Goldspring High School Agricultural System Class SS1 WK7 2011/2012 Academic Session

Integumentary System Types of Bird Feathers Feathers have evolved to serve a variety of functions --flight, heat conservation, waterproofing, camouflage, and display. Each feather consists of a tapering shaft bearing a flexible vane on either side. The exposed base of the shaft is called the calamus or quill. If viewed by cross section, the calamus is round and hollow. An opening at the bottom of the calamus, called the lower umbilicus, allows blood to enter the young feather during its short growth period. When its growth is completed, the feather is sealed off and, although it may be moved by a separate muscle situated in the skin, the feather itself is "dead." The stiff shaft running through the center of each feather is called a rachis, and the inner and outer vanes carried by the rachis are composed of a row of barbs, arranged side by side. Each barb in turn contains many tiny branches, set side by side, called barbules. Six types of feathers shown above are contour, semiflumes, filoplumes, down, powder down and bristle.

Bird Flight Feathers When you examine a contour feather you will find that the barbs are stuck together, forming a smooth surface. This is accomplished by tiny hooks on the barbules that interlock with the barbules of the adjoining barb, linking them together. If the barbules are disrupted, the bird can simply pass its bill though the feather to link them once again. The contour feathers used for flight are known asremiges andrectrices, can be divided into three groups: primaries, secondaries and tertiaries. The primary feathers propel the bird through the air.

They are the largest of the flight feathers and are the farthest away from the body, attached to the skin of the wing on the "hand." In most bird species there are 10 primary feathers on each wing. If these flight feathers are damaged or lost, a bird cannot fly. The secondary flight feathers run along the "arm" of the wing and sustain the bird in the air, giving it lift. The number of secondary feathers varies a great deal among the species. Birds that perch have 9 or 1o secondaries, but some species of grouse have as many as 20. Experiments have proven that if half of the secondaries are removed, a bird will still be able to fly, but some control will be lost. The Tertiaries are the few flight feathers and the numbers vary among species. The other main group of flight feathers are the tail feathers, or rectrices. The rectrices are mainly concerned with steering and balancing; they are used as a rudder, allowing the bird to twist and turn in flight. In addition,

these feathers act as an efficient brake prior to landing. The number of rectrices varies among species, but is usually between 10 and 12.

Semiplume Bird Feathers

In appearance, semiplumes fall between contour feathers and down feathers, combining a large rachis with downy vanes. Semiplumes are distinguished from down feathers in that the rachis is longer than the longest barbs. They fill in or smooth out the various contours of a bird's body while insulating it, and they also provide flexibility at constricted areas, such as the base of the wings. Semiplumes are usually hidden beneath the contour feathers and are small and often white.

Filoplume Bird Feathers

Filoplumes are always situated beside other feathers. They are simple, hairlike structures that grow in circles around the base of contour or down feathers. They usually stand up like hairs, and are made up of a thin rachis with a few short barbs of barbules at the tip. Filoplumes are generally smaller than semiplumes and are on half to three fourths of the length of the covering contour feathers. The origins of filoplumes is currently under debate. Some ornithologists disagree with the theory that filoplumes are degenerate contour feathers and believe instead that they are sensitive structures that assist in the nerve endings in the follicle. It is therefore quite possible the filoplumes play a key role in keeping contours in place during preening, display, and flight.

Down and Powder Down Bird Feathers

Down feathers make up the underplumage of a bird. They are usually concealed beneath the contour feathers, and their main function appears to be insulation against the cold weather. Each down feather has a quill and a soft head of fluffy barbs, but there are no barbules and the barbs are not "zipped" together as they are in contour feathers. These feathers are especially numerous in ducks and other water birds. In some species of water birds the adults pluck down feathers from their beasts and use them to line the nest and keep the eggs warm. Chicks of some species are covered with down when they hatch. Powder down feathers help insulate the bird. Unlike other feathers, powder downs grow continuously. Instead of being molted, their tips disintegrate into a powdery substance. These feathers grow in dense, yellowish patches on the breast, belly,or flanks of herons and bitterns. In other birds powder down feathers are more thinly scattered throughout the plumage. Many ornithologists believe that in water birds the powder serves to soak up water, blood, and slime, thus protecting the feathers and making preening easier.

Bristle Bird Feathers

Not all species of birds have bristle feathers. Bristles are specialized feathers that are believed to perform a tactile function. They have a stiff, tapered rachis and few, if any barbs that appear only at the base of the feather. Bristles are usually found on the head or neck, often around the mouth or eyelids. In some insect eaters, bristles found on the face and around the mouth are thought by ornithologists to act as funnels, helping the birds to scoop insects out of the air. Long facial bristles in owls, who tend to be farsighted, are thought to aid the bird in sensing nearby objects. Woodpeckers have bristle feathers over their nostrils, where it is thought that they act as a filter for the dust produced as they drill holes in trees.

Goldsprings High School Agricultural Science Class: SS1 WK9 2nd Term 2011/2012

Digestive System of Farm Animals

Digestion is a process by which complex food substances are broken down by mechanical, enzyme and bacterial activities into simple soluble compounds. In simple terms, the digestive system is a portal for nutrients to gain access to the circulatory system. Foodstuffs are broken down to very simple molecules. Resulting sugars, amino acids, fatty acids, etc. are then transported across the GI tract lining into blood The specific foodstuffs animals are able to utilize is dependent on the type of digestive system they possess Three (3) basic types of digestive systems: 1. Monogastric simple stomach e.g. pig, chicken, turkey, dog, cat. etc 2. Ruminant (cranial fermentor) multi-compartmented stomach e.g. goat, sheep, deer, cattle, etc 3. Hind gut (caudal) fermentor simple stomach, but very large and complex large intestine e.g. rabbit, horse, ostrich, etc

Basic

Functional

Anatomy

of

the

Digestive

System

Monogastrics

1. Mouth : Mechanical breakdown of foodstuffs by chewing (reduces particle size, increases surface area for action of enzymes-ptyalin). Saliva added as a lubricant and, in some species, contains amylase to begin starch digestion 2. Esophagus Tube connecting the mouth to the stomach. Food substances move through peristalsis. 3. Stomach: Enzymatic digestion of proteins begins. Foodstuffs reduced to liquid form (chyme) 4. Liver Center of metabolic activity in the body. Major role in digestive process is to provide bile salts to small intestine (needed for digestion and absorption of fats-emulsification. 5. Pancreas\; Provides a potent mixture of digestive enzymes to the small intestine to help in digestion of fats, carbohydrates, and proteins.

6. Small Intestine:3 sections duodenum, jejunum, ileum Site of final stages of chemical enzymatic digestion. Where almost all nutrients are absorbed 7. Large Intestine:3 sections Caecum, colon, rectum. Site of water absorption from G.I. tract. Bacterial fermentation occurs (production and absorption of volatile fatty acids). Somewhat limited in monogastrics. Faeces are formed.

Digestive System in Poultry

Specialized Organs in Poultry 1. Beak: No lips, no teeth, and no chewing. 2. Crop: Out-pocketing of the esophagus that provides temporary storage for consumed food. Foodstuffs are moistened and softened (little if any digestion). 3. Proventriculus; Glandular stomach where the first significant amount of digestive juices are added. 4. Gizzard: A muscular organ used to grind and break up food. May contain grit (small stones) eaten by animal. 5. Cloaca Common chamber into which the digestive, urinary, and reproductive tracts open. When fecal material is excreted, the cloaca folds back at the vent allowing the rectal opening of the large intestine to push out, closing the reproductive tract opening

Digestive process in Monogastric Farm Animals-Enzymes

Goldsprings High School Agricultural Science Class: SS1 WK 10 2nd Term 2011/2012 Session

Ruminants or Cranial Fomenters

Organs Ruminants

of

the

Digestive

System

Mouth, esophagus, liver, pancreas, gall bladder, small intestine, and large intestine have functions similar to monogastrics A. Stomach: Structure and function of the stomach is the major difference between monogastrics and ruminants. Multi-compartmented stomach rumen, reticulum, omasum, abomasums Rumen: Houses microorganisms. Protozoa 100,000 per gram of rumen fluid. Bacteria/fungi 100 million per gram of rumen fluid. Functions of microorganisms. Digest roughages to make Volatile Fatty Acids (VFAs), make microbial protein, and make vitamins K and B-complex. VFA is absorbed in rumen which is lined with millions of papillae (short projections on wall of rumen) needed for absorption. Rumination: Ruminants are well known for cud chewing. Rumination involves: a. Bolus of previously eaten foodstuff carried back into the mouth by reverse peristalsis. b. Fluid in bolus is squeezed out with the tongue and reswallowed. Bolus is re-chewed and re-swallowed c. Rumination may occupy about 1/3 of a ruminants day Eructation (belching): 1. Fermentation of foodstuffs in the rumen generates enormous quantities of gas. 30-50 liters per hour in adult cattle. 5-7 liters per hour in adult sheep or goats. 2. Belching is how ruminants get rid of fermentation gases: Anything that causes a hindrance to belching can be life threatening. Bloating can result in death from asphyxiation or lack of oxygen

Recticulum: Lining has a honeycomb structure. Catches and holds hardware consumed by animal. Hardware can be removed with rumen magnate.

1. Omasum:A heavy, hard organ with a lining that has many folds (leaves). Function not well understood. Believed to produce a grinding action on foodstuffs. May absorb residual VFAs and bicarbonate.

Abomasum:
The true, glandular stomach. Secretes acids and functions very similarly to monogastric stomach. Unique feature is that it secretes lysozyme. An enzyme that efficiently breaks down bacterial cell walls. Needed to break down the large quantities of bacteria that pass from the rumen.

Digestive Process Ruminants

Caudal fermentors

Mouth, oesophagus, stomach, liver, pancreas, gall bladder, and small intestine have similar functions as compared to monogastrics.

Large Intestine 1. Major difference between monogastrics and hind gut fermentors is the large intestine 2. Large intestine is exceptionally large and complex compared to monogastrics and ruminants. 3. The large intestine of hind gut fermentors is analogous to the rumen in ruminants. 4. Large, anaerobic fermentation vat. 5. Microbes digest structural carbohydrates (cellulose, hemicellulose) and soluble carbohydrates that escape digestion in small intestine to VFAs. VFAs absorbed from large intestine and utilized by the animal. 6. Microbial protein produced in large intestine is wasted (only very limited absorption from large intestine).

Digestive Process- enzyme and bacterial breakdown.