reason that any conventional aircraft flies, because aerodynamic forces necessary to keep it aloft are produced when air passes about the rotor blades. The rotor blade, or airfoil, is the structure that makes flight possible. Its shape produces lift when it passes through the air. Helicopter blades have airfoil sections designed for a specific set of flight characteristics. Usually the designer must compromise to obtain an airfoil section that has the best flight characteristics for the mission the aircraft will perform. Airfoil sections are of two basic types, symmetrical and nonsymmetrical. Symmetrical airfoils have identical upper and lower surfaces. They are suited to rotary-wing applications because they have almost no center of pressure travel. Travel remains relatively constant under varying angles of attack, affording the best lift-drag ratios for the full range of velocities from rotor blade root to tip. However, the symmetrical airfoil produces less lift than a nonsymmetrical airfoil and also has relatively undesirable stall characteristics. The helicopter blade must adapt to a wide range of airspeeds and angles of attack during each revolution of the rotor. The symmetrical airfoil delivers acceptable performance under those alternating conditions. Other benefits are lower cost and ease of construction as compared to the nonsymmetrical airfoil. Nonsymmetrical (cambered) airfoils may have a wide variety of upper and lower surface designs. They are currently used on some CH-47 and all OH-58 Army helicopters, and are increasingly being used on newly designed aircraft. Advantages of the nonsymmetrical airfoil are increased lift drag ratios and more desirable stall characteristics. Nonsymmetrical airfoils were not used in earlier helicopters because the center of pressure location moved too much when angle of attack was changed.When center of pressure moves, a twisting force is exerted on the rotor blades. Rotor system components had to be designed that would withstand the twisting force. Recent design processes and new materials used to manufacture rotor systems have partially overcome the problems associated with use of nonsymmetrical airfoils.

8.1 AIRFOIL SECTIONS

Rotary-wing airfoils operate under diverse conditions, because their speeds are a combination of blade rotation and forward movement of the helicopter. An intelligent discussion of the factors affecting the magnitude of rotor blade lift and drag requires a knowledge of blade section geometry. Blades are designed with specific geometry that adapts them to the varying conditions of flight. Cross-section shapes of most rotor blades are not the same throughout the span. Shapes are varied along the blade radius to take advantage of the particular airspeed range experienced at each point on the blade, and to help balance the load between the root and tip. The blade may be built with a twist, so an airfoil section near the root has a larger pitch angle than a section near the tip.

44

Figure 14 Airfoil terminology

The chord line is a straight line connecting the leading and trailing edges of the airfoil. The chord is the length of the chord line from leading edge to trailing edge and is the characteristic longitudinal dimension of the airfoil. The mean camber line is a line drawn halfway between the upper and lower surfaces. The chord line connects the ends of the mean camber line. The shape of the mean camber is important in determining the aerodynamic characteristics of an airfoil section. Maximum camber (displacement of the mean camber line from the chord line) and the location of maximum camber help to define the shape of the mean camber line. These quantities are expressed as fractions or percentages of the basic chord dimension. Thickness and thickness distribution of the profile are important properties of an airfoil section. The maximum thickness and its location help define the airfoil shape and are expressed as a percentage of the chord. The leading edge radius of the airfoil is the radius of curvature given the leading edge shape.

45

9 ROTATORY WING PLANFORM

Common terms used to describe the helicopter rotor system are shown here. Although there is some variation in systems between different aircraft, the terms shown are generally accepted by most manufacturers. The system shown here is fully articulated: Semirigid

Figure 15 fully Articulated rotor system Semirigid types do not have a vertical or horizontal hinge pin. Instead, the rotor is allowed to teeter or flap by a trunnion bearing that connects the yoke to the mast:

Figure 16 Semigrid rotor system

The chordis the longitudinal dimension of an airfoil section, measured from the leading edge to the trailing edge. The span is the length of the rotor blade from the point of rotation to the tip of the blade. The vertical hinge pin (drag hinge) is the axis which permits fore and aft blade movement independent of the other blades in the system. The horizontal hinge pin is the axis which permits up and down movement of the blade independent of the other blades in the system.

46

 The trunnion is splined to the mast and has two bearings through which it is secured to the yoke. The blades are mounted to the yoke and are free to teeter (flap) around the trunnion bearings. The yoke is the structural member to which the blades are attached and which fastens the rotor blades to the mast through the trunnion and trunnion bearings. The blade grip retainer bearing is the bearing which permits rotation of the blade about its Span wise axis so blade pitch can be changed (blade feathering) Blade Twist is a characteristic built into the rotor blade so angle of incidence is less near the tip than at the root. Blade twist helps distribute the lift evenly along the blade by an increased angle of incidence near the root where blade speed is slower. Outboard portions of the blade that travel faster normally have lower angles of incidence, so less lift is concentrated near the blade tip.

47

10 RELWTIVE WIND
A knowledge of relative wind is particularly essential for an understanding of aerodynamics of rotary-wing flight because relative wind may be composed of multiple components. Relative wind is defined as the airflow relative to an airfoil:

Relative wind is created by movement of an airfoil through the air. As an example, consider a person sitting in an automobile on a no-wind day with a hand extended out the window. There is no airflow about the hand since the automobile is not moving. However, if the automobile is driven at 50 miles per hour, the air will flow under and over the hand at 50 miles per hour. A relative wind has been created by moving the hand through the air. Relative wind flows in the opposite direction that the hand is moving. The velocity of airflow around the hand in motion is the hand's airspeed. When the helicopter is stationary on a no-wind day, rotational relative wind is produced by rotation of the rotor blades. Since the rotor is moving horizontally, the effect is to displace some of the air downward. The blades travel along the same path and pass a given point in rapid succession (a three-bladed system rotating at 320 revolutions per minute passes a given point in the tip-path plane 16 times per second).

48

This flow of air is called an induced flow (downwash). It is most predominant at a hover under still wind conditions. Because the rotor system circulates the airflow down through the rotor disk, the rotational relative wind is modified by the induced flow. Airflow from rotation, modified by induced flow, produces the resultant relative wind. In this illustration, angle of attack is reduced by induced flow, causing the airfoil to produce less lift:

49

When the helicopter has horizontal motion, the resultant relative wind discussed above is further changed by the helicopter airspeed. Airspeed component of relative wind results from the helicopter moving through the air. It is added to or subtracted from the rotational relative wind, depending on whether the blade is advancing or retreating in relation to the helicopter movement. Induced flow is also modified by introduction of airspeed relative wind. The pattern of air circulation through the disk changes when the aircraft has movement. Generally the downward velocity of induced flow is reduced. The helicopter moves continually into an undisturbed airmass, resulting in less time to develop a vertical airflow pattern. As a result, additional lift is produced from a given blade pitch setting.

10.1 ANGLE OF ATTACK

Angle of attack is an aerodynamic angle and is illustrated here:

50

Figure 17 Angle of attack

51

11 HELICOPTER DYNAMIC
For the purposes of controlling a helicopter, it is necessary to understand the fundamental equations governing the forces in play, how they develop and how they produce motion in the helicopter. The following sections describe in detail the various forces produced by the helicopter blades as well as their derivation, how these forces can be manipulated to produce desired results in hovering, and how these forces translate to producing actual motion.

11.1 BLADE THEORY

Blade theory for helicopters differs from that of a fixed wing aircraft primarily in that the velocity across a helicopters blade is not constant across its length. Since it is a rotating assembly, the further a point is from the centre, the higher its rotational velocity. For a fixed wing aircraft, lift is a product of atmospheric conditions, shape of its wing, and velocity.

As the velocity is constant across the wing equation can be written:

For a helicopter, the velocity increases as distance (y) increases. The velocity is equal to the rotational speed () multiplied by the distance from the center (y). With this in mind equation becomes:

By integrating across the entire length of the blade (R) we get (for a single blade):

In vertical flight, the thrust is equal the lift. Therefore, if:

52

Then:

At this time it is also important to note that:

Where (Vi) is the velocity of the air pulled through the blades and (A) is disk area. Therefore:

This will play an important role when calculating the climb and decent, as well as the power requirements later on.

11.2 EQUATION OF MOTION:

Rotational motion of a helicopter can be described in three terms: pitch, roll, and yaw which coincide with p, q, and r respectively. These p, q, and r represent angular velocities in the x, y, and z direction respectively. These angular velocities are directly measured using three analog gyroscopes; and three accelerometers all of which are found on the inertial board. Solving for the rotational movement of the helicopter establishes three 2nd order differential equations

53

Solving these equations for M1, M2, M3, the x, y, and z direction torques, we find the forces on the helicopter which must be countered by inputs to the servo motors. These inputs will control the rotors of the helicopter and will provide an equal and opposite torque to counter the random perturbations associated with a stable hover position. In order to obtain more manageable results, the equations were linearized to obtain the following rotational velocities:

For the purposes of locating the helicopter in the inertial frame it became necessary to model the flight path of the helicopter during operation. Unlike fixed wing aircraft, the translational movement of the helicopter is necessarily coupled to the rotational motion of the helicopter. This led to three 2nd order differential equations consisting of terms for inertial matrix tensors and two Euler angle equations.

54

The linearized equations of translational motion are as follows:

In the body frame of the helicopter, the only force it will be generating is thrust, which is always in the Z direction. For this reason, the variable Z has been replaced with T, for thrust. In the body frame there are no X and Y direction forces produced by the helicopter, the only source of these forces in outside the control of the helicopter itself, for this reason they can be neglected.

11.3 THRUST APPROXIMATION

To simplify controlling the thrust of the helicopter, the rotation speed should be set at a high constant value. Unfortunately it is difficult see the effects on the thrust due to complex equation that results from balancing equations. The solution lies in approximating the equation for the coefficient of thrust.

55

11.4 BASIC CONFIGURATIONS CONSIDERD

Three basic types of test stand were considered: a flexible stand, a rigid stand with sliding and rotating joints, and a rigid stand with only rotating joints.

Flexible Stand
It is possible to design a flexible stand, which consists of rope-like constraints. The constraints would allow the helicopter to move freely within a small sphere and protect the operator and helicopter from collisions and damage. This type of system can be very inexpensive and provides a good representation of free flight near hover. However, the system does not offer any position sensing capability. Also, to provide sufficient protection and eliminate any possible interference with the rotors, the range of free motion may be very limited. This type of stand was rejected.

Sliding and Rotating Joints Stand

It may be possible to design a stand that allows as much free motion as rope constraints by using both linear joints and rotating joints. Linear joints and associated linear sensors are highly specialized and require expensive parts. Also, to make effective use of the linear joints, the kinematic design would be very time consuming. This type of stand was rejected.

Rotating Joints
Rotating joints and the required Sensors for them are readily available, inexpensive, and easy to work with. Also, as discussed in Section 2.2, helicopter controls actuate the three attitude degrees of freedom and vertical thrust only. Reproducing attitude motion will capture most of the hovering dynamics of a helicopter. Additionally, rotating joints can be configured to allow continuous motion with no hard end-stops. Finally, the kinematic design of a test stand that reproduces attitude motion is straightforward.

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ROTOR WIYH FYBAR

12 RC HELICOPTER TAIL ROTOR

The final critical component on a helicopter is its tail rotor. The purpose of this part is twofold. It allows the helicopter to yaw, to change angle of orientation with respect to its central z axis. It also cancels out the torque produced by the main rotor which allows the helicopter to hover in position without changing its heading and rotating about itself. The operation of the R/C tail rotor is identical to the full scale helicopter. Changing the angle attack of the tail rotor blades changes the lift they produce which, since the rotor is mounted horizontally, produces a thrust vector normal to the aircraft body in a direction opposite the torque produced by the main rotor.

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Figure 18:R C helicopter Tail Rotor

58

13 BLOCK DIAGRAM
13.1 TRANSMITTER:

13.2 RECIEVER:

59

COMBINED RECIEVER:

BLOCK

DIAGRAM

OF

TRANSMITTER

AND

60

14 CONCLUSION
This project set about to take the first steps in creating a helicopter capable of operating autonomously. Having thoroughly analyzed servo behavior, established equations of motion, and created a control scheme capable of allowing an R/C helicopter to move to any given destination in a smooth and controlled manner, the team deems this project a success. As with any technical undertaking, there is still work that can be done to achieve autonomous flight. The team has done all it can in the development of an autonomous helicopter, what is left to do is implement the control scheme onto a protoboard and begin testing and optimizing the craft. In regards to a guidance system wherein the helicopter is made to track and follow an object there is considerable room for development. In order to further develop such a system, the desired position and orientation for the control loops must be derived from the output of the chosen environment imaging system. The last suggestion would be to acquire better components than those used in this project. A more powerful microcomputer would be the first choice as the calculations for dynamics and controls tax the limit of the current model without the environment imaging component. The next priority would be more sensors to provide redundancy, and thus, more accurate readings. Having made these suggestions, we are reminded of the many potential applications previously been mentioned in this report. Serving in everything from patrols to rescues, helicopters are the foundation and tool of choice for many agencies operating in a wide variety of conditions and settings. Linking all these operations is the explicit need for precision and safety; it is in this realm that autonomous flight truly excels. It is for this reason that the team has gone to such lengths in achieving this goal.

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15 BIBLIOGRAPHY

Army, US. GoArmy.com > Benefits > Pay. http://www.goarmy.com/benefits/money_basic_pay.jsp (accessed October 08, 2007) Leishman, Gordon J. Principles of Helicopter Aerodynamics, Second Edition, Cambridge University Press, New York, New York, 2006.
Seddon, J. Basic Helicopter Aerodynamics. Washington, DC, American Institute of Aeronautics and Astronautics; London, UK. Blackwell Scientific Publications, 1990

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APPENDIX

HT12E 212 Series of Encoders:

Features:
Operating voltage 2.4V~5V for the HT12A 2.4V~12V for the HT12E Low power and high noise immunity CMOS technology Low standby current: 0.1_A (typ.) at VDD=5V HT12A with a 38kHz carrier for infrared transmission medium Minimum transmission word Four words for the HT12E One word for the HT12A Built-in oscillator needs only 5% resistor Data code has positive polarity Minimal external components HT12A/E: 18-pin DIP/20-pin SOP package

Applications:
Burglar alarm system Smoke and fire alarm system Garage door controllers Car door controllers Car alarm system Security system Cordless telephones Other remote control systems

General Description:
The 212 encoders are a series of CMOS LSIs for remote control system applications. They are capable of encoding information which consists of N address bits and 12_N data bits. Each address data input can be set to one of the two logic states. The programmed addresses/data are transmitted together with the header bits via an RF or an infrared transmission medium upon receipt of a trigger signal. The capability to select a TE trigger on the HT12E or a DATA trigger on the HT12A further enhances the application flexibility of the 212 series of encoders. The HT12A additionally provides a 38 kHz carrier for infrared systems. 63

Selection Table:

Block Diagram: TE Trigger:

64

PIN ASSIGNMENT:

Pin Description:

65

Absolute Maximum Ratings:

Supply Voltage (HT12E) ...............0.3V to 13V Input Voltage....................VSS -0.3 to VDD+0.3V Storage Temperature.................-50C to 125C Operating Temperature...............-20C to 75C

Note: These are stress ratings only. Stresses exceeding the range specified under
_Absolute Maximum Ratings may cause substantial damage to the device. Functional operation of this device at other conditions beyond those listed in the specification is not implied and prolonged exposure to extreme conditions may affect device reliability.

ELECTRICAL CHARACTERSTICS:

66

OPERATION
The 212 series of encoders begin a 4-word transmission cycle upon receipt of a transmission enable (TE for the HT12E or D8~D11 for the HT12A, active low). This cycle will repeat itself as long as the transmission enable (TE or D8~D11) is held low. Once the transmission enable returns high the encoder output completes its final cycle and then stops as shown below.

67

Flowchart:

Address/data programming:
The status of each address/data pin can be individually pre-set to logic _high_ or _low_. If a transmission- enable signal is applied, the encoder scans and transmits the status of the 12 bits of address/ data serially in the order A0 to AD11 for the HT12E encoder and A0 to D11 for the HT12A encoder. During information transmission these bits are transmitted with a preceding synchronization bit. If the trigger signal is not applied, the chip enters the standby mode and consumes a reduced current of less than 1_A for a supply voltage of 5V. Usual applications preset the address pins with individual security codes using DIP switches or PCB wiring, while the data is selected by push buttons or electronic switches.

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69

HT12D

DECODER

70

71

72

73

74

75

76

77

78

79

80