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MASTER'S THESIS
Clas Persson
Lule University of Technology MSc Programmes in Engineering Mechanical Engineering Department of Applied Physics and Mechanical Engineering Division of Energy Engineering
2008:132 CIV - ISSN: 1402-1617 - ISRN: LTU-EX--08/132--SE
Preface
This thesis is the work conducted by Clas Persson at Hoare Lea Consulting. I would like to thank the following people. Phil Dow for letting me write my master thesis at Hoare Lea Consulting. James Ford my supervisor and mentor at Hoare Lea Consulting for always taking time to answer questions and continuously helping out with the report. I would also like to thank my girlfriend and my family in Sweden for their support.
Abstract
This thesis will investigate the option to implement onsite renewable and efficient energy systems in an urban area in the UK. This is in order to lower the carbon dioxide emissions for a residential scheme that is being developed at the Lots Road site in London. The energy strategy target for the Lots Road site is to achieve a 50% reduction in carbon dioxide emissions compared to utilizing fossil fuelled energy. Energy system studies and a Lots Road site investigation were made in order to gain understanding of the energy generation process and where they could be placed onsite. Then an evaluation of the energy systems carbon dioxide emissions and energy outputs were carried out with the purpose of finding suitable systems for the Lots Road site. From the energy system evaluation biomass, combined heat and power, solar water heating and photovoltaic were selected as being suitable energy systems to be used at the Lots Road site. The thesis shows that there are several options that could be implemented into the energy strategy to achieve the 50% reduction target. The final option is to use biomass fuel for thermal energy generation. It will be burnt in biomass boilers in two energy centres on the Lots Road site. The biomass boilers will be utilized to deliver the major part of the sites thermal demand. It will be used together with on site roof based solar water heating panels. The panels will help to deliver thermal energy for the site. Roof based photovoltaic (PV) panels will also be put in place to deliver electricity and will together with green roofs be used as sustainable design features. The final option will achieve a carbon dioxide reduction of 54.5%. The use of biomass boilers, solar water heating and photovoltaic panels at the Lots Road site are the most suitable energy strategy options. This is because the selected renewable energies reduce the sites carbon dioxide emissions and are available on sites across the UK.
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Table of Content
Preface ................................................................................................................................... I Abstract ................................................................................................................................. II Table of Content ...................................................................................................................III 1. INTRODUCTION ..............................................................................................................1 1.1 Current situation ...........................................................................................................1 1.2 Project Objectives .........................................................................................................2 2. Methodology and Problem description ................................................................................3 3. THE LOTS ROAD SITE ....................................................................................................5 3.1 The Site ........................................................................................................................6 3.2 Overview North and South side.................................................................................7 3.3 Rule of Thumb ..........................................................................................................8 3.4 Energy demand and emissions ..................................................................................9 3.4.1 Energy demand ......................................................................................................9 3.4.2 Carbon dioxide emissions.......................................................................................9 4. Energy systems .................................................................................................................10 4.1 Biomass ......................................................................................................................11 4.1.1 Carbon efficiency .................................................................................................11 4.1.2 Urban placement ..................................................................................................11 4.1.3 Planning permission .............................................................................................11 4.1.4 Availability ..........................................................................................................12 4.1.5 Cost .....................................................................................................................12 4.2 Biomass Combined Heat and Power (CHP) ................................................................13 4.2.1 Carbon efficiency .................................................................................................13 4.2.2 Urban placement ..................................................................................................13 4.2.3 Planning permission .............................................................................................13 4.2.4. Availability .........................................................................................................14 4.2.5 Cost .....................................................................................................................14 4.3 Combined Heat and Power (CHP)...............................................................................15 4.3.1 Carbon efficiency .................................................................................................15 4.3.2 Urban placement ..................................................................................................15 4.3.3 Planning permission .............................................................................................15 4.3.4 Availability ..........................................................................................................16 4.3.5 Cost .....................................................................................................................16 4.4 Ground Source Heating (GSH) ...................................................................................17 4.4.1 Carbon efficiency .................................................................................................17 4.4.2 Urban placement ..................................................................................................17 4.4.3 Planning permission .............................................................................................17 4.4.4 Availability ..........................................................................................................18 4.4.5. Cost ....................................................................................................................18 4.5 Photovoltaic (PV) .......................................................................................................19 4.5.1 Carbon efficiency .................................................................................................19 4.5.2 Urban placement ..................................................................................................19 4.5.3 Planning permission .............................................................................................20 4.5.4 Availability ..........................................................................................................20 4.5.5 Cost .....................................................................................................................20 4.6 Solar Water Heating (SWH)........................................................................................21 4.6.1 Carbon efficiency .................................................................................................21 III
4.6.2 Urban placement ..................................................................................................21 4.6.3 Planning permission .............................................................................................21 4.6.4 Availability ..........................................................................................................22 4.6.5 Cost .....................................................................................................................22 4.7 Wind power ................................................................................................................23 4.7.1 Carbon efficiency .................................................................................................23 4.7.2 Urban placement ..................................................................................................23 4.7.3 Planning permission .............................................................................................23 4.7.4 Availability ..........................................................................................................24 4.7.5 Cost .....................................................................................................................24 5 Evaluations and system selections..................................................................................25 5.1 Evaluation Matrixes ....................................................................................................26 5.2 Energy system evaluation ...........................................................................................29 5.2.1 Wind power .........................................................................................................29 5.2.2 Biomass ...............................................................................................................30 5.2.3 Combined Heat and Power ...................................................................................31 5.2.4 Biomass CHP .......................................................................................................32 5.2.5 Solar Water Heating .............................................................................................33 5.2.6 Photovoltaic .........................................................................................................34 5.2.7 Ground Source Heating ........................................................................................35 5.3 Energy system selection ..............................................................................................36 5.3.1 Discussion............................................................................................................36 5.4 Energy centre ..............................................................................................................37 5.4.1 Energy system evaluation for an energy centre. ....................................................37 5.5 Sustainable design systems .....................................................................................38 5.5.1 Selection of sustainable design systems ................................................................38 5.6 Site evaluation ............................................................................................................39 5.6.1.1 Direction ...........................................................................................................39 5.6.1.2 Architectural Drawings Block JJ .......................................................................40 5.6.2 Block HH .............................................................................................................41 5.6.2.1 Direction ...........................................................................................................42 5.6.2.2 Architectural Drawings Block HH .....................................................................42 5.6.3 Block GG .............................................................................................................44 5.6.3.2 Architectural Drawings Block GG .....................................................................45 5.6.4 Block FF ..............................................................................................................46 5.6.4.2 Architectural Drawings Block FF ......................................................................47 5.6.5 Block AA to EE ...................................................................................................49 5.6.5.2 Architectural Drawings Block EE......................................................................50 5.6.5.4 Architectural Drawings Block DD .....................................................................52 5.6.5.6 Architectural Drawings Block CC .....................................................................54 5.6.5.8 Architectural Drawings Block BB .....................................................................56 5.6.5.10 Architectural Drawings Block AA ...................................................................58 6 Energy Strategy .............................................................................................................60 6.1 Lots Road Energy demand ..........................................................................................60 6.2 Energy Strategy Option A ...........................................................................................61 6.2.1 Evaluation Option A ............................................................................................62 6.2.2 Advantages and Disadvantages of Option A .........................................................63 6.2.4 Option A energy distribution ................................................................................65 6.2.5 Decision ...............................................................................................................66 6.3 Reviewing Option A ...................................................................................................67 IV
6.4 Option B .....................................................................................................................68 6.4.1 The final recommendation ....................................................................................68 6.4.2 Biomass ...............................................................................................................69 6.4.3 Solar water heating...............................................................................................70 6.4.4 Control of delivered thermal energy .....................................................................70 6.4.5 Photovoltaic .........................................................................................................71 6.4.6 Control of delivered electrical energy ...................................................................71 6.4.7 Backup .................................................................................................................72 6.4.8 Target 50 % CO2 reduction ...................................................................................73 6.4.9 Placement of energy systems on the Lots Road site ..............................................74 7 Schematics and Drawings ..............................................................................................77 7.1 Legend Explanation ................................................................................................80 7.2 Schematics Explanation ..........................................................................................81 7.2.1 Solar water heating...............................................................................................81 7.2.2 Biomass and gas boilers .......................................................................................82 7.3 Drawings ....................................................................................................................83 7.3.1 Explanation of electrical distribution ....................................................................83 7.3.2 Explanation of thermal distribution ......................................................................84 7.3.3 Explanation of residential unit connection ............................................................85 9 Discussion .........................................................................................................................86 10 Conclusion ......................................................................................................................88 List of Figures ..................................................................................................................89 List of Tables. ...............................................................................................................90 References ........................................................................................................................91 Appendix A1-A1.7 & A2-A2.2: Energy Systems & Sustainable Design Systems..93 Appendix B1-B10.7: Calculations & Technical Data.....165
1. INTRODUCTION
1.1 Current situation
When earth absorbs the energy delivered from the sun it emits thermal energy and this is what heats the atmosphere. Carbon dioxide is a greenhouse gas and it helps to keep the earths surface warm because it traps thermal energy, similar to a greenhouse, trying to leave the atmosphere. Greenhouse gases in the atmosphere are increasing and one reason to the increase are the carbon dioxide emissions from burning fossil fuel. [1] Increase of greenhouse gas to the atmosphere will raise the temperature in the atmosphere and will therefore add to global warming. This can disturb earths eco system and is a global problem. [2] The UK is now trying to decrease its emission of carbon dioxide into the atmosphere. One major part of carbon dioxide emissions in the UK are from fossil fuelled energy providing heat and electricity to buildings. Buildings are responsible for 50 % of the carbon dioxide emissions in the UK. [3] In order to decrease emissions the building regulation target are set to a 20% carbon dioxide reduction from 2002 standards for new dwelling developments.[4] New developments in London also have guidelines from the London planning toolkit and from the Mayor of Londons energy strategy. This is to make London more energy efficient and to lower Londons carbon dioxide emissions. Londons energy consumption is currently higher then Irelands. [5] The Lots Road site is a residential scheme being developed in London and has approximately 700 residential flats. The energy strategy will provide heat and electricity to the residents with significant reduction in carbon dioxide emissions compared to fossil fuelled energy. This will decrease the greenhouse gas released into the atmosphere. One alternative to achieve this is by renewable energies. Renewable energies do not add to the increase of greenhouse gas to the atmosphere. There are several different types of renewable energies such as photovoltaic, biomass and wind power. Another alternative to increase energy efficiency and decrease emissions is to use combined heat and power (CHP). Natural gas fired CHP will provide carbon dioxide emission savings and increase energy efficiency. Renewable energy fuelled CHP exists but is still a relatively new technology in the UK. As mentioned there are several energy systems to choose from but unfortunately urban areas such as the Lots Road site are limited with renewable energy resources, for example the amount of sunlight and wind speed available. This reduces the possibility to harvest renewable energy onsite. The task for this thesis is to recommend an energy strategy so the Lots Road site will have low carbon dioxide emissions by utilizing a feasible substitute to fossil fuelled energy.
The primary objective is achieved: When there is reduction in carbon dioxide emissions of 50%, compared to fossil fuelled energy generation. When the energy systems selected for the Lots Road site are well known technologies implemented in urban areas across the UK.
Site Examination
Final Recommendation
System Configuration
Add floors to buildings. Determine best usage of all internal area. Add buildings over ground as long as they are not directly connected to any of the blocks and space, on the site, is available. Add buildings under ground they can be connected to block or blocks as long as space is available.
Can Not Raise new buildings for residential, office or retail purpose. Remove any of the proposed blocks for the site. Add floors to blocks under ground for residential, office or retail purpose. Add floors to blocks over ground.
North side: Block JJ South side: Block AA Block DD Block BB Block EE Block CC Block FF Block HH Block GG
The site is divided into two sides with a creek separating the North and South side. The creek leads out to river Thames and has two towers each side of the creek. The North side consists of the Power Station (Block JJ), Block HH and the North tower (Block GG). The south side consists of the South tower (Block FF) and five residential blocks with Block EE next to the tower and Block AA located where the creek narrows.
N W E S
Block AA
Block BB
Block CC
Block DD
Block EE
Block FF
N W E S
The calculation from equation 1 shows that the yearly energy demand would be 12000 kWh. If residential flats are using comfort cooling the electricity demand was estimated to 50kWh/m2/year. The comfort cooling rule of thumb was also provided from Hoare Lea Consulting [8]. The energy demand for retail areas on the Lots Road site were calculated from rule of thumbs provided by the London planning toolkit [9].The thermal demand was 65kWh/m2/year and the electricity demand was 234kWh/m2/year. The high electrical demand, compared to residential units is due to the high usage of air conditioning (AC). For office areas the rule of thumbs was also provided from the London planning toolkit [9]. They were for the thermal demand 97kWh/m2/year and for the electrical demand 128kWh/m2/year. The blocks energy demand are shown in appendix B9 on pages 187-191.
The gas boiler efficiency is determined to 78% and will therefore increase the thermal CO2 emissions. The efficiency data is from the notional building data in SAP 2005 [10]. Carbon dioxide conversion factors to calculate the emissions are provided from BSRIA. It is for natural gas 0.194(CO2 kg/kWh) [11] and for electricity from the grid 0.4222(CO2 kg/kWh) [12]. The emission conversion factors are multiplied with the energy demand per year to get the kg CO2 emitted per year. The total carbon dioxide emissions are calculated by multiplying the conversion factors with the thermal and the electrical demand. (8500000(kWh/year) / 0.78) x 0.194(CO2kg/kWh) + 4500000(kWh/year) x 0.4222(CO2kg/kWh) = 4013102.564 CO2 kg/year Equation (2)
The project objective target is to achieve a 50% reduction in carbon dioxide emissions. From Equation (2) a 50% reduction is approximately 2000 ton/year CO2.
4. Energy systems
The following are brief descriptions of different energy systems. Each energy system has a short system description and sections of Carbon dioxide (CO2) efficiency, Urban placement, Planning permission, Availability and Cost. Below are brief explanations of the different sections. Carbon dioxide reduction is investigated for the energy systems. The carbon dioxide emission reduction is calculated from replacing approximately 20% of the sites total energy usage with the evaluated energy system. The reduction is shown in the Carbon dioxide section for each system. Utilizing 20% of renewable energies on the Lots Road site is a realistic energy target and has been chosen here only as an example to compare carbon dioxide savings for the different energies. The energy systems are evaluated on if they are difficult or easy to implement in an urban area. The evaluation considers for example system physical size compared to the energy output achieved. The evaluation is carried out in the Urban placement section. It is important with well established and available energy systems when implementing them onsite because it increases reliability and lowers the need for backup. The Availability section evaluates how established the energy systems are in the UK. In order to develop a scheme it is essential to get planning permission. The Planning permission section investigates the possibility for an energy system to get planning permission. Cost is not of a high priority to this report but the capital cost is calculated for a set energy output for all energy systems. The cost can be seen in the Cost section for each energy system and the calculations are shown in appendix B5 on page 173. The energy output, 1500MWh/year, is chosen here only for cost comparisons between the different energy systems. The selection of 1500MWh/year is on the basis that any selected energy output per year will have the same outcome. For example if PV has the highest capital cost for 1500MWh/year it will have the highest cost for any selected energy output per year. The energy systems chosen, explained and evaluated here are the ones that are the most suitable for the Lots Road site. More energy systems have been evaluated and excluded from this section they are shown in appendix A1.7 on pages 146-150.
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4.1 Biomass
Biomass can be utilized to generate heat and are considered to be a renewable energy source. In this thesis the carbon dioxide emissions released during combustion are the carbon dioxide absorbed from photosynthesis so the net emission for biomass is zero. Biomass is bio organic material that is being processed to generate thermal energy (heat). There are solid and wet biomass fuels for example solid fuel like woodchips and willow or wet fuel in form of methane extracted from anaerobic digestion. Solid fuel burnt in biomass boilers are considered more viable in urban areas then using wet fuel. This is because solid fuel does not need processing before usage and it is easier to transport. For example, methane needs to be extracted from bio waste in anaerobic digestion and transported in a sealed tank or via a pipeline to the site before it can be utilized as fuel. More information is shown the biomass section in appendix A1.1 on pages 93-99.
boilers it should be design to be as unobtrusive as possible in order to obtain planning permission [13]. It will require an external flue that will terminate above the roof of the building.
4.1.4 Availability
Biomass is considered available and established from the research in this thesis and there are biomass boilers currently providing energy for buildings onsite. For example in Barnsley council where biomass is heating over 166 flats from a 470 kW wood fuelled heating scheme. [14]
4.1.5 Cost
The energy output of 1500MWh/year is chosen here only for cost comparison between the energy systems. The capital cost for implementing biomass is then 140, 000. The cost comparison matrix is shown in Table 3 and the cost calculations are shown in appendix B5 on page 173.
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4.2.4. Availability
Biomass CHP is the only energy system that is not considered available from the research carried out in this thesis it is however utilized on the continent in countries like Austria and Germany [16]. From the biomass CHP investigation there are only test plants located in urban areas [17] in the UK providing heat and power for residents. This is why biomass CHP is considered as a new technology to provide onsite energy in urban areas. Even though biomass CHP is starting to be utilized more it is for example decided that it will be implemented at Heathrow airport in terminal five. [18]
4.2.5 Cost
The energy output of 1500MWh/year is chosen here only for cost comparison between the energy systems. The capital cost for implementing biomass CHP is then 380, 800. The cost comparison matrix is shown in Table 3 and the cost calculations are shown in appendix B5 on page 173.
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4.3.4 Availability
CHP is considered available and established from the research in this thesis. There are CHP systems currently working efficiently delivering heat and power onsite to residents. For example in Bristol in the Barton hill community scheme. [19]
4.3.5 Cost
The energy output of 1500MWh/year is chosen here only for cost comparison between the energy systems. The capital cost for implementing CHP is then 180, 000. The cost comparison matrix is shown in Table 3 and the cost calculations are shown in appendix B5 on page 173.
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4.4.4 Availability
GSH is considered available and established from the research in this thesis. There are GSH systems currently providing heat to residents in UK for example to Braddock house in Nottingham. [21]
4.4.5. Cost
The energy output of 1500MWh/year is chosen here only for cost comparison between the energy systems. The capital cost for implementing GSH is then 900, 000 The cost comparison matrix is shown in Table 3 and the cost calculations are shown in appendix B5.3 on page 173
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4.5.4 Availability
Photovoltaic is considered available and established from the research in this thesis. There are PV systems currently working efficiently providing electricity in the UK for example to Bronllys Hospital in Powys, Wales. [22]
4.5.5 Cost
The energy output of 1500MWh/year is chosen here only for cost comparison between the energy systems. The capital cost for implementing PV is then 13, 600, 000 The cost comparison matrix is shown in Table 3 and the cost calculations are shown in appendix B5 on page 173.
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4.6.4 Availability
Solar water heating is considered available and established from the research in this thesis. There are SWH systems currently working efficiently providing heat to buildings in UK for example SWH panels are placed on Ballyclare [23].
4.6.5 Cost
The energy output of 1500MWh/year is chosen here only for cost comparison between the energy systems. The capital cost for implementing SWH is then 1, 200, 000. The cost comparison matrix is shown in Table 3 and the cost calculations are shown in appendix B5 on page 173.
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Wind turbines as mentioned takes up space over ground and can be noisy. They can also produce a flickering shadow from rotating turbine blades which could be irritating for the residents. There have not been thorough evaluations to determine if planning permission for wind turbines is possible at the Lots Road site. It is for this thesis considered difficult because of all the factors mentioned above.
4.7.4 Availability
Wind power is considered available and established from the research in this thesis. There are wind power systems currently providing power in UK for example to the Antrim area hospital in Northern Ireland [26].
4.7.5 Cost
The energy output of 1500MWh/year is chosen here only for cost comparison between the energy systems.. The capital cost for implementing wind power is then 1, 140, 000 The cost comparison matrix is shown in Table 3 and the cost calculations are shown in appendix B5 on page 173.
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50%
4740 MWh/year
120 x 15 kW
For 15 kW wind turbines there will have to be 120 units to meet the energy output
Biomass
50%
8041 MWh/year
3655 kW
The boilers are assumed to run 2200 hours per year. This means there can be two 1830 kW boilers to meet the energy output
CHP
50%
24390 MWh/year
2134 kWe
CHP with an efficiency of 80% and a power to heat ratio of 1:1.286. Assumed to work 5000 hours annually
Biomass CHP
50%
6164 MWh/year
540 kWe
Biomass CHP with efficiency of 80% and a power to heat ratio of 1:1.286. Assumed to work 5000 hours annually
SWH
50%
8041.02 MWh/year
PV
50%
47340 MWh/year
GSH
50%
13964 MWh/year
9309 kW
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The energy system matrix shows that in order to achieve the 50% CO2 reduction it is easy to waste energy or size the energy system incorrectly. The numbers coloured in red in the energy matrix are incorrectly sized systems or where energy will be wasted. For example to reach the 50% CO2 reduction for CHP it will have to deliver 24390 MWh/year which is a lot higher then the Lots Road site energy demand of 13000MWh/year . This will be evaluated further in the 5.2 energy system evaluation section.
The CO2 reduction matrix below is showing the carbon dioxide reduction of several different energy systems when generating 20 % of the energy demand at the Lot Road site.
CO2 reduction matrix Carbon reduction 27,4 %
Enery output Wind Power 2600 MWh/year (20 % of site demand) 2600 MWh/year (20 % of site demand) 2600 MWh/year (20 % of site demand) 2600 MWh/year (20 % of site demand) 2600 MWh/year (20 % of site demand) 2600 MWh/year (20 % of site demand) 2600 MWh/year (20 % of site demand)
Biomass
16,2 %
CHP
5,3 %
Biomass CHP
21,1 %
SWH
16,2 %
PV
27,4 %
GSH
9,3 %
The CO2 reduction matrix above shows an energy system carbon reduction comparison when delivering 2600 MWh/year. For example wind power and photovoltaic are the two energy systems that have the highest carbon dioxide reduction for the selected energies. This is evaluated further in the 5.2 energy system evaluation section.
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Capital cost matrix Capital cost (1500 MWh/year) 1,140,000 140,000 180,000 380,800 1,200,000 13,601,360 900,000
Cost / kW Wind Power Biomass CHP Biomass CHP SWH PV GSH 2000 /kWe 200 /kWt 1000 /kWt 2720 /kWe 1460 /kWt 400 /m^2 2482 /kWe 850 /m^2 800 /kWt
Table 3 showing the cost matrix, Note: kilo Watt electricity (kWe), kilo Watt thermal energy (kWt)
The capital cost matrix above shows a capital cost comparison for the different energy systems when producing 1500MWh/year and an estimated /kW installed for the different energy systems. It can for example be seen that photovoltaic have the highest capital cost of the selected renewable energy systems. This is evaluated further in the 5.2 energy system evaluation section.
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Decision: Wind power will not be selected for the Lots Road site because: Reaching the 50 % target while implementing hundred and twenty turbines is unrealistic. Planning permission is difficult to achieve Expensive compared to other renewable technologies
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5.2.2 Biomass
The carbon dioxide reduction target of 50% can be achieved from biomass with one 3655 kW boiler or for example with two smaller 1830 kW boilers. The thermal energy delivered from biomass can be used to deliver part of the sites thermal demand. From evaluating the carbon reduction matrix biomass reduces carbon dioxide emissions not as much as wind power but significantly more then none renewable energy sources such as CHP. The capital cost matrix shows that the lowest cost to implement an energy system is for biomass boilers. More information on biomass fuel and cost are shown in appendix A1.1 on pages 93-99 in the biomass section. From the biomass section biomass is currently in use and getting planning permission can be obtained when designed to be unobtrusive for the residents. Decision: Biomass will be selected for the Lots Road site because: Reaching the 50 % target with biomass is realistic It is available and planning permission is seemed possible to achieve It has the lowest cost to implement
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Decision: CHP will be selected for the Lots Road site because: Reaching the 50 % target with CHP is seemed unrealistic but it can be used for CO2 savings It is available and planning permission is seemed possible to achieve
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Decision: Biomass CHP is only considered as a future option it will not be selected for the Lots Road site because: Biomass CHP is not seen available for this report It is one of the most expensive renewable technology (/kW) to implement
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5.2.6 Photovoltaic
The carbon dioxide reduction target of 50% can be achieved from photovoltaic panels with 50553 m2 of panel. From evaluating the roof space on Lots Road this is unrealistic there are not 50553 m2 roof available. From evaluating the carbon reduction matrix the reduction for photovoltaic is as high as for wind power. From the capital cost matrix photovoltaic is the most expensive energy system to implement. From the PV availability and planning permission sections PV is available and planning permission can be obtained. Decision: PV will be selected for the Lots Road site but only to be implemented in small amounts this is because: Carbon dioxide savings for PV is high The capital cost is high and the efficiency (W/m2) is low.
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5.3.1 Discussion
From the energy system evaluation the energy systems that will be selected for the Lots Road site are Biomass, CHP or SWH. Biomass and CHP can be used separately or together with other technologies. Solar water heating is only considered with other energy systems to meet the thermal energy demand. This is because of the limitation of roof space and that SWH do not have a good winter performance. Photovoltaic is also chosen to be implemented because it is a suitable renewable energy technology generating electricity and it will be utilized as a visual sustainable design feature. The future option is to use Biomass CHP it is an interesting option to use in urban areas. It has all the advantages of CHP and is a renewable technology. It can not be recommended for this thesis since there is no biomass CHP working sufficiently in UK urban areas except for test plants providing heat and power for residents. More information on energy systems can be seen in appendix A1 on pages 93-150.
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5.6.1.1 Direction
Creek
South Side
River Thames
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It is important to know the direction of the building in order to evaluate where and if renewable energies can be used, for example placement of solar water heating on the roof. JJ is the front view it is shown below in the architectural drawings.
The old power station will be turned in to dwellings with approximately 237 units. There will also be a small part of retailing and offices in the building. The Power Stations is here shown in different views.
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The Power station is approximately 135 meters long and 55 meter wide.
5.6.2 Block HH
Block HH has a flat roof and one option is to place SWH or PV panels flat on the roof or arrange the panels in an angle for higher efficiency. Photovoltaic is not considered suitable to be put on the faade because it lowers the PV panel efficiency. Planting green roof on block HH would provide heat gain protection and is a visual sustainable design solution. Small biomass boilers and CHP units placed in the basement could be a suitable suggestion to provide energy to block HH. Obstacles are that CHP is more favourable when there is a high yearly heat demand and that if biomass boilers are utilized there needs to be sufficient space for biomass fuel storage. See the biomass and CHP section in appendix A1.1 & A1.2 on pages 93-110 for more energy system details.
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5.6.2.1 Direction
H H
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5.6.3 Block GG
Block GG is the north tower and the tower roof is in a 45 angle facing southwest. Solar water heating or photovoltaic panels could work efficiently placed on the roof. Green roofs could be planted on Block GG but the steep angle of the north tower roof is considered as an obstacle. Small biomass boilers and CHP units placed in the basement could be a suitable suggestion to provide energy to block GG. Obstacles are that CHP is more favourable when there is a high yearly heat demand and that if biomass boilers are utilized there needs to be sufficient space for biomass fuel storage. See the biomass and CHP section in appendix A1.1 & A1.2 on pages 93-110 for more energy system details.
5.6.3.1 Direction
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5.6.4 Block FF
Block FF is the south tower and the tower roof is in a 45 angle facing northeast. Solar water heating and photovoltaic panels are not considered suitable for Block FF. The direction of the roof makes the efficiency of SWH and PV to low. See appendix A1.4 & A1.5 on pages 123136 for more detail about SWH and PV efficiency. Photovoltaic panels placed on the faade lowers the PV panel efficiency compared to roof mounted panels. It could be placed on block FF on the facade for public awareness since the roof is not suitable for SWH or PV panels. Green roof is not considered suitable for Block FF the steep angle of the south tower roof is considered as an obstacle. Small biomass boilers and CHP units placed in the basement could be a suitable suggestion to provide energy to block FF. Obstacles are that CHP is more favourable when there is a high yearly heat demand and that if biomass boilers are utilized there needs to be sufficient space for biomass fuel storage. See the biomass and CHP section in appendix A1.1 & A1.2 on pages 93-110 for more energy system details.
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5.6.4.1 Direction
North Side
Creek
South Side
River Thames
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5.6.5 Block AA to EE
The five blocks are considered to have similar possibilities for energy generation. They all have flat roof where SWH or PV panels can be placed flat on the roof or for higher efficiency angled in a southerly direction. Photovoltaic is not considered suitable to be put on the faade because it lowers the PV panel efficiency. Planting green roof on the blocks are another solution working as thermal barrier and as a visual sustainable design feature. For the blocks AA to EE biomass boilers for heating and CHP for heat and power is a possibility. They could be placed in the basements of the different buildings but the buildings are small compared to the rest of the blocks. Limitations are therefore space for biomass fuel storage as well as the small heat demand if using CHP.
North Side
Creek
South Side
Figure 21 Overview and the front view direction of block EE
River Thames
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Creek
D D
South Side
River Thames
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53
Creek
C C
South Side Figure 29 Overview and direction of front view for block CC
River Thames
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North Side
B
B
Creek
South Side
River Thames
Figure 33 showing overview and direction of the front view for block BB
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Creek
South Side
River Thames
Figure 37 showing the overview and direction of front view for block AA
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6 Energy Strategy
This section will recommend an energy strategy for the Lots Road site. From the energy systems evaluations the energy systems that are considered for Lots Road are biomass, CHP and solar water heating. There are also possibilities to utilize photovoltaic and green roof in small amounts.
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Biomass boilers are sized to meet the peak load subtracting the addition from CHP. Solar water heating system has an unreliable winter performance it can therefore not be sized on the peak load. The biomass boiler size will be 2115 kW from the calculations below. 3515 kW 1400 kW = 2115 kW Equation (4)
If each boiler is preliminary of the same size there will be nine 240 kW boilers. For this recommendation the CHP is sized on the rule of thumb that CHP should be working approximately 5000 hours per year [30] to be economical viable. This means the CHP would minimum generate 7000MWh/year thermal energy from the calculation below. 1400 x 5000 = 7000MWh/year Equation (5)
The biomass boilers would then deliver the rest of the yearly energy demand of 1500MWh/year. From the CHP and biomass evaluation above SWH systems are redundant so it is no longer in this recommendation. The CHP engine would also minimum generate 5443MWh/year electricity. 1088.65 x 5000 = 5443MWh/year Equation (6)
This is almost 1000MWh/year electricity that needs to be sold back to the grid to not waste energy since the total electrical demand is 4500MWh/year.
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Advantages +If biomass boiler fails CHP can provide some thermal energy during winter time. +If one boiler fails its a small % failure + South and north side have independent energy generation
Disadvantages - Delivery of biomass fuel to all blocks. - No backup if biomass fuel deliveries fail. -Storage of bio-fuel in each block - Biomass as fuel source is still considered unreliable -Labour intense with boilers in each block and the CHP engines. -CHP is not a renewable energy technology -Selling electricity to the grid is costly
Table 5 Option A disadvantages
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6.2.3 Target
The target is a 50% carbon emission reduction for the Lots Road site and that is approximately 2000000 kg CO2 / Year The calculation to obtain the CO2 reduction uses the boiler efficiency data of 78% and the conversion factors from SAP 2005 [27]. The conversion factor for natural gas is 0.194 CO2kg/kWh and for electricity from the grid 0.422 CO2kg/kWh. Biomass will then save: (1500000/0.78) x 0.194 = 373076 kgCO2/Year CHP will then save: ((7000000/0.78) x 0.194 + (7000000 x 0.777) x 0.422) ((12439000/0.8) x 0.194) = 1019826 kgCO2/Year Total carbon emission savings are then: 1019826 + 373076 = 1392902 kgCO2/Year This is a carbon dioxide reduction of: (1392902/4000000) x 100= 34.8% Conclusion: Target is NOT achieved Equation (10) Equation (9) Equation (8) Equation (7)
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North Side
Creek
South Side River Thames CHP in basements of buildings Biomass boilers in basements of buildings CHP distribution network
Above is the simplified figure of the energy distribution for Option A. It is showing a biomass boiler in each block and the two CHP engines. There are also a simplified distribution network (the red line) for the CHP engines.
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6.2.5 Decision
The target is not achieved and it is necessary with some backup for the biomass boilers in case of, for example, the fuel delivery is delayed. To have a biomass boiler in each block that needs maintenance is labour intense and the boilers and fuel storage takes up space in all buildings. The CHP engine is over sized and ends up wasting electricity or selling electricity back to the grid. This it is not favourable because the CHP engine is using gas and is emitting carbon dioxide. Solar water heating panels can be placed on the roof to supply 20% of the thermal demand. SWH panels are favourable to implement since they are renewable energy technology but when using both SWH and CHP it can be difficult to not waste heat. Solar water heating is most effective during the summer when the heat demand is at its lowest and the CHP engine is sized to run a minimum 14 hours a day (5000 hours per year). Therefore if SWH and CHP are utilized together there will have to be large heat storage. No heat waste calculations have been carried out when utilizing both CHP and SWH at the Lots Road site because of the time limit for this thesis. Photovoltaic panels generating electricity and green roofs can be utilized onsite as sustainable design features.
Decision: Options A needs to be reviewed Key points The50% CO2 target is not achieved CHP is not a renewable energy source The heat and power output from the CHP engine do not match the sites energy demand. Electricity needs to be sold back to the grid. Biomass needs backup Biomass boilers in each block is labour intense SWH is not used but can be implemented Photovoltaic and green roofs are not utilized.
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6.4 Option B
6.4.1 The final recommendation
The final recommendation (Option B) for the Lots Road site energy strategy is: Two energy centres one on each side of the creek to produce energy. The energy centres will have biomass boilers providing 80% of the thermal demand. Solar water heating panels providing 20% of the thermal demand. In the energy centres there will be backup gas boilers that are able to provide 50% of the thermal peak load. Photovoltaic will be placed on the roof of a building to provide electricity it will also be placed on street lights and signs. Green roof is placed on buildings as a thermal barrier and for public awareness of sustainable design.
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Biomass and SWH will deliver 100 % of the thermal energy demand and as mentioned earlier the thermal energy distribution for Lots Road will be 80 % from biomass boilers and 20% from SWH panels.
6.4.2 Biomass
Since the solar water heating panels winter performance is unreliable the biomass boilers needs to be sized to provide 100% of the thermal peak load. The thermal peak load is divided for the north and the south side the peak load calculations are shown in appendix B1 on pages 165-166. The peak load for the north side is 2240kW and it will be delivered by two 1200 kW boilers. The peak load for the south side is 1275 kW and it will be delivered by two 700 kW boilers North side 1200 kW 1200 kW 700 kW 700 kW BB BB BB BB 2240 kW South side 1275 kW
Figure 42 The north and south side loads delivered from biomass boilers
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Block JJ
SWH
From the equation above the energy centres will deliver 3800 kW. Conclusion they can deliver the thermal peak load.
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Electricity delivered from the grid and a small amount of photovoltaic panels will deliver 100% of the sites electrical demand. Photovoltaic will approximately deliver 2.6% of the sites demand.
6.4.5 Photovoltaic
Photovoltaic panels are placed on the north tower roof (Block GG) and will deliver 117.2 MWh/year. The photovoltaic calculations are shown in appendix B3 on page 168.
The electricity generated from photovoltaic on signs and street lights are very small, the total amount of energy produced from photovoltaic on the Lots Road site are 117.2 MWh/year. The rest 97.4% are then bought from the grid to meet the electrical demand it will deliver 4382.8 MWh/year.
Conclusion the output of 4500MWh/year meets the electrical energy demand for the Lots Road site.
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6.4.7 Backup
Backup gas boilers are installed to provide thermal energy if there is any technical problems with the biomass boilers or if there is unforeseen fuel delivery delays. It is sized to 50% which is considered reasonable since there are urban sites in the UK utilizing biomass with a 50% backup. One biomass boiler in each energy centre can be switched off and the energy centres would still deliver 100% of the thermal energy demand with the help of the gas boilers. Gas boilers are used as backup on the north side and the peak thermal load is 2240 kW. The gas engine will provide 50% of the thermal peak load which 1120kW so there will be one 1200kW gas boilers as backup in the north energy centre. Gas boilers are also used as backup on the south side and the peak thermal load is 1125kW. The gas engine will provide 50% of the thermal peak load which is 637.5kW so there will be one 700kW gas boiler as backup in the south energy centre.
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73
74
75
76
77
78
79
80
Temperature sensor: The electrical temperature sensor is connected to a control panel where the temperature can be supervised. Isolation valve (closed): The closed isolation valve is always closed during system operation. It will only be opened in emergencies to bypass boilers or during maintenance.
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7.3 Drawings
83
SWH Panel
Thermal energy Distributed to Flats
Block JJ
SWH Flow Energy Centre SWH Return Flow and Return Closed boiler system
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Warm water pre-heated from SWH Flow and Return from closed boiler system Electrical connection
Figure 51 showing a residential unit energy distribution
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9 Discussion
Biomass is selected to deliver most of the thermal energy demand and will reduce carbon dioxide emissions. It is selected on the basis that it does not increase carbon dioxide emissions into the atmosphere and that the energy system output is not limited to for example fuel storage space. The evaluation of capital cost shows that the cost to implement biomass is low compared to other renewable energy systems. Considering these factors biomass is the technology to implement on the Lots Road site. When utilizing biomass boilers it is the biomass fuel source and delivery that is considered unreliable. The time frame of this thesis has restricted a thorough biomass fuel investigation. Backup of 50 % delivered from gas boilers are used and is considered necessary since biomass fuel delivery can be from remote locations. This report as mentioned earlier has not investigated carbon dioxide emissions that will be emitted during fuel delivery. The capital cost is not a high priority for the report but is showing how much it would cost to implement a system. This favours biomass, CHP and biomass CHP since the fuel cost for these energy systems are not incorporated in the capital cost or in the evaluation when selecting suitable energy systems. Solar water heating panels are implemented to deliver 20% of the yearly thermal demand. When utilizing several energy sources it reduces the risk and the need of a 100% backup for the biomass boilers. A solar water heating advantage compared to biomass is that the fuel does not need to be bought. Unfortunately SWH can not deliver 100% of the energy demand since it is relying on absorbing the energy from the sun. The solar water heating energy output peaks during the summer and is low during the winter. Biomass is therefore sized to meet the peak load since it occurs during the winter months. The limitation in time has meant that no annual energy output study for SWH have been carried out. Unfortunately information found for SWH winter performance was very limited. What can be said is that SWH is currently working in the UK and is known to have good summer performance. It can in some occasions provide the entire base load during the summer. Photovoltaic is implemented to generate electricity to the site so not all electricity has to be bought from the grid. Photovoltaic will also act as a sustainable design feature. These are the reasons fore implementing PV even though it has low energy efficiency and a high capital cost. It is placed on block GG because of the south facing angled roof. The roof is elevated and this decreases the risk of the panels getting shaded. The answer to why PV panels are placed on block GG is that the angled roof enables the PV panels to work with as high efficiency as possible. Green roof is placed on block HH because it will prevent heat gain and will be a visual attractive design feature on the Lots Road site. These are the reasons why green roof are 86
implemented on block HH. It is seemed favourable to have different sustainable design features across the site. This thesis uses simplified data to reach satisfying results. In appendix B9, in the technical data section, on pages 187-191 offices and retails energy demand are stated. They are only utilized to calculate the total energy demand. Lots Road is then assumed to be a residential site when calculating the peak and base load. The carbon dioxide target for the report was set to 50% it is a high target that is reached in the final recommendation. In the report the boiler efficiency of 78% and the carbon dioxide conversion factors are taken from SAP 2005. This is the standard assessment procedure published by the British government to assess building energy performance. One of the tasks for this report was to find up to date information about renewable energies. Information and data was mostly gathered from the internet and for some sources it has been difficult to validate the credibility. The internet was used as the primary information source since the thesis was carried out at a company with a small renewable information database. To do the thesis at Hoare Lea Consulting had benefits in form of using the engineering knowledge and experience in renewable energies and building design.
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10 Conclusion
The thesis shows that carbon dioxide reduction can be achieved from several energy systems. The energy strategy recommended reaches the 50% CO2 reduction target by utilizing a combination of renewable energy systems. The final recommendation will implement biomass boilers and solar water heating panels to generate 100 % of the thermal energy demand for the Lots Road site. The conclusion is that biomass boilers will be utilised at the Lots Road site. They are a favourable option to use in urban areas in the UK when considering carbon dioxide savings, energy output and the low capital cost of implementing biomass. The final recommendation is not considering biomass fuel delivery which should preferably be from a biomass fuel source close to the site or the cost of biomass fuel. Solar water heating panels are considered as a good alternative when implementing renewable energies in an urban area in the UK. It delivers thermal energy and can be used as in the final recommendation for preheating. The limitation for solar water heating is that it must be combined with other technologies to deliver the total thermal demand. Photovoltaic panels are implemented in the final recommendation to lower the amount of electricity being bought from the grid and to be a visual sustainable design feature. The energy efficiency for photovoltaic are low and it can therefore only deliver a small amount of electricity to the site. To buy electricity from the grid is still the favourable option for buildings in urban areas this is because it is available and reliable. It will continue to be the favourable option until PV becomes more efficient or until wind turbines can be implemented unobtrusively in urban areas. Another option is biomass CHP it will generate both heat and power. Biomass CHP is used in other parts of Europe and will probably be more available in the UK in the future.
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List of Figures
Figure 1 Methodology flow diagram ...................................................................................................................... 4 Figure 2 Over view of the site ................................................................................................................................. 6 Figure 3 The Lots Road south side.......................................................................................................................... 7 Figure 4 The Lots Road north side .......................................................................................................................... 7 Figure 5 Overview and direction of Block JJ ........................................................................................................ 39 Figure 6 Block JJ - Front view ............................................................................................................................. 40 Figure 7 The Top view of block JJ........................................................................................................................ 40 Figure 8 The Left side view of block JJ ................................................................................................................ 41 Figure 9 Overview and front view direction of Block HH .................................................................................... 42 Figure 10 Block HH Front view............................................................................................................................ 42 Figure 11 The Top view of block HH ................................................................................................................... 43 Figure 12 The Left side view of block HH ........................................................................................................... 43 Figure 13 Overview of block GG and front view direction .................................................................................. 44 Figure 14 Block GG Front view............................................................................................................................ 45 Figure 15 The Top view of Block GG .................................................................................................................. 45 Figure 16 The Right side view of Block GG ......................................................................................................... 46 Figure 17 Overview and front view direction of block FF .................................................................................... 47 Figure 18 Block FF front view .............................................................................................................................. 47 Figure 19 The Top view of block FF .................................................................................................................... 48 Figure 20 The Left side view of block FF ............................................................................................................. 48 Figure 21 Overview and the front view direction of block EE ............................................................................. 49 Figure 22 Block EE Front view............................................................................................................................ 50 Figure 23 The Top view for block EE................................................................................................................... 50 Figure 24 The Back view of block EE .................................................................................................................. 51 Figure 25 Overview and direction of front view for block DD ............................................................................. 52 Figure 26 Block DD Front view............................................................................................................................ 52 Figure 27 The Top view of block DD ................................................................................................................... 53 Figure 28 The back view f block DD .................................................................................................................... 53 Figure 29 Overview and direction of front view for block CC ............................................................................. 54 Figure 30 Block CC Front view ........................................................................................................................... 54 Figure 31 The Top view of block CC ................................................................................................................... 55 Figure 32 The Back view of block CC .................................................................................................................. 55 Figure 33 Overview and direction of the front view for block BB ....................................................................... 56 Figure 34 Block BB Front view ............................................................................................................................ 56 Figure 35 The Top view of block BB ................................................................................................................... 57 Figure 36 The Back view of block BB .................................................................................................................. 57 Figure 37 Overview and direction of front view for block AA ............................................................................. 58 Figure 38 Block AA Front view............................................................................................................................ 58 Figure 39 The Top view of block AA ................................................................................................................... 59 Figure 40 The Back view of block AA ................................................................................................................. 59 Figure 41 Energy distribution for Option A .......................................................................................................... 65 Figure 42 North and south side output loads from biomass boilers ..................................................................... 69 Figure 43 SWH output from the Lots Road site .................................................................................................... 70 Figure 44 PV output from the Lots Road site ....................................................................................................... 71 Figure45 North side energy centre and buildings ................................................................................................. 75 Figure 46 South side energy centre and buildings ................................................................................................ 76 Figure 47 Schematics over the south energy centre. ............................................................................................. 78 Figure 48 Schematics over the north energy centre .............................................................................................. 79 Figure 49 Block GG electrical connection ............................................................................................................ 83 Figure 50 Thermal connection to block JJ ............................................................................................................ 84 Figure 51 A residential unit heat and power connection ....................................................................................... 85
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List of Tables
Table 1 Energy system matrix............................................................................................................................... 26 Table 2 Carbon reduction matrix .......................................................................................................................... 27 Table 3 Cost matrix ............................................................................................................................................... 28 Table 4 Advantages of Option A........................................................................................................................... 63 Table 5 Disadvantages of Option A ...................................................................................................................... 63
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References
[1] Union of Concerned Scientists [Home page on the Internet], Union of Concerned Scientists [Updated 21-052007, Cited 21-06-2007], Available from: http://www.ucsusa.org/global_warming/science/ [2] BBC [Home page on the Internet], BBC [Cited 22-06-2007], Available from: http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/shared/spl/hi/sci_nat/04/climate_change/html/greenhouse.stm [3]Town And Country Planning Association, Sustainable energy by design a TCPA `by design guide for sustainable communities, London, TCPA, 2006, p. 02-05, ISBN:0902797395 [4] Office Of The Deputy Prime Minister, The building regulations 2000 Approved Documents L1A New Dwellings 2006 Edition, ODPM, 2006, p. 16-21, ISBN:139781859462171 [5] Maunsell F, London Renewables Integrating renewable energy into new developments: Toolkit for Planners, developers and consultants, London, Greater London Authority, 2004, p. 07, ISBN:1852616601 [6] Hoare Lea Consulting [Internal Report], Architectural Drawings of the Lots Road Site, Hoare Lea Consulting, 2001 [7] Hoare Lea Consulting [Internal Report], Lots Road 2001 stage 3 Design Report, Hoare Lea Consulting, 2001 [8] Hoare Lea Consulting [Internal Report], G C Bankside Energy strategy Report For Planning Submission, Hoare Lea Consulting, 2006, p.07 [9] Maunsell F, London Renewables Integrating renewable energy into new developments: Toolkit for Planners, developers and consultants, London, Greater London Authority, 2004, p.107-109, ISBN:1852616601 [10] BRE, SAP 2005:The Governments Standard Assessment Procedure for Energy Rating of Dwellings, Watford, DEFRA, 2005, p.42 [11] BRE, SAP 2005:The Governments Standard Assessment Procedure for Energy Rating of Dwellings, Watford, DEFRA, 2005, p.67 [12] BRE, SAP 2005:The Governments Standard Assessment Procedure for Energy Rating of Dwellings, Watford, DEFRA, 2005, p.67 [13] Maunsell F, London Renewables Integrating renewable energy into new developments: Toolkit for Planners, developers and consultants, London, Greater London Authority, 2004, p.21-86, ISBN:1852616601 [14] Econergy[Home page on the Internet], Econergy[Cited 05-06-2007], Available from: http://www.econergy.ltd.uk/downloads/Sheffield_Road%20Flats_case_study_470kW.pdf [15] Action energy, Good Practise Guide Combined heat and power in buildings, England, Carbon Trust, 2004, p.04 [16] Low Emission Bio ORC [Home page on the Internet], EESD [Cited 20-06-2007] Available from: http://ec.europa.eu/energy/res/sectors/doc/bioenergy/chp/nne5_475_2000.pdf [17] Maunsell F, London Renewables Integrating renewable energy into new developments: Toolkit for Planners, developers and consultants, London, Greater London Authority, 2004, p.70, ISBN:1852616601 [18] Combined Heat and Power Association [Home page on the Internet], CHPA [Updated 01-01-2008, Cited 09-07-2007] Available from: http://www.chpa.co.uk/ [19] Combined Heat and Power Association [Home page on the Internet], CHPA [Updated 01-01-2008, Cited 09-07-2007] Available from: http://www.chpa.co.uk/
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[20] Maunsell F, London Renewables Integrating renewable energy into new developments: Toolkit for Planners, developers and consultants, London, Greater London Authority, 2004, p.72-78, ISBN:1852616601 [21] Earth Energy [Home page on the Internet], Earth Energy [Updated 2006, Cited 05-06-2007], Available from: http://www.earthenergy.co.uk/case_studies/social_housing.php [22]Sustainable Development Commission [Home page on Internet], SDC [Cited 09-07-2007], Available from: http://www.sdcommission.org.uk/publications/downloads/Bronllys%20Hospital%20Solar%20Energy%20Project.pdf [23] Energy Savings Trust [Home page on the Internet], Energy Savings Trust [Updated 2008, Cited 21-072007], Available from: http://www.energysavingtrust.org.uk/northern_ireland_advice_centre/case_studies/domestic_solar_water_heatin g_case_studies [24] Maunsell F, London Renewables Integrating renewable energy into new developments: Toolkit for Planners, developers and consultants, London, Greater London Authority, 2004, p 35, ISBN:1852616601 [25] Proven Energy, Health and Safety Information for Installation of Proven Wind Turbines in Public Areas, Scotland, Proven Energy, 2003 [26] Sustainable Development Commission [Home page on Internet], SDC [Cited 09-07-2007], Available from: http://www.sd-commission.org.uk/communitiessummit/show_case_study.php/00177.html [27] ] BRE, SAP 2005:The Governments Standard Assessment Procedure for Energy Rating of Dwellings, Watford, DEFRA, 2005, p.67 [28] The Ashden Award For Sustainable Energy [Home page on Internet], [Updated 2008, Cited 09-07-2007], Available from: http://www.ashdenawards.org/winners/barnsley [29] Hoare Lea Consulting [Verbal Source], Hoare Lea Consulting, Bristol, 2007 [30] ] Action energy, Good Practise Guide Combined heat and power in buildings, England, Carbon Trust, 2004, p.06 [31] Alberta Centre for Injury Control & Research [Home page on Internet], Alberta Centre for Injury Control & Research [Updated 01-05-2007, Cited 20-05-2007], Available from: http://www.acicr.ualberta.ca/documents/HotWater2003PositionStatement.pdf
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A1.1 Biomass
Biomass is burned as fuel to generate energy there are different types such as wood chips and willow. Biomass is derived from bio organic material and is a carbon neutral energy source this means that the net emission is zero. Biomass absorbs carbon dioxide through photosynthesis and that is then the only carbon dioxide emissions released back into to the atmosphere when it is used as fuel. The biomass fuel is divided into dry and wet fuel types. Dry fuel is solid fuel from for example forestry, woodchip or energy grass. Wet fuel is gas or liquids. Wet fuel is for example methane extracted from anaerobic digestion.
Biomass
Carbon dioxide is being absorbed through Photosynthesis
Photosynthesis is the process plants and trees use to transform photon energy to chemical energy. [1]
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In 1994 in the UK the primary forestry user was in sawmills. A by product from sawmills is sawdust and it can be turned into pellets. Advantages of pellets are that they are dust free and easy to transport because they are compact.
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Energy generation
There are mainly three different methods of converting dry biomass fuel to energy. The most common one is direct combustion. Through direct combustion the biomass fuel is exposed to heat making it combust and releasing thermal energy.
Direct combustion
This could be directly in a stove or fire place for domestic heating. It could also be in an energy plant. Different configurations of energy plants are heating, electricity or CHP plants. Direct combustion has the reaction: CxHyOz+(x+y/4-z/2)O2 => xCO2 + (y/2)H2O This is the overall reaction for a fuel of mean composition CxHyOz It is the energy that is being realised during this combustion that can be used for thermal power or/and electricity. [4] Equation (65)
To chimney Cold gas Hot water Heat exchanger Cold water Hot gas To chimney Fuel Air Cold Fluid Hot fluid Cold water Heat exchanger
Hot water
Combustion Chamber
Air Fuel
Boiler
The thermal energy is generated from fuel being burnt in a combustion chamber. The hot gases are lead to a heat exchanger where the thermal energy is transferred to water to provide space heating and hot water. Another configuration is to circulate a fluid
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through the boiler to absorb heat and then to a heat exchanger where it releases the thermal energy to provide space heating and hot water.
Infrastructure
Biomass fuel has to be bought it is not like the renewable energies of photovoltaic or wind power. Harvesting photon energy from the sun and kinetic energy in the wind, for PV and wind power, are available and can be harvested cost free on site. This means biomass will have a longer payback time and it is shown in the payback calculation section in appendix. The price for biomass fuel is usually referred to as the same as fossil fuel. The important factor is to look at the calorific value. It is the value that determines how much energy can be extracted from the fuel. For biomass dry raw bio fuel it is approximately 20 MJ/kg (LHV) this is comparable to mid quality coal. The calorific quality differs if it is dried or freshly harvested. Freshly harvested wood biomass has usually a moister content of 50% and this lowers the caloric value to 8 MJ/kg (LHV) [8]. As mentioned the calorific value is related to moisture content. The calorific value also varies with the kind of biomass material that is being utilized. Pellets have a higher calorific value then other biomass fuels and this is one of the reasons to why pellets are more expensive. From a background document for pellets the calorific value is estimated to 4.7 kWh/kg which is 16.9 MJ/kg. (LHV) [9]. There are two measures of calorific value. Lower heating value (LHV) and Higher heating value (HHV). LHV is the Net calorific value. It measures the heat released on the basis that the water remains in the vapour phase. 97
HHV is the Gross calorific value. It measures the heat released when the fuel is burnt and the water has condensed out of the combustion gases as a liquid. Here is a comparison of the calorific HHV for different fuels [10].
Calorific value table Fuel Ethanol methanol General purpose coal Diesel fuel Gas oil Wood 15% water (Biomass)
HHV 30 23
MJ/kg
32-42 46 46
16
North Sea Natural Gas 39 Table 1 Showing calorific value of different fuels
In the table above biomass, with 15% water content, has a higher heating value of 16MJ/kg and natural gas has a value of 39MJ/kg. A larger amount of fuel is therefore needed for biomass then natural gas to achieve the same energy output. Fuel storage for biomass has the advantage from other renewable energies that it can easily be stored in a storage room or a basement for later use. This is also a disadvantage since it needs storage space and is not harvested and directly converted to useful energy. For photovoltaic the photon energy is converted to energy directly through the semiconductor. Another disadvantage is that since the calorific value is relatively low for biomass. Biomass storage requires a larger space then for example diesel fuel. In the London toolkit there is a case study of Kings Mead Primary School, it has a 10m3 storage bunker. Providing fuel to a 50 kW biomass boiler, for this relatively small project, fuel only needs to be delivered 3 to 4 times a year [11]. Biomass is a renewable energy source and, when transport emissions are not considered, is not adding carbon dioxide to the atmosphere. It is important to consider travelling emission because biomass fuel sometimes has to travel large distances between harvesting and end user. From for example the forest to an energy centre located in an urban area, this should be taken into consideration when choosing biomass for energy generation. The carbon emission emitted to the atmosphere is therefore not only the carbon emission emitted by the bio mass fuel when utilized and subtracting the absorbed emissions through photosynthesis. It is also the emissions from travelling to the end destination. The most environmentally friendly transport alternative for biomass is considered to be by ship or boat [12].
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Wet fuel
Wet bio fuel can be created through a digestion process from bio degradable waste such as garden residue, certain wood waste and agriculture residue.
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100
Below is a comparison between a conventional network and community scheme CHP [2].
Conventional net work 80 Units of fuel Electricity 35% efficiency 50 Units of losses 30 Units of electricity
Community CHP
The figure above is showing fuel input and how large the losses are through energy generation. The CHP plant has a total energy efficiency of 80% where 45 units of heat is generated when 35 units of electricity is created. For the conventional network the total efficiency is 57%. This is equivalent to a 23% more energy efficient CHP scheme compared to a conventional network. The conventional network uses a power plant feeding the grid to get electricity and gas boilers for thermal energy. The CHP scheme would also result in significant carbon dioxide emission reductions since less fossil fuel is being used.
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CHP Technologies
CHP Gas turbine: Gas turbines have god reliability and high output ranges from 500kW to 250MW. Gas turbines expels a quality exhaust gas which means the gas has a high thermal energy content that can favourably be utilized in CHP applications. Gas turbine CHP has low maintenance and a long time between overhaul. Gas turbines can work on natural gas but also biogas from gasification. They have high efficiency when working on full load but the efficiency decreases when the load decreases [3]. Therefore if selecting gas turbine CHP it is important that the turbine will work in optimal, full load, conditions. Gas turbine uses the Brayton Cycle. The Brayton cycle simplified is that air is compressed heated and expanded. In the gas turbine the air is lead through the inlet where it is compressed and mixed with fuel then combusted which drives a turbine that is connected to a generator to produce electricity. The exhaust heat is utilized by passing it trough a heat exchanger. The thermal energy can then be used for space heating and hot water [4].
DHW and SH Heat exchanger Cold Water DHW and SH Fuel AIR Combustion Generator Exhaust Warm Water
Compression
Turbine
The figure above shows a simplified, gas turbine, onsite CHP system providing domestic hot water (DHW), space heating (SH) and electricity for the residents.
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CHP Steam turbine The steam turbine uses the Rankine cycle. The Rankine cycle is a thermo dynamic cycle where a heat source transfers water into high pressure steam. A boiler generates thermal energy that pressurised water absorbs to create high pressurized super-heated steam. The thermal energy in the steam then drives the turbine to generate electricity via a generator. The thermal energy left in the steam is then utilized for thermal applications.
Heat exchanger Condenser DHW and SH Cold DHW and SH Warm Fuel Boiler Generator Turbine
Figure 5 Simplified explanation of steam turbine CHP
The figure above is showing a steam turbine CHP scheme where the boiler generates hot steam that drives a turbine to generated electricity from the generator. The thermal energy content left in the steam is then utilized for heating of DHW and SH. This is by dissipating heat through a heat exchanger. The return heat from the heat exchanger is then cooled through a condenser and the water is circulated back to repeat the process [5]. In steam turbines as mentioned fuel is burnt to heat water to create steam. CHP steam turbines have an advantage since the energy is transferred by hot steam from the boiler to the turbine and is not directly connected with the turbine. The advantage is that various types of fuels can be utilized in the boiler. It can for example work on biogas from landfill. Steam turbines sizes are available for ranges from 100 kW to 250 MW and are expected to have a long life time if maintained correctly. Disadvantages for steam turbines are that they have a long start up time compared to other CHP technologies. Together with a low power to heat ratio compared to other CHP technologies [6]. It is therefore important when selecting steam turbine CHP that the heat demand is high compared to the electrical demand.
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104
Electricity
Generator
Engine heat
Engine
exchanger
Engine exhaust
Exhaust heat exchanger Hot water Cold water Engine exhaust gases
Figure 6 Simplified explanation of gas engine CHP
Figure 6 shows a configuration of a small scale gas engine. It uses the heat from the exhaust and the engine cooling system to deliver DHW and SH for an onsite CHP scheme.
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CHP matrix
Below is a CHP information matrix it contains available CHP output, CHP efficiencies and the power to heat ratio.
Steam turbine 500kW to250MW Gas engine 100kW to over 5MW Gas turbine 500kW to 40MW Micro turbine 30kW to 350kW
Available size
Efficiency
80%
70 to 80%
70 to 75%
65 to 75%
Power to heat ratio 0.1 to 0.3 0.5 to 1 0.5 to 2 Table 2 Information from EPA Catalogue of CHP technologies 2002 [9]
0.4 to 0.7
Other technologies
For small scale energy generation there is micro CHP. Micro CHP has the advantage that its flexible in meeting varying heat loads and that it can run on different fuel types. Another technology is fuel cell CHP but the commercial application for fuel cell CHP is small and the capital cost is high [10].
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Biomass CHP
Here is a brief overview of Biomass CHP it is still considered as a new technology even though it is utilized in countries across Europe. In the UK biomass is not broadly utilized for domestic heating schemes together with that CHP have not been well known in the UK for more than the last five to ten years. A brief investigation were carried out for biomass CHP and from the investigation no on site biomass CHP plant, delivering heat and power in urban area to residents, were found. Biomass CHP was utilized as a test plant in Bedzed and there are a few small scale biomass CHP plants working in the UK for example ECOS millennium centre in Northern Ireland [12]. From this brief investigation biomass CHP were considered unavailable early in the project. The best example found on residential onsite biomass CHP is the Titanic mill in Huddersfield [13] it is being converted into flats and will in later stages implement a small scale biomass CHP delivering heat and power to residents. As mentioned previously in this section steam turbines and gas turbines can be used with fuel from gasification and pyrolysis. It could also use gas from landfill or anaerobic digestion. Gasification and pyrolysis is still a new technology to use for biomass CHP in the UK. Gasification is more widely used for waste processing there is for example a small scale municipal waste plant in Bristol. When using solid biomass fuel for CHP, gasification and pyrolysis are favourable methods compared to conventional combustion. Solid biomass fuels are burnt in a boiler for steam turbine CHP. Gasification and pyrolysis transform the biomass to biogas and can therefore be used in a gas turbine or gas engine CHP [10]. Gas turbines or gas engines have a higher power to heat ratio compared to steam turbines and can therefore generate more electricity.
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CHP Design
CHP can be connected to a building in parallel or in series together with other boilers to provide the heating load. CHP is recommended to be the lead boiler in order to be cost effective a rule of thumb is that it should be working 5000 hours per year to be cost viable. The sizing for CHP is generally on the thermal base load, i.e. the domestic hot water, to not waste thermal energy. Another action to prevent heat waste, when implementing CHP, is to utilize heat storage. It is usually a well insulated water tank that acts as a heat store when the thermal demand is low. For example if CHP is utilized for electricity during the day the heat produced can be stored for space heating at night. Implementing more CHP will help the UK to reach its CO2 targets. It can result in more than a 30% reduction in carbon dioxide emissions compared to conventional heat and power generation [11]. Advantages Energy savings compared to conventional energy generation Carbon emission savings compared to conventional energy generation Produces both heat and power Many different technologies to choose from to get a optimal CHP system for the end user.
Disadvantages Renewable fuelled CHP is a very new technology in the UK Conventional CHP is not a renewable technology and emits carbon dioxide
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CHP Evaluation
The combined heat and power section are evaluated to find CHP systems suitable for urban areas.
Steam Turbine CHP Advantages Long working life Broad output Range Disadvantages Micro turbine CHP Advantages Compact size Disadvantages Gas turbine CHP Advantages Reliable High thermal output Disadvantages Poor efficiency at low loading Noisy high pressure Gas engine CHP Advantages Well known technology Broad output range Disadvantages High maintenance cost
High Cost Broad output range Suitable for larger schemes Low efficiency Long start up time Low power to heat ratio Table 3 Showing CHP advantages and disadvantages
Micro CHP has limited energy output and lower efficiency then gas turbine and gas engine CHP. Lower efficiency will mean higher carbon dioxide emissions and a low energy output can limit micro CHP to smaller sites. Micro CHP is therefore not seen as a suitable energy system at larger sites. Lots Road is assumed to be a large site in this report. Steam turbine CHP has longer start up time and a low power to heat ratio compared to other CHP methods. It is important to have a fast start up time for the CHP to be able to provide heat and power without delays to the residents. With a low power to heart ratio there needs to be large heat storage to not waste energy. Steam turbine CHP is therefore not seen as a suitable energy system for the Lots Road site. Gas turbine CHP is a high pressure process and has poor efficiency at low loading. The gas turbine CHP if operating at a lower load will raise the carbon dioxide emissions. Gas turbines are a high pressure process and are considered noisy. This could be disturbing for residents when using onsite CHP. Gas turbine CHP is therefore not seen as a suitable energy system for the Lots Road site. Gas engine CHP is a well known technology and have a broad output range. It can work on natural gas and biogas when or if available. Gas engine CHP is therefore seemed as the most suitable CHP technology to have in an urban area.
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CHP Selection
The selection is made from the evaluation above. If CHP is selected for the Lots Road site gas engine CHP will be utilized. It is the most suitable CHP method for energy generation at urban areas. The main reasons are: Well known technology in the UK Have a broad output range
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HP Technical Description:
Electrical motor Compressor
Absorbs Heat
Dissipate Heat
Heat Input
Heat Output
Expansion Valve
Figure 7 Describing the Heat pump cycle
The heat extracted from the ground is absorbed by the heat carrier fluid in the heat pump it is then evaporated in the evaporator. The evaporated process uses the thermal energy from the ground to turn the fluid into a gaseous state. 111
The gas is then compressed by an electric driven compressor. This increase the pressure and temperature of the gas i.e. the electric compressor lifts the temperature to the wanted output temperature. The gas is then delivered to the condenser where it dissipates its thermal energy to warm the building. In the condenser when dissipating its thermal energy the gas condense to a liquid state. The liquid is then expanded through an expansion valve this lowers its temperature and pressure. After returning to a low temperature and pressure fluid the heat pump, refrigeration, cycle can be repeated. [1] There are two different types of ground source systems it is either a direct or indirect system. It is called an indirect system because the heat is transferred to the evaporator via a heat exchanger. In an direct system the ground source pipes are used as the evaporator [2].
Building
Cooled Water
HP
Warmed Water
Ground
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Horizontal pipes
Pipes are buried approximately 2 meters under ground in trenches the horizontal pipes requires a wide surface area compared to vertical pipes. For a large individual house approximately 100 m2 of area is needed for technical feasibility e.g. to get a sufficient thermal output. [3]. This is a disadvantage for horizontal systems, when being implemented in urban areas, because space if often limited.
Trench
Horizontal Pipe
Horizontal Series
Horizontal Parallel
For horizontal systems the trench can contain one or several pipes. The pipes can be connected in series or parallel as shown on the figure above.
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Vertical pipes
Pipes are fitted into the ground in boreholes that is drilled 15 to 150 meter down into the ground. The depth depends on the heating load and soil type. The heat load is how much thermal energy the system is set to produce for the end user. Before drilling boreholes, planning consent from local authorities are needed [5]. The boreholes need to be spaced apart so absorption or dumping of heat is kept optimal. The recommendation is at least 5 meters apart with preferably 15 meters [5]. The spacing differs depending on the soils ability of temperature recovery. It is the ability of the soil to return to the normal ground temperature.
Bore hole
Single U-tube
Vertical Parallel
For vertical systems the borehole contains a U-tube. The pipes can be connected in series or parallel as shown on the figure above. There can also be more then one Utube in a single bore hole.
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Slinky Coil
The spiral coil also know as a slinky coil is laid out in a trench with the benefit that it needs less surface area then for horizontal piping . The trench length for a heating system is approximately only 30% compared to horizontal pipes. Even though the trench is shorter the coil length needs to be longer then to achieve the same thermal output [7].
Spiral Coil
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Energy Piles
Energy piles work as a closed heat pump system. The Energy pile is placed in the foundation of the building where it provides heating or cooling to the building. The Piles uses the grounds natural thermal conductivity to extract or dissipate thermal energy. Piles are usually embedded in concrete which acts as good energy transfer medium. A fluid is used to absorb or release heat in the tubing of the piles. The fluid is pumped around the system and releases its thermal energy to the heat pump. The typical configuration for energy piles is to use a reversible heat pump. A reversible heat pump is used for heating in the winter and cooling in the summer [8]. There are several different types of configurations were the energy system is connected to the foundation. Below are energy piles and energy slabs. An energy pile configuration were the tubing is attached on the inside of a steel cage is shown below.
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An energy slabs configuration were the tubing is laid out horizontally in the foundation is shown below.
Filter
Heat Pump
Cold
Warm
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Cold
Warm
Warm
River Cold
Figure 15 Surface water cooling system
Other open loop systems are for example a ground air system. Then air is heated by drawing air through an underground matrix to absorb thermal energy from the ground below the building. It is then passed through a heat pump realising its thermal energy. Disadvantages for an open loops system is that it requires regular maintenance to make sure filters do not collect to much debris and that pumps are more open to erosion then in a closed system. [10]
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GSH design
Calculations from www.canren.gc.ca [11] In order to estimate the length of the pipe needed for ground source heating these simplified equations can be used. Vertical pipe length (m) heating L=0.05506 x Ea/(Tg-Tlmin) Ea = Energy absorbed from the ground (MJ) Ea= Eh x EFLh x ((CoP-1)/CoP Eh = Peak heat Load (MJ) EFLh = Full load hours of the system (Hours) Tg = Ground temperature (C) Tlmin = Minimum entering liquid temperature (C) Equation(67) Equation(66)
Horizontal pipe length (m) estimation for heating L = [Eh x ((CoP-1)/CoP) x (51 + Rs x PLFh)] / (Tg-Tlmin) Equation(68) Eh =Peak heat Load (MJ) Rs = Soil/Field resistance (m2C/kW) PLFh = Design month, part load factor Tg = Ground temperature (C) Tlmin = Minimum entering liquid temperature (C) CoP = coefficient of performance for the heat pump A typical solid field resistance value [12] is 742 (m2C/kW) This is for medium soil conditions.
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A simplified equation from BSRIA [13] for the mean ground temperature is: tm = to + 0.02 x h(C) tm is the mean temperature in the ground h is the dept below the surface (m) to is the annual mean air temperature The equation to calculate the CoP from BSRIA [14] is CoP = (Heat output (kWthermal)) / (Electricity input (kWelectricity)) Equation(69) Equation(68)
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The figure below shows how the coefficient of performance for a heat pump changes depending on condensation (output) temperature. This is for the heat pump when the source temperature is kept at zero degrees. The curves in the figure are measured heat pump efficiency curves except for the top theoretical curve. [15]
In order to achieve a high CoP for the heat pump it is important to have a small gap between the condensation (output) and evaporation (source) temperature. This means that for heating the ground source should be as warm as possible while the distribution temperature to the building should be as low as possible. This is to minimise the electrical input for heating.
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The Low Temperature Hot Water (LTHW) from the ground source heating system can be used as under floor heating for space heating or as a pre heater for the domestic hot water. The heat pump efficiency is lowered for higher temperature outputs such as for domestic hot water. This is because higher output temperatures require a higher electricity input to lift the temperature. The temperature if used for DHW needs to be raised over 60C to minimize the risk for legionella [16]. Advantages: The ground is a large heat sink and the temperature is fairly constant over the year. It lowers the carbon foot print compared to conventional heating, heating with fossil fuel.
Disadvantages: Large area needed for horizontal piping Needs planning consent from local authorities Needs soil type examination to determine system performance Electric heat pumps is not a zero carbon emission source Heat pump efficiency, the (CoP) needs to be high for high energy savings.
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Flat plate collector configuration: [ 2] 1 Frame for collector 2 Glazing (Glass plate) 3 Flow tubes 4 Absorption plate 5Insulation 6 Back frame (support) 7 Inlet 8 outlet Solar arrays hit the flat plate collector and passes through the glazing the photon energy in the arrays are then absorbed by an absorption plate. The absorption plate transfers the energy through convection to liquid in the pipes which are well insulated to limit heat losses. The liquid enters through the inlet to the flow tubes, absorbs
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energy and exit through the outlet to a heat exchanger so it can be utilized to heat domestic hot water. [5]
10
6 3
9 1
2 5 1
Figure 18 Cross section tube
Figure 19 ETC
ETC configuration: [3][4] 1 outer glass shell 2 inner glass shell 3 Vacuum 4 absorption layer 5 copper sheet 6 inlet fluid 7 outlet fluid 8 inlet from manifold 9 outlet from manifold 10 manifold
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There is also a reflective layer in the ETC configuration it is not shown in the figure but it helps to reflect the energy onto the absorption tubes. [3] The heat transfer fluid enters through the inlet to the manifold and is distributed to the flow tubes. The fluid then absorbs thermal energy through convection and exit through the outlet to a heat exchanger. The thermal energy is then utilized to heat domestic hot water similar to the flat plate collector. The preferable collector has a high absorption factor with low heat losses. This is achieved by a thin layer of absorption (black paint) material that has a high absorption rate. The materials of the plate and the tubes are generally metal such as stainless steel, aluminium or copper. Stainless steel collector plates have an advantage since they are not affected to oxygen environments, corrosion, as other metals. [5] The tubes that contain the heat carrier fluid needs to be well integrated with the absorption plate to achieve a high U-value of approximately (5700 W/(m2K). This is one of the most important factors for a high efficiency collector according to Ashrea application handbook [5]. The high U-value enables the tubes to absorb thermal energy efficiently from the absorption plate. Another important factor is the glazing material. Glass transmits around 90% of the incoming radiation but is not transparent to wave lengths in the IR spectrum (heat radiation). This means the glazing traps the heat trying to escape from the absorption plate after the photon energy has been converted to thermal energy. The strength and isolation of the glazing material can be enhanced by using double layers of glass. [6]
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lig ht
SH Boiler
Heat Exchangers
Figure 20 Showing a combi boiler [112(8)]. Note: SH stands for Space Heating.
Cold water enters in through the tank and is heated from the SWH system via a coil heat exchanger. The coil heat exchanger is generally placed at the bottom of the tank and acts as a pre heater to the boiler system. The boiler brings the water to a sufficient temperature, over 60 C for DHW, because of the risk of legionella. The advantage with SWH system is that during the summer month the SWH system can deliver most of the hot water demand to the building. The boilers can then acts as backup [7]. Solar water heating can be used for space heating (SH) but is mostly used for domestic hot water (DHW). In a combi-boiler as shown in figure 4 there is dual storage space so the whole tank can be used for storage of thermal energy from the solar water heating system if the boiler is switched off. The fluid in the systems is circulated by an electrical pump, which can be powered by photovoltaic, or by natural convection (no pump) to get a renewable energy system [7].
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Efficiency
The energy contribution to domestic hot water is given by the equation. Qs=S x Zpanel x Aap x 0 x UF x f(a1/ 0) x f(Veff x Vd) The equation is from SAP 2005 [8] Equation(69)
Explanation to the variables: Qs: Solar input available from the system (after losses), kWh/year S: Total solar radiation on collector. Solar radiation is shown in table 17
Direction South SE SW E W
Table 4 Showing average kWh/m2 and changes with tilt and direction
The directions to the north are excluded because of the low energy efficiency from the collector when facing north. The output for the east and west direction are also excluded in the table when the SWH panel are tilted because it has a low energy efficiency.
Zpanel: The shadowing factor for the panel is shown in table 18.
Shadowing factor Percentage of panel shaded % More then 80% Between 60 and 80% Between 20 and 60% Less then 20%
Aap: Aperture area (m2) of the collector is the area that can absorb radiation. It differs from the gross area (Agross) of the collector which is the total area.
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0: Zero-loss collector efficiency, which depends on the transmittance of the glazing and the absorption of the black paint. It also depends on the temperature difference between atmosphere and absorber plate and a heat loss coefficient. Note: The general expression for collector efficiency can be seen in Ashrea application hand book [9] UF: Utilisation factor a1: Linear heat loss coefficient Table 6 shows numbers from SAP to calculate expected energy output for an SWH system. Collector type Evacuated tube Flat plate collector 0: 0.6 a1 : 3 Ratio Aap:Agross 0.72
0.75
0.90
f(a1/ 0): Collector performance factor f(a1/ 0) = 0.780.034*( a1/ 0) +0.0006(a1/ 0)2 f(Veff*Vd): Solar storage factor f(Veff*Vd)=1.0+0.2ln( Veff/Vd) Veff : Effective solar storage volume in litres Vd: Daily hot water demand in litres Equation(71) Equation(70)
SWH design
SWH panels should preferably be placed on an elevated angled roof from east to west facing south. The roof should have an inclination angle between 10-60 degrees to be effective. Another key point to get efficient use of SWH systems is to ensure that it is not shadowed at any point during the day. Shadowing usually occurs from trees or closely located buildings. Shadowing prevents direct radiation on the SWH system and therefore lowers the efficiency. [10] SWH systems needs frost protection if it has to endure the cold temperatures achieved in the UK. The Solar water heating systems do not have a reliable winter performance and there needs to be a separate system to provide heating during the winter months. The time limitation of the report has denied a thorough investigation on SWH winter performance.
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Flat plate collectors are often utilized for SWH systems in domestic homes because it has a lower capital cost then evacuated tube collectors. The advantage for the evacuated tube collector is that it has a better winter performance [11]. Approval from authorities needs to be achieved for listed houses before placing a SWH panel on the roof.
Advantages Well know technology Delivers zero carbon emission thermal energy Work well together with other energy systems
Disadvantages Needs to be uncovered at all time Needs to be angled to be efficient Winter performance, SWH systems needs backup to supply the yearly DHW demand.
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A1.5 Photovoltaic
The name photovoltaic can be translated to light electricity. The photovoltaic (PV) panel do as the name implies convert solar energy to electricity. There are over thousand PV systems delivering electricity in the UK [1].
Technical description
Sunlight hits a photovoltaic panel that consist of semiconductor cells. Semiconductors produce direct current (DC) in a process of absorbing photons. Photons carry energy particles from the sun. The release of energy when photons are absorbed excites electrons. An excited electron can reach a free state. This means it is free to travel and this creates electricity. The photons that hits the PV module has different amount of stored energy and wave lengths. This is important since the photons being absorbed by the semiconductor depends on the band gap. The band gap of the semi conductor is the difference of energy (measured in electron voltage eV) required for an electron to travel from the bound state to a free state. Semiconductors with high band gap only absorb photons with high energy content and photons with lower energy content will be ignored. When a low band gap is used it absorbs more energy but this result in a weaker electromagnetic field compared to a high band gap semiconductor. The electromagnetic field is a force that is measured in voltage (V). The electromagnetic field makes the free electrons travel from the negative to the positive charged side of the PV panel. It is important to optimize the band gap (Strength in the electromagnetic field to band gap) to achieve an energy efficient semiconductor. For a single cell material an efficient band gap is approximately 1.4 eV (electron Volt). [2]
Materials
The performance for different semiconductor materials are depending on there absorption coefficient and the band gap. The absorption coefficient is a coefficient for how long the photon has to travels before being absorbed in the semiconductor. The most common materials used for semiconductors in PV are Silicon as crystalline, amorphous or multi-crystalline material. Poly-crystalline materials and single crystalline materials are produced as thin film to be used as semiconductors in PV panels. Different types of poly-crystalline materials are silicon, copper indium diselenide (CIS) or cadmium telluride. The single crystalline materials are for example materials such as gallium arsenide. These materials provide high efficiency solar cells. [3] 130
Photovoltaic Cell
PV cells are generally built of different layers which are shown in the figure below.
1 6
3 4 5
7 8
Figure 21 PV panel configuration
PV layers [8] 1 Cover Glass 2 Transparent adhesive 3 antireflective coating 4 Front contact 5 Negative semi conductor 6 Positive semi conductor 7 Back contact 8 Substrate
Figure 77 illustrates a semiconductor with a positive and negative layer. The positive and negative layer is achieved by doping the semiconductor to ensure instability. The negative layers are over charged with electrons which mean it has electrons that dont have a space to fill and the positive layers lacks electrons and therefore have available spaces. How the semiconductor works is that electrons cross over from the negative to the positive side and fill an empty space. This then forms a barrier (an electromagnetic field) between the layers. Then an alternative route between the positive and negative side is introduced so the electrons can travel and be utilized for electricity. [9]
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Load
Electromagnetic field
Figure 22 negative and positive semiconductor layers
Manufacturing
The conventional process for manufacturing semiconductor cells is a high energy process the cells are sawn out on wafers from silicon ingots. To lower costs new manufacturing processes are using as little energy as possible. The manufacturing process is that a thin layer of semiconductor material is depositioned on inexpensive substrate. [10] As photovoltaic only produces electricity when it is sunny it may be required to store the electrical energy. There are different ways to store the energy. Deep cycle batteries discharge a small amount of energy over a long period of time. They can be charged in the day from sunlight and deliver electricity during the night when there is no sunlight. Disadvantages for batteries are that they need to be exchanged and maintained on regular basis. Another option is to use the electric grid. This means all excess energy is sold to the grid and electricity is bought when PV electricity is not available. Exchanging energy with the grid tends to be more expensive than storing it onsite [11].
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SUN LIGHT
Only if necessary
DC
BATTERY
AC
INVERTER
Balance of the system (BOS): BOS are the essential parts that need to be connected to the PV module to achieve energy generation in a building. [12] The module is usually put in a steel frame to be assembled on the roof. Steel is efficient conductor material so the frame can be used as an electrical contact as well as structural support. An inverter has to be connected to invert the DC to AC and for electrical protection ground equipment needs to be installed. Batteries are installed for storage if there is no connection to the grid. PV also needs a charge controller that makes sure that if batteries are used they do not overcharge or get drained. This ensures battery duration. The charge controller also makes sure correct voltage and current is delivered to the end user. [13] There are efficiency losses in the BOS of around 20%. PV also loses efficiency with increasing temperature. Therefore two correction factors are used L=0.8 (BOS loss) K= 0.9 (Temp loss). [14] The equation to calculate the annual out put of the panel then comes to [15] Ew= R*esc*A*K*L Explanation to variables: Ew: The annual energy output from the panel R: The annual radiation absorbed by the panel depending on tilt and direction. esc: Efficiency of the semiconductor A: Area of the panel Equation(72)
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Efficiency
Photovoltaic works all over the UK and the panels can be integrated to the roof design to look like regular roof tiles. It can also be used to cover the faade of a building. Estimated energy produced is around 750 KWh/year for 1 kilowatt peak (kWp) of panel. Kilowatt peak is the peak amount of energy, in full sunlight, produced from the panel. 750 kWh per year is approximately 45 to 50% of the electricity demand for a 2 bedroom flat of 4 people according to the London Toolkit. Typically peak energy from photovoltaic (8-12 % Poly-crystalline Silicon) is 100 Watt per m2 of panel. For a domestic house the usual panel size is between 9 to 18 m2 to get an output of 1 to 2 kWp. [16] A series of cells are connected to meet the energy load. To get the most efficient use of PV different factors have to be considered for example house orientation, roof elevation and the inclination of the roof. A key point to get efficient use of PV is to ensure that the PV panel is not shadowed at any point during the day. Shadowing usually occurs from trees or closely located buildings. Shadowing prevents direct radiation on the PV panel and therefore lowers the efficiency. [19] Table 21 is showing percentage of annual irradiation absorbed ((kWh/m2)/yr) regarding tilt (from horizontal to vertical) and orientation. TILT H to V 30 degrees 30 degrees 10 to 55 degrees 90 degrees V 0H Orientation South East South West South % of radiation absorbed 95% 95% Approx 100% Less then 80% 90 %
Irradiation over London is approximately 1059 kWh/m2/year (2.9 (kWh/m2)/day), estimated value from DTI [17].
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Table 20 below shows the efficiency for different semiconductors from the London toolkit [4].
Efficiency of the material, (output / Input) 15% efficiency 8-12% efficiency 4-6% efficiency Over 15% efficiency [5] PV panel area (for 1kWp) 8 m^2 (1kWp) 10 m^2 (1kWp) 20 m^2 (1kWp)
Type of Semiconductor Mono crystalline Silicon Poly-crystalline Silicon Amorphous Silicon Multiple junction Semiconductors Table 8 Semiconductor efficiencies
Multi junction semiconductor is a semiconductor with different layers. The advantage is that each layer absorbs energy from a specific part of the light spectrum. This results in a high efficiency semiconductor. [6] Multi junction semiconductors are a new technology and the efficiency can exceed 15% but are not yet commercially available in the UK. From the British Photovoltaic Association website, silicon and single crystalline materials are mentioned as PV cells available on the market [7]. The energy efficiency for a PV panel is measured in the energy output (kWh/yr) from the panel divided with the energy input (kWh/yr).
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Disadvantages Needs to be uncovered (not shaded) at all time. Annual sunlight hours in the UK Loading capacity for the roof. Listed buildings require permission in order to put PV panels on the roof Cost efficiency.
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Aerodynamics
A wind power station uses the same technology as an aircraft to generate lift. The blades are shaped as an aerofoil to generate lift that exceeds the gravity of the aerofoil so it moves upwards. On an aircraft wing there are four aerodynamic forces Lift, Gravity, Thrust and Drag. An aerofoil is usually rated on a lift to drag ratio. Lift and Drag are design parameters and gravity is constant at (9.81 m/s2). Drag is depending on the shape of the aerofoil and has to do with the air flow over the aerofoil exerting a certain friction between the air and aerofoil surface. This creates turbulence and slows the air down. The reason for all wings and blades looking very similar is that the design lets the air to speed up (bulge design) over the wing and is constant (flat design) under the wing. This creates suction on top of the wing (low pressure) and pressure under the aerofoil (higher pressure), to get equilibrium. This generates lift which makes the aerofoil move upwards. [2]
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Rotor
Nacelle
Tower
Foundation
138
Inside the nacelle: 5. Low speed shaft: The shaft uses mechanical energy transferred from the hub and transfers it to a high speed shaft through a gear box. 6. Gear box: The gear box transfer the mechanical energy from a low speed shaft to a high speed shaft to approximately 50 times higher speed output. This is for larger turbines [3] 7. High speed shaft: The high speed shaft is connected to the generator that creates electricity. It is also connected to an emergency break 8. Emergency break: The emergency break is generally a mechanical disc break but can be a hydraulic or electrical break. It is used if emergency braking is needed for example in high wind speeds over 25 m/s 9. Generator: The generator converts mechanical energy to electricity by electromagnetic induction. Rotating magnets around a coil inducts a current in the coil. 10. Cooling: The Generator is usually cooled by fan cooling. 11. Controller: The controller starts and stops the turbine and shuts it down if necessary. The controller also controls the electrical output and makes sure the voltage and current output to the grid or domestic housing is correct. 12. Anemometer: The Anemometer measures the wind speed and sends data to the controller. 13. Yaw motor: The motor powers the yaw drive to get the rotor in favourable direction. 14. Yaw drive: The yaw drive turns the blades and hub into the wind to get a high kinetic energy input. 15. Wind Vanes: Measure the wind direction and send data to the yaw drive.[ 5] [3]
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Nacelle 12 15 5 4 6 10 7 11
8
Figure 26 showing simplified drawings over the Nacelle
The electricity from the generator is sent to a transformer. It transforms the electricity up to between 10000-30000 Volts. This is because there are few losses in sending a high voltage alternating current (AC) through the grid. The voltage is then transformed down before being utilized in buildings. The voltage in most European households is 230 volts and the AC at 50 Hz. [7]
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The rated energy output for a turbine is the energy it can produce during optimal wind conditions. . A rule of thumb is that approximately 30% of the rated energy is delivered from the wind turbine. [10] Example a 600W turbine delivers approximately 1500kWh/year. (600W x 356days/yr x 24hr) x 0.3(30%) = 1500kWh/yr
Equation(74)
If the wind speed is increased with a factor of 2 the kinetic energy, in the wind, becomes approximately eight times higher. Below is a table showing wind speeds and kinetic energy with numbers from the Danish Wind Industry Association [11] 5 m/s 6 m/s 7 m/s 12 m/s 14 m/s 76.2 W/m2 132.3W/m2 210.1W/m2 1058.4 W/m2 1680.7W/m2
This is with an air density of 1.225 kg/m3, dry air at 15 C. Note: Kinetic energy should always be calculated from the Weibull distribution and not with average wind speeds because the real kinetic energy over a year is considerably higher then the average kinetic energy. Weibull distribution is a, mathematical statistics technique that is used to get an approximation of the kinetic 141
energy per year. It takes into consideration the probability of wind speeds occurring and the power (kinetic energy) that a specific wind speed carries (The Weibull distribution function is shown on page 145). Small turbines usually have rotor diameter of 2 to 9 meter and can favourably be used in remote location where there is no national grid connection. When located without grid connection batteries can be used to store electricity [13]. Large turbines can be used for energy generation to communities or as supplier from wind farms (several wind turbines together in an energy centre) to the national grid. In urban areas such as London it is difficult to use large scale wind turbines. Small scale turbines can be used on buildings. Special design small scale turbines can manage to work efficiently on lower wind speed and in turbulent air around 3.5 m/s. Normal turbines have to be located away from the building to get undisturbed air and usually requires wind speeds of 5 to 6m/s. [14] [17] When planning to place a wind turbine in an urban area the visual impact needs to be considered. Wind turbines will always stick out and can not be hidden in a basement or underground as other renewable energies. An aspect that also needs to be considered is the noise. Wind turbines without gearbox is considered quieter then gearbox turbines. The noise level at the base of a none gearbox turbine has been measured to 60 dB [15].Recommended maximum level of noise, in a living room, from CIBSE is 30 dB [16]. Other planning issues are placing wind turbines on listed buildings or in conservation areas. Local authorities also need to be notified to approve the system installation if the wind turbine is installed to the national grid. Vertical Axis Wind Turbines (VAWT) is not discussed here they have been considered but they are not seemed feasible because they have a lower efficiency then HAWT
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Below is technical data for horizontal axis wind turbines from Proven Engineering LTD [19] TYPE (Turbine) 600 W 2,5 kW 6 kW 15 kW 5 m/s 1,354 4,282 11,622 29,054 6 m/s 1,948 6,333 16,900 42,250 7 m/s 2,504 8,403 21,944 54,860
Table 11 Technical Data: Energy output for turbines at different wind speeds
Below is a wind speed chart over the UK. It is showing the annual mean wind speed 25 meters above ground level.
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Proof Beltz law [8] The energy the wind turbine generates is the difference in kinetic energy of the air before and after passing the turbine. Air has the kinetic energy formula ()*m*V2 (m=mass V= wind speed). Equation(75a)
The mass can be expressed in m =*Volume= *A*V (after one second of flow (A=area)) Equation(75b)
According to simplified aerodynamics energy can not be destroyed only changed to different forms. The energy extracted from the wind to the turbine is the difference in energy before and after the turbine. The Power (energy) equation is P = Power = ()*m*V2 The energy extracted is (Before After) ()*m**V12 -()*m**V22 Equation(76) Equation(75c)
The mass of the air flow is constant before and after the rotor blades according to conservation of mass. This becomes ()*m*V12- V2)2= P Where P is the Power extracted m can be expressed as m after one second of flow as m= *A(V1+V2)/2 Equation(78) Equation(77)
with (V1+V2)/2 as the average wind speed over the rotor blades m is then exchanged in the Power equation = > P= (/4)*(V12 V22)*(V1+V2)*A Equation(79)
This is the equation for power extracted with A as rotor swept area. Original kinetic energy equation is P0 = (/2)*(V1)3A Equation(80)
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The maximum power ratio between extracted power and the original power (P/P0) is 0,59 with the wind speed ratio of 1/3
Weibull distribution Probability distribution function of wind speeds over a period of time [12] [22] PW (V0) = 1-exp[-(V0/C)k] Explanation of variables: PW (V0): Probability function that V is lower than V0 V0: Is the wind speed (limit) C: Is the scale parameter and can be evaluated from real wind data K: Is the shape parameter and can also be evaluated from real wind data To characterise the probability of wind speeds for a turbine, the Rayleigh function is generally utilizes. The Rayleigh function is the weibull distribution when K=2 Equation(81)
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Waste
Municipal solid waste (MSW) is collected waste and is mostly household waste. It is increasing with 3% per year in the UK [1]. The EU directives on MSW are to stop MSW going to landfill especially biodegradable waste. Biodegradable waste emits methane and this can be utilized for energy generation. It is important to take care of the methane gas because it is a greenhouse gas more damaging to the environment then carbon dioxide [2]. The government has set a waste hierarchy to try to reduce waste going to landfill [3]: 1 Reduce 2 Reuse 3 Recycling 4 Disposal
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waste is being combusted/incinerated. The ash from the waste is removed to landfill. [5] The fluidised bed incineration plant is a technology that removes metal and heavy particles before combustion. The fluidised bed is usually a hot sand bed being fluidised by an air stream. The air stream is directed vertically to the bed. The fluidised bed moves the waste into the furnace and is incinerated. [6] Oscillating kiln incineration plants have the waste loaded onto a hopper which regularly feeds waste to the kiln. Waste is delivered into the kiln and mixed with air to get combusted. [7]
Gasification and pyrolysis is a clean process and is within the waste incineration directive (WID) limit. It leaves between 10 to 15% bottom ash for non hazardous landfill and approximately 5% fly ash. The fly ash is sent to a hazardous landfill. The energy output from 30000 tonne wastes per year is 1.4MWel. The optimum size for a plant is approximately less then 2 hectares for a 30000 tonne plant to be economical viable. The technology is a relatively unproven technology there is one working gasification waste plant in the UK and it is dealing with hospital waste. There is also one test plant for gasification municipal waste in Bristol. Incineration by oscillating kiln, the waste can go untreated into the furnace. It reaches temperatures of 1100 C. Emissions for oscillating kilns are minimised by burning the waste at a high temperature with the gas being cooled rapidly. Together with that the emitted gas is filtered and chemical treated to remove particles and acidic residue. The bottom ash created is 20 % of the waste input and is sent to a non hazardous landfill. The fly ash created is 5 % of the waste input and it is sent to a hazardous landfill. This means 25 % of the waste input to the oscillating kiln is sent to landfill. A 60000 tonnes plant per year would generate around 3MWel with a physical size of 1 hectare. Oscillating kiln incineration is a well proven technology in the UK [10].
Dioxins
Dioxins are persistent organic pollutants (POP). They are know to cause cancer in humans and are carcinogenic. Dioxin levels in humans are mainly from the food chain. They can also be absorbed from breathing from for example waste incineration facilities emitting dioxins into the atmosphere. To keep the dioxin levels low for waste incineration plants the temperatures when dioxins are created are avoided. Dioxins are formed when waste is being combusted in temperature ranges of 250 to 400 C. Dioxins are also formed in the cooling flues in temperatures of 200 to 350 C. It is created from unburnt carbon and metal chlorides in the temperature ranges mentioned. Modern waste incineration plants are within the WID limits allowed for dioxin. According to a study (1996) on residents living near an incinerator plant in an urban area in Italy it was found that there was a 6.7 fold increase in deaths from lung cancer [11].
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The MBT waste needs space for sorting before processing and space is also needed for the AD. The large space needed makes it a difficult process to have onsite in an urban area. Together with that AD is odorous and the digestion process contains bacterias which can be harmful for people. If the AD process is located away from the MBT site the transport between the two sites will increase the carbon dioxide emissions.
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The main advantages for gasification and pyrolysis are that it is seen as a clean process and is promising for fuel generation. Gasification and pyrolysis is a relatively new technology in the UK and approximately 20% of the waste needs to be transported to landfill. There is one test plant in Bristol with gasification of municipal waste. Hospital waste plant is the only proven plant utilizing gasification in the UK
It is a conventional incineration process and the waste plant can be designed to be compact. It has higher emission values then gasification and pyrolysis 25% needs to be sent for landfill.
EFW Selection
The selection is made from the energy from waste evaluation above and it is to not have energy from waste systems on the Lots Road site.
The main reasons are: Energy from waste processes emits carbon dioxide and other pollutants The vast space required for a plant over ground in a dens urban area Transport of waste residues from an urban area to landfill increase emissions
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Technical description:
A green roof is constructed of several layers. 1 Vapour control 2 Insulation 3 Root resistant 4 Drainage and water protection 5 Filter fleece 6 Light weight substrate 7 Vegetation
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The vapour control is installed on the roof and then the other layers are stacked on top from insulation to vegetation. [2]
Advantages Thermal barrier to solar gain Reduces heat losses Visual attraction Reduce water runoff Insulation, reduce sound into the building CO2 reduction into the atmosphere, plants acquires an amount of CO2 for photosynthesis.
Disadvantages Green roofs are not an energy generating system. A large load on the roof from planting a green roof requires a better (more expensive) building structure.
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Technical description:
1 Collection point on the roof 2 The water is lead through a filter to loose leaves and debris 3 The water is lead into the tank through the tank inlet 4 Water is pumped up through the suction filter at the tank outlet 5 The water passes through the filter up to pumps that distribute it to the toilets for flushing 6 The system uses the main water supply as a back up system 7 In the tank there is an over flow trap in case of flooding
WC WC WC
Tank Inlet
Figure 28 Simplified Harvesting system
It is always a question of health hazard to reuse water. Water is taken nearby the water surface into the suction pumps. This is where the water is cleanest, heavy particles and debris sink to the bottom of the tank. The tank water needs to be kept aerobic to prevent malodour. There is minimal health risk to use rain water for toilet flushing but some discoloration has to be accepted by the end user. [1] [2] 153
Disadvantages Low cost efficiency Requires high maintenance to ensure sufficient system operation
154
Disadvantages Low cost efficiency Requires high maintenance to ensure sufficient system operation
155
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Appendix A References
Biomass
[1] Royal Commission on environmental pollution, Biomass as a renewable energy source, UK, Royal Commission on environmental pollution, 2004, p. 03 [2] ODPM, planning for renewable energy, A companion guide to PPS22, UK, OPDM, 2004, p.81-85 [3] Royal Commission on environmental pollution, Biomass as a renewable energy source, UK, Royal Commission on environmental pollution, 2004, p. 09-29 [4] Royal Commission on environmental pollution, Biomass as a renewable energy source, UK, Royal Commission on environmental pollution, 2004, p. 30 [5] Royal Commission on environmental pollution, Biomass as a renewable energy source, UK, Royal Commission on environmental pollution, 2004, p. 03 figure 3-1 [6] U.S. Department of Energy [Home page on Internet] Energy Efficiency and Renewable Energy [Cited 21-06-2007] Available from: http://www1.eere.energy.gov/biomass/pyrolysis.html#thermal [7] U.S. Department of Energy [Home page on Internet] Energy Efficiency and Renewable Energy [Cited 21-06-2007] Available from: http://www1.eere.energy.gov/biomass/gasification.html [8] Petrov, Miroslav P, Biomass and Natural gas Hybrid combined cycles, M. Sc. Thesis report, Royal institute of technology, Stockholm Sweden, 2003 [9] Pettersson Mariane, Bakgrundsdokument for kriterieutveckling for pellets, for SIS miljomarkning AB, SIS, Sweden, 2005 [10] The Engineering Toolbox [Home page on Internet] The Engineering Toolbox [Cited 10-04-2007] Available from: http://www.engineeringtoolbox.com/fuels-higher-calorific-values-d_169.html [11] Maunsell F, London Renewables Integrating renewable energy into new developments: Toolkit for Planners, developers and consultants, London, Greater London Authority, 2004, p.62-63 ISBN:1852616601 [12] Royal Commission on environmental pollution, Biomass as a renewable energy source, UK, Royal Commission on environmental pollution, 2004, p. 54 [13] ODPM, planning for renewable energy, A companion guide to PPS22, UK, OPDM, 2004, p.94113 [14] BIOS BIO ENERGY SYSTEMS Gmbh [Home page on Internet] BIOS [Cited 10-04-2007] Available from: http://www.bios-bioenergy.at/en/electricity-from-biomass/biogas.html
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CHP
[1] Action energy, Good Practise Guide Combined heat and power in buildings, England, Carbon Trust, 2004, p.30 [2] Town And Country Planning Association, Sustainable energy by design a TCPA `by design guide for sustainable communities, London, TCPA, 2006, p. 37, ISBN:0902797395 [3] EPA U.S. Environmental and Protection Agency, Catalogue of CHP technologies, Technology characterization: Gas turbines, U.S., EPA, 2002, p.06 [4] EPA U.S. Environmental and Protection Agency, Catalogue of CHP technologies, Technology characterization: Gas turbines, U.S., EPA, 2002, p.04 [5] EPA U.S. Environmental and Protection Agency, Catalogue of CHP technologies, Technology characterization: Steam turbines, U.S., EPA, 2002, p.04 [6] EPA U.S. Environmental and Protection Agency, Catalogue of CHP technologies, Technology characterization: Steam turbines, U.S., EPA, 2002, p.09 [7] EPA U.S. Environmental and Protection Agency, Catalogue of CHP technologies, Technology characterization: Reciprocating engine, U.S., EPA, 2002, p.10 [8] EPA U.S. Environmental and Protection Agency, Catalogue of CHP technologies, Technology characterization: Reciprocating engine, U.S., EPA, 2002, p.02 [9] EPA U.S. Environmental and Protection Agency, Catalogue of CHP technologies, performance characteristics, U.S., EPA, 2002, p.07 [10] Royal Commission on environmental pollution, Biomass as a renewable energy source, UK, Royal Commission on environmental pollution, 2004, p. 34 [11] Action energy, Good Practise Guide Combined heat and power in buildings, England, Carbon Trust, 2004, p.04 [12] Maunsell F, London Renewables Integrating renewable energy into new developments: Toolkit for Planners, developers and consultants, London, Greater London Authority, 2004, p.167 ISBN:1852616601 [13] Lowry Renaissance [Home page on Internet] Lowry Renaissance [Cited 05-06-2007] Available from: http://www.lowryhomes.com/titanicmill/sustainable_energy.asp?did=14&devPic1=titanic_logo.gif&de vName=Titanic%20Mill
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GSHP
[1] IEA Heat ump Centre [Home page on Internet] IEA [Updated 14-05-2008, Cited 21-05-2007] Available from: http://www.heatpumpcentre.org [2] Rawlings Rosie, Ground source Heat Pumps a technology review, A BSRIA Technical note, TN 18/1999, UK, 1999, executive summary section 2
[3] Maunsell F, London Renewables Integrating renewable energy into new developments: Toolkit for
Planners, developers and consultants, London, Greater London Authority, 2004, p.73, ISBN:1852616601
[4] Rawlings Rosie, Ground source Heat Pumps a technology review, A BSRIA Technical note, TN 18/1999, UK, 1999, p.07 figure 2.2 [5] Maunsell F, London Renewables Integrating renewable energy into new developments: Toolkit for Planners, developers and consultants, London, Greater London Authority, 2004, p.72, ISBN:1852616601 [6] Rawlings Rosie, Ground source Heat Pumps a technology review, A BSRIA Technical note, TN 18/1999, UK, 1999, p.08 figure 2.3 [7] Rawlings Rosie, Ground source Heat Pumps a technology review, A BSRIA Technical note, TN 18/1999, UK, 1999, p.08 section 2.3 [8] Enercret [Homepage on Internet] Enercret [Cited 18-07-2008] Available from: http://www.enercret.com/page/english/enercret_system/how_it_works/how_it_works.html [9] Cementation Foundations Skanska, [Homepage on Internet] Skanska [Cited 01-05-2008] Available from: www.skanska.co.uk/files/graphics/CFS/Datasheets/Energy%20Piles.pdf [9] Cementation Foundations Skanska, [Homepage on Internet] Skanska [Cited 01-05-2008] Available from: www.skanska.co.uk/files/graphics/CFS/Datasheets/Energy%20Piles.pdf [10] AGS The Association of Geotechnical and Geoenvironmental Specialists [Homepage on Internet] AGS [Cited 10-05-2007] Available from: www.ags.org.uk/aboutus/GeothermalEnergyandEnergyPiles.ppt [11] Canada Renewable Energy Network Canren [Homepage on Internet] Canren [Cited: 05-04-2008] Available from: www.canren.gc.ca/app/filerepository/B0126630E3FD4FFD91D2FC21C213724C.pdf [12] Natural Resources Canada, Commercial Earth Energy Systems: A Buyers Guide, Canada, 2002 ISBN 0-662-32808-6 [13] Rawlings Rosie, Ground source Heat Pumps a technology review, A BSRIA Technical note, TN 18/1999, UK, 1999, p.04 [14] Rawlings Rosie, Ground source Heat Pumps a technology review, A BSRIA Technical note, TN 18/1999, UK, 1999, p.23 [15] IEA Heat ump Centre [Home page on Internet] IEA [Updated 14-05-2008, Cited 21-05-2007] Available from: http://www.heatpumpcentre.org [16] National Energy Foundation NEF [Homepage on Internet] NEF [Cited 21-04-2007] Available from: www.nef.org.uk/gshp/documents/CE82-DomesticGroundSourceHeatPumps.pdf
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SWH
[1] Maunsell F, London Renewables Integrating renewable energy into new developments: Toolkit for Planners, developers and consultants, London, Greater London Authority, 2004, p.50, ISBN:1852616601 [2] U.S. Department of Energy EERE [Homepage on Internet] EERE [Cited: 18-07-2008] Available from: http://www1.eere.energy.gov/solar/sh_basics_collectors.html#flatplate [3]U.S. Department of Energy EERE [Homepage on Internet] EERE [Cited 18-07-2008] Available from: http://www1.eere.energy.gov/solar/sh_basics_collectors.html#evacuatedtube [4] Ashrae, HVAC application handbook, SI, Solar energy use, Ashrea, UK, 2003, p.33.7, figure 9 [5] Ashrae, HVAC application handbook, SI, Solar energy use, Ashrea, UK, 2003, p.33.8 [6] Ashrae, HVAC application handbook, SI, Solar energy use, Ashrea, UK, 2003, p.33.7 [7] Energy Savings Trust, Factsheet 3 Solar Water Heating, Energy Savings Trust, UK, 2005 [8] BRE, SAP 2005:The Governments Standard Assessment Procedure for Energy Rating of Dwellings, Watford, DEFRA, 2005, p.29 [9] Ashrae, HVAC application handbook, SI, Solar energy use, Ashrea, UK, 2003, p.33.10 [10] Maunsell F, London Renewables Integrating renewable energy into new developments: Toolkit for Planners, developers and consultants, London, Greater London Authority, 2004, p.51, ISBN:1852616601 [11] Maunsell F, London Renewables Integrating renewable energy into new developments: Toolkit for Planners, developers and consultants, London, Greater London Authority, 2004, p.52, ISBN:1852616601
PV
[1] How Stuff Works [Homepage on Internet] How Stuff Works [Cited: 08-06-2008] Available from: http://science.howstuffworks.com/solar-cell4.htm [2] How Stuff Works [Homepage on Internet] How Stuff Works [Cited: 08-06-2008] Available from: http://science.howstuffworks.com/solar-cell7.htm [3] U.S. Department of Energy EERE [Homepage on Internet] EERE [Cited 18-07-2008] Available from: http://www1.eere.energy.gov/solar/solar_cell_materials.html [4] Maunsell F, London Renewables Integrating renewable energy into new developments: Toolkit for Planners, developers and consultants, London, Greater London Authority, 2004, p.41, ISBN:1852616601 [5] U.S. Department of Energy, DOE Solar Energy Technologies Program overviews and highlights, U.S., 2006, p.07, DOE/GO-102006-2314 [6] Renewable Energy UK (REUK), [Homepage on Internet] REUK [Cited: 25-06-2007] Available from: http://www.reuk.co.uk/40-Percent-Efficiency-PV-Solar-Panels.htm
[7] British Photovoltaic Association [Homepage on Internet] BPA [Cited: 20-04-2007] Available from: http://www.greenenergy.org.uk/pvuk2/about/index.html
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[8] U.S. Department of Energy EERE [Homepage on Internet] EERE [Cited: 25-06-2008] Available from: http://www1.eere.energy.gov/solar/solar_cell_materials.html [9] How Stuff Works [Homepage on Internet] How Stuff Works [Cited: 10-05-2007] Available from: http://science.howstuffworks.com/solar-cell3.htm [10] U.S. Department of Energy EERE [Homepage on Internet] EERE [Cited: 23-06-2008] Available from: http://www1.eere.energy.gov/solar/pv_basics.html [11] How Stuff Works [Homepage on Internet] How Stuff Works [Cited: 13-05-2007] Available from: http://science.howstuffworks.com/solar-cell6.htm [12] DTI, Photovoltaic in Buildings, A design guide, UK, 1999, p.62 [13] U.S. Department of Energy EERE [Homepage on Internet] EERE [Cited: 23-06-2008] Available from: http://www1.eere.energy.gov/solar/bos.html [14] DTI, Photovoltaic in Buildings, A design guide, UK, 1999, p.12 [15] DTI, Photovoltaic in Buildings, A design guide, UK, 1999, p.9-12 [16] Maunsell F, London Renewables Integrating renewable energy into new developments: Toolkit for Planners, developers and consultants, London, Greater London Authority, 2004, p.41-42, ISBN:1852616601 [17] DTI, Photovoltaic in Buildings, A design guide, UK, 1999, p.9 figure 2.13 [18] DTI, Photovoltaic in Buildings, A design guide, UK, 1999, p.10 figure 2.14 [19] Maunsell F, London Renewables Integrating renewable energy into new developments: Toolkit for Planners, developers and consultants, London, Greater London Authority, 2004, p.42, ISBN:1852616601
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Wind Power
[1] Princeton [Homepage on Internet] Princeton [Cited: 11-06-2008] Available from: http://www.princeton.edu/~asmits/Bicycle_web/Bernoulli.html [2] Danish Wind Industry Association [Homepage on Internet] Danish Wind Industry Association [Cited: 11-06-2008] Available from: http://www.windpower.org/en/tour/wtrb/lift.htm [3] Danish Wind Industry Association [Homepage on Internet] Danish Wind Industry Association [Cited: 11-06-2008] Available from: http://www.windpower.org/en/tour/wtrb/comp/index.htm [4] [Homepage on Internet] Princeton [Cited: 11-04-2007] Available from: http://www.renewablesmade-in-germany.com/fileadmin/user_upload/product/51/51_subimg1_web_web.jpg [5] How Stuff Works [Homepage on Internet] How Stuff Works [Cited: 08-05-2007] Available from: http://science.howstuffworks.com/wind-power1.htm [6] Hoare Lea Consulting [Internal Report], Wind turbine installation preliminary feasibility study for National marine aquarium, Bristol, Hoare Lea Consulting, 2005 [7] Danish Wind Industry Association [Homepage on Internet] Danish Wind Industry Association [Cited: 11-06-2008] Available from: http://www.windpower.org/en/tour/wtrb/electric.htm [8] Danish Wind Industry Association [Homepage on Internet] Danish Wind Industry Association [Cited: 11-06-2008] Available from: http://www.windpower.org/en/stat/betzpro.htm [9] Danish Wind Industry Association [Homepage on Internet] Danish Wind Industry Association [Cited: 11-06-2008] Available from: http://www.windpower.org/en/tour/wtrb/size.htm [10] Energy Savings Trust, Factsheet 6 Small Scale Wind Energy, Energy Savings Trust, UK, 2005 [11] Danish Wind Industry Association [Homepage on Internet] Danish Wind Industry Association [Cited: 11-06-2008] Available from: http://www.windpower.org/en/stat/unitsw.htm#anchor1345942 [12] Danish Wind Industry Association [Homepage on Internet] Danish Wind Industry Association [Cited: 11-06-2008] Available from: http://www.windpower.org/en/tour/wres/weibull.htm [13] Energy Savings Trust, Factsheet 6 Small Scale Wind Energy, Energy Savings Trust, UK, 2005 [14] Building service journal, wind and the global warming imperative, BSJ, UK, 2006 [15] Hoare Lea Consulting [Internal Report], Wind turbine installation preliminary feasibility study for National marine aquarium, Bristol, 2005 [16] CIBSE, Guide A: Environmental Design, CIBSE, UK, p.28 [17] Maunsell F, London Renewables Integrating renewable energy into new developments: Toolkit for Planners, developers and consultants, London, Greater London Authority, 2004, p.92-93, ISBN:1852616601 [18] DTI [Homepage on Internet] DTI [Cited: 11-06-2008] Available from: http://www.mike.munro.cwc.net/alt_e/windpow/windmon/nobl_c.gifa [19] Hoare Lea Consulting [Internal Report], Wind turbine installation preliminary feasibility study for National marine aquarium, Bristol, 2005
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[20] Maunsell F, London Renewables Integrating renewable energy into new developments: Toolkit for Planners, developers and consultants, London, Greater London Authority, 2004, p.43, ISBN:1852616601 [21] Danish Wind Industry Association [Homepage on Internet] Danish Wind Industry Association [Cited: 11-06-2008] Available from: http://www.windpower.org/en/tour/econ/index.htm [22] Hoare Lea Consulting [Internal Report], Wind turbine installation preliminary feasibility study for National marine aquarium, Bristol, 2005
EFW
[1] DEFRA, Waste implementation programme version 2, 2005 July, UK, DEFRA, p.02, [2] ODPM, planning for renewable energy, A companion guide to PPS22, UK, OPDM, 2004, p.94
[3] DEFRA, Waste implementation programme version 2, 2005 July, UK, DEFRA, p.03
[4] DEFRA, Impact of energy from waste and recycling policy on UK Greenhouse gas emissions, 2006, UK, DEFRA [5] DEFRA, Waste implementation programme version 2, 2005 July, UK, DEFRA, p.15 [6] DEFRA, Waste implementation programme version 2, 2005 July, UK, DEFRA, p.15 [7] Viridor, The Exeter Area Energy for Waste Initiative, Dont let Devon go to waste, 2006, UK, Viridor p.06 [8] Viridor, The Exeter Area Energy for Waste Initiative, Dont let Devon go to waste, 2006, UK, Viridor p.05 [9] DEFRA, Waste implementation programme version 2, 2005 July, UK, DEFRA, p.16 [10] Viridor, The Exeter Area Energy for Waste Initiative, Dont let Devon go to waste, 2006, UK, Viridor p.05-07 [11] Greenpeace [Homepage on Internet] Greenpeace [Cited: 20-04-2007] Available from: www.greenpeace.org.uk/MultimediaFiles/Live/FullReport/3809.PDF
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Green Roof
[1] Hoare Lea Consulting,[Internal Report] Hoare Lea sustainable report: Adnams Distribution Centre Reydon, Bristol, Hoare Lea Consulting, [2] Blackdown Horticultural Consultants Limited [Homepage on Internet] Blackdown Horticultural Consultants Limited [Cited: 22-06-2007] Available from: http://domain879190.sites.fasthosts.com/greenroofs.htm#construction
Water Recovery
[1] Hoare Lea Consulting,[Internal Report] Hoare Lea sustainable report: Adnams Distribution Centre Reydon, Bristol, Hoare Lea Consulting, [2] BSRIA, Rainwater and Greywater in buildings Project report and case studies, Section Rainwater, UK, BISRA [3] BSRIA, Rainwater and Greywater in buildings Project report and case studies, Section Rainwater, UK, BISRA
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The biomass boilers are sized for the thermal peak load since the solar water heating performance is unreliable. The peak thermal load of the north side is achieved by two 1200 kW boilers. The electrical peak load is the instant electrical load For the electrical peak load Hoare Lea consulting uses a rule of thumb of 2 kW for a regular flat. [2] There are 448 flats and the instant electrical load per flat is 2 kW This equals an Electrical Peak load of 2 x 448= 896 kW Equation (1b)
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South side
The south side thermal demand is 8500 5900 = 2600 MWh/year There are 255 flats and the instant thermal load per flat is 5 kW This equals a Thermal Peak load of 5 x 255= 1275 kW There are 255 flats and the instant electrical load per flat is 2 kW This equals an Electrical Peak load of 2 x 255= 510 kW Equation (2b) Equation (2a) Equation (3)
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Equation (5) shows that SWH can provide approximatley1800 MWh/year. For the final recommendation 1700 MWh/year are assumed to be provided from SWH panels.
167
117.2 (MWh/year) are approximately 2.6 % of the electrical demand for the Lots Road site.
168
The carbon dioxide reductions for the Lots Road site are compared to conventional heating from a gas boiler and electricity delivered from the grid. The total Lots Road site carbon dioxide emissions are approximately 4000000 CO2 kg/year. This is from the equation: (8500000 / 0.78) x 0.194 + 4500000 x 0.4222 = 4013.103 CO2 ton/year Equation (9) 8500000 (kWh/year) is the thermal demand for the Lots Road site 4500000 (kWh/year) is the total electrical demand for the Lots Road site 0.194 (CO2 kg/kWh) is the conversion factor for natural gas [6] 0.4222 (CO2 kg/kWh) is the conversion factor for electricity from the grid [6 0.78 is the estimated boiler efficiency from appendix R, notional building, in SAP 2005 [7].
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B4.1 Biomass
The biomass boilers provide thermal energy and when delivering 20% of the yearly energy demand (2600 (MWh/year)). The savings will be: 2600000 / (0.78) x 0.194 = 646666.7 kgCO2/year The percentage carbon dioxide emissions saved are then: (646666.7/4000000) x 100 = 16.16 % Equation(11) Equation (10)
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B4.3 CHP
Gas engine CHP with an efficiency of 80% and a power to heat ratio of 1:1.286 from the carbon trust [8] When producing 1150000 (kWh/year) electricity and 1477750 (kWh/year) of heat the CHP system produces roughly 20% of the yearly energy demand. The savings will be: ((1462642/0.78) x 0.194 + 1137358 x 0.422) (2600000/0.80 x 0.194) = 213250 kgCO2/year Equation (14)
This is the emissions saved from conventional energy generation subtracting the emissions for the natural gas used in the CHP engine. The percentage carbon dioxide emissions saved are then: (213250/4000000) x 100 = 5.33 % Equation (15)
B4.4 GSH
The ground source heating system will deliver thermal energy and when delivering 20% of the yearly energy demand (2600 (MWh/year)) It is calculated assuming that the heat pump has a CoP of 4 i.e. electricity to thermal ratio 1:4. The savings will be: (2600000/0.78 x 0.194) ((1/4) x (2600000 x 0.4222)) = 372366.7 kgCO2/year
Equation (16)
The savings are the thermal energy (gas boiler) emissions subtracting the emissions from the electrical pump in the GSH system. The percentage carbon dioxide emissions saved are then: (372366.7/4000000) x 100 = 9.31 % Equation (17)
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B4.5 Photovoltaic
The photovoltaic system will deliver electricity and when delivering 20 % of the yearly energy demand (2600 (MWh/year)). The savings will be: 2600000x 0.422= 1097200 kgCO2/year The percentage carbon dioxide emissions saved are then: (1097200/4000000) x 100 = 27.43 % Equation (19) Equation (18)
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B5 Cost
The cost estimation for the systems below is from information found in the London toolkit [9] and from the Hoare Lea Consulting internal report (The Holland street buildings Energy Review) [10]. No considerations have been made to site limitations of for example if it is physical possible to have solar water heating panels all over the site. The cost for an energy system differs depending on source. Here the lowest reasonable cost for an energy system is selected. This is seemed reasonable since renewable energy and CHP is becoming more and more available. The cost below is in pounds per kilowatt (/kW) or pounds per square meter (/m2) Energy SWH GSH Biomass Wind Power PV Biomass CHP CHP Cost 1460 400 800 200 2000 2482 850 2720 1000 Unit /kW /m2 /kW /kW /kW /kW /m2 /kWe /kWth
Table 1 Ccost per kilowatt or square meter of the energy technologies kWe is when the output is in electricity and kWth is when the output is in thermal energy.
The estimated capital cost of the energy systems is calculated for 1500 (MWh/year) by multiplying the system size kW with the cost (/kW). The cost it is shown below in Table 2. Energy & System size SHW 822 (kW) GSH 1125 (kW) Biomass 700 (kW) Wind Power 570 (kW) PV 5480 (kW) Biomass CHP 140 (kWe) CHP 180 (kWth) Cost () 1,200,000 900,000 140,000 1,140,000 13,601,360 380,800 180,000
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B6 System sizing
The system sizing uses rule of thumbs and Hoare Lea Consulting guidelines to achieve a reasonable system size for delivering 1500 MWh/year. Below are explanations to the system sizing in table 2 in appendix B5 on page 173.
Below is a calculation to show that it meets the 1500 (MWh/year) energy demand. 570 x 0.3 x 365 x 24 = 1497960 (kWh / year) 0.3 is the 30 % 570 is the turbine output. 365 x 24 is the amount of hours in a year. Equation (26)
B6.4 Photovoltaic
The PV panel is estimated to 750 (kWh/per kWp) with a 15% efficiency it then needs 8 m2 panel per kWp [4]. This report has made an approximation to 5 working hours per day for the PV panel. The cost from the London toolkit is 850 /m2 [9]. The system size is then 5480 kW. This would require a panel physical size of approximately 16002 m2. There is therefore not enough roof space available at the Lots Road site to deliver 1500 MWh/year. Below is a calculation to show that it if space were available it would have meet the 1500 (MWh/year) energy demand. 5 x 365 5480 x 0.15 = 1500150 (kWh / year) Equation (27)
B6.5 Biomass
The system size for biomass is estimated to 700 kW working 2200 hr/year. The working hours for biomass are set to 2,200 hours per year which is chosen from the Hoare Lea Consulting internal report [25]. Below is a calculation to show that it meets the 1500 (MWh/year) energy demand. 700 x 2200 = 1540000(kWh / year) Equation (28)
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B7 Payback time
The payback time for the different renewable energies are not shown in the report it is only calculated here in appendix B7. The capital cost is divided with the savings for one year. For example the wind power savings are 106800 pounds per year and the capital cost from table 5 in appendix B5 on page 173 is 1,140,000 . The payback time for wind power is then: 1140000 / 106800 = 11.3 years Equation (31)
The payback times investigated are for the system output of 1500 (MWh/year). The capital cost can be seen in table 5 The prices used are from SAP 2005 [12] Main gas: 1.63 p/kWh The price for electricity the standard tariff is 7.12 p/kWh. The price for natural gas is 1.39 p/kWh. The price for biomass fuel (wood chips) is 1.60 p/kWh.
The savings for one year of wind power is 106800 . Wind power then have a payback time of 11.3 years.
B7.2 Biomass
Savings in one year (1500000 kWh x 1.63 p/kWh) x 10-2 = 24450 Subtracting the cost of the biomass fuel 24450 (1500000 x 1.60) x10-2 = 450 Equation(34) Equation(33)
The savings for biomass for one year is 450 . Biomass then has a payback time of over 100 years.
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B7.3 Photovoltaic
1500000 kWh x 7.12 p/kWh)= 10,680,000 pence = 106,800 pounds () Equation(35) The savings for photovoltaic for one year is 106,800 . Photovoltaic then have a payback time of over 100 years.
2250 per year and that is more expensive then to generate 1500 MWh energy with conventional energy.
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B7.5 CHP
CHP with the ratio 1:1.286 Savings in one year (656167.97 kWh x 1.63 (p/kWh)) + (843832 kWh x 7.12 p/kWh) = 7077637 Pence This equals 70776.37pounds () Subtracting the cost of natural gas used in the gas engine CHP (1,500,000 x 1.39 (p/kWh)) x 10-2 = 20850 pounds () 70776.37 20850 = 49926.37 Equation(40) Equation(41) Equation(39)
The savings for CHP for one year is roughly 50000 . CHP then have a payback time of 4 years.
The savings for biomass CHP for one year is 46776.37 . Biomass CHP then has a payback time of approximately 8 years
The savings for SWH for one year is 24450 . SWH then have a payback time of 50 years.
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The Mayors Energy Hierarchy 1 Use less energy (Be Lean) - To minimize demand for energy 2 Use renewable energy (Be Green) -As much energy as possible should come from zero-carbon sources, so climate change impact is reduced, and natural resources conserved 3 Supply energy efficiently (Be Clean) - Where it is not practical to use renewable energy, the energy should be supplied as efficiently as possible - for example from combined heat and power, so that the fossil fuel is minimized, further reducing overall carbon dioxide emissions.
Figure 2 The Mayors energy hierarchy
The Mayor of London will use his powers to achieve targets for London. They are aimed at 665 GWh and 280 GWh generated from renewable energies by 2010. This will generate electricity for 100000 homes and heat for 10000 homes. This will be achieved by the targets below [17]: -7000 domestic photovoltaic systems -250 public and commercial photovoltaic systems 182
-6 large wind turbines -500 small wind turbines -25000 domestic solar water heating systems -2000 pools solar water heating systems - 3x more anaerobic digestion plants with heat recovery and biomass fuelled combined heat and power for 2020
The essential standard for CO2 emission from the SPG is that a reduction of 10% from the total carbon dioxide emissions should be from onsite renewable energies. The Mayors preferred standard in the SPG is to have zero carbon emission (ZED) developments.[19]
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Criterions are shown below from Part L1A [21] Criterion 1: the prediction rate of CO2 from dwelling (the dwelling emission rate DER) is not greater then Target emission rate (TER). Criterion2: Building fabrics and building service performance are within limits. Criterion3: limit the effect of solar gain in the summer. Criterion 4: Air tightness is checked with pressure tests (NDT) and commissioning. Criterion 5: Awareness to residents to achieve energy efficiency in use
Figure 5 Excerpt from Part L
Explanation of Part L1A criterions: Criterion1: To make sure the buildings do not have to high CO2 emissions. This means the DER emissions shall be lower then the TER emissions. TER is a 20% reduction in emissions compared to a notional building. A notional building is explained in the SAP section. Criterion2: Limit flexibility in design so tradeoffs are discouraged. This means that because renewable energies are implemented the building can not have poor design, for example high heat gain and poor insulation and pass the energy efficient requirements. Criterion3: Elimination of AC, if possible, to save energy by countering internal heat gains. Criterion4: To achieve specified air permeability rate to limit excessive energy losses. Criterion5: Awareness amongst residents as a part of sustainable design, for example using low energy light bulbs.
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Residential Residential area of Block JJ: 85% of total Units with Comfort cooling: 237 Affordable units:0 Electricity use 50/kWh/m /year Gas use 80/kWh/m2/year Energy demand for the residential area: 4469283kWh/year Office Office area of Block JJ: 10% of total Electricity use 128/kWh/m /year [ Gas use 97/kWh/m2/year Energy demand for the office area: 910485kWh/year Retail Retail area of Block JJ: 5% of total Electricity use 234/kWh/m2/year Gas use 65/kWh/m2/year Energy demand for the retail area: 604667.7kWh/year Total energy demand for Block JJ: 5984435 kWh/year Table 3 showing technical data for block JJ
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Residential Residential area of Block HH: 88% of total Units with Comfort cooling: 0 Affordable units:136 Electricity use 40/kWh/m /year Gas use 80/kWh/m2/year Energy demand for the residential area: 978172kWh/year Retail Retail area of Block HH: 12% of total Electricity use 234/kWh/m2/year Gas use 65/kWh/m /year Energy demand for the retail area: 332356.44kWh/year Total energy demand for Block HH 1310528.44 kWh/year Table 4 showing technical data for block HH
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Residential Residential area of Block GG: 95 % of total Units with Comfort cooling: 75 Affordable units:0 Electricity use 50/kWh/m /year Gas use 80/kWh/m /year Energy demand for the residential area: 1596978.5kWh/year Retail Retail area of Block GG: 5% of total Electricity use 234/kWh/m2/year Gas use 65/kWh/m2/year Energy demand for the retail area: 193318.45kWh/year Total energy demand for Block GG 1790296.95 kWh/year Table 5 showing technical data for block GG
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Residential Residential area of Block FF: 95 % of total Units with Comfort cooling 51 Affordable units:0 Electricity use 50/kWh/m /year Gas use 80/kWh/m2/year Energy demand for the residential area: 864129.5 kWh/year Retail Retail area of Block FF: 5% of total Electricity use 234/kWh/m2/year Gas use 65/kWh/m /year Energy demand for the retail area: 104605.15kWh/year Total energy demand for Block FF 968734.65 kWh/year Table 6 showing technical data for block FF
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Residential Residential area of Block EE: 100 % of total Units with Comfort cooling 36 Affordable units:0 Electricity use 50/kWh/m /year Gas use 80/kWh/m2/year Energy demand for the residential area: 580450 kWh/year Total energy demand for Block EE 580450 kWh/year Table 7 showing technical data for block EE
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Residential Residential area of Block DD: 100 % of total Units with Comfort cooling 36 Affordable units:0 Electricity use 50/kWh/m /year Gas use 80/kWh/m2/year Energy demand for the residential area: 631280 kWh/year Total energy demand for Block DD 631280 kWh/year Table 8 showing technical data for block DD
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Residential Residential area of Block CC: 100 % of total Units with Comfort cooling 18 Affordable units:0 Electricity use 50/kWh/m2/year Gas use 80/kWh/m /year Energy demand for the residential area: 351780 kWh/year Total energy demand for Block CC 351780 kWh/year Table 9 showing technical data for block CC
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Residential Residential area of Block BB: 100 % of total Units with Comfort cooling 0 Affordable units:80 Electricity use 40 kWh/m /year Gas use 80 kWh/m2/year Energy demand for the residential area: 612600 kWh/year Total energy demand for Block BB 612600 kWh/year Table 10 showing technical data for block BB
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Residential Residential area of Block AA: 100 % of total Units with Comfort cooling 26 Affordable units:8 Electricity use 40 kWh/m2/year Electricity use 50 kWh/m /year [ Gas use 80 kWh/m /year Energy demand for the residential area:386770 kWh/year Total energy demand for Block AA 386770 kWh/year Table 11 showing technical data for block AA
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From the tables above the energy demand is set to 13000 (MWh/year). The thermal demand is then estimated to 8500 MWh/year and the electrical demand to 4500 MWh/year. The demands are roughly 35 % electrical and 65% thermal for the Lots Road site. In the report the Lots Road site is refereed to as a residential site for simplicity.
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From proven engineering [23] a 15 kW wind turbine will have a rotor blade of 9 meter with a 15 meter tower. Using the rule of thumb of 30 % turbine efficiency [11], the power output for one 15 kW wind turbine equals to: 1500 x 365 x 24 x 0.3 = 39420 kWh/year Equation (48)
This means in order to achieve a 50 % reduction there will have to be 120 wind turbines on the Lots road site.
B10.2 Biomass
The carbon emission conversion factor to get the energy output needed for biomass is 0,194 (kgCO2 / kWh). That is the carbon dioxide emission factor for heating with natural gas. 192
50 % carbon dioxide reduction per year is 2,000,000 kg CO2 / year This equals the energy output of: (2,000,000 / 0,194) = 10309.0 MWh/year Equation(49)
The efficiency from gas boilers is assumed to be 0.78 [24] so biomass will have to deliver. 0.78 x 10309 = 8041.0 MWh /year It is verified by earlier CO2 reduction calculations: (50/16.166) x 2600 = 8041.0 MWh/year Equation(50) Equation (51)
The biomass boiler is assumed to work for 2200 hr/year and is taken from a Hoare Lea Consulting internal [25] report. The system size then needs to be at least: 8041020 / 2200 = 3655 kW Equation (52)
B10.3 CHP
The conversion factors to get the energy output needed for CHP is 0,194 (kgCO2 / kWh) for heating with natural gas and 0.422 (kgCO2 / kWh) for electricity. 50 % carbon dioxide reduction per year is 2,000,000 kg CO2 / year Gas engine CHP will have an efficiency of 80% and a power to heat ratio of 1:1.286 [8]. When the CHP engine is assumed to a 2133.8 kW system in order to run for 5000 hours [25] the energy output will be: 2133.8 x 5000 + 2133.8 x 5000 x 1.286 = 24390.2 MWh/year Equation(53) It is verified by earlier CO2 reduction calculations: (50/5.33) x 2600 = 24390.2 MWh/year The carbon emission reduction for a year is then: ((10669400 x 0.422) + (13720846/0.78) x 0.194)) ((24390246/0.80) x 0.194) = 2000473 kgCO2 / year Equation (55) Equation(54)
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The efficiency from the gas boilers is assumed to be 0.78 [10] solar water heating panels then have to deliver: 0.78 x 10309 = 8041.0 MWh/year It is verified by earlier CO2 reduction calculations: (50/16.166) x 2600 = 8041.0 MWh/year Equation(61) Equation (60)
The energy output for solar water heating panel is assumed to 454 kWh / (yr * m2) 194
This equals a system physical size of: 8041020 / 454 = 17711 m2 panel Equation(62)
B10.6 Photovoltaic
The conversion factor to get the energy output for PV electricity is 0.422 (kgCO2 / kWh). That is the carbon dioxide emission factor for electricity from the grid. 50 % carbon dioxide reduction per year is 2,000,000 kg CO2 / year This equals energy out put of: (2,000,000 / 0.422) = 4740.0 MWh./year It is verified by earlier CO2 reduction calculations: (50/27.43) x 2600 = 4740.0MWh/year Equation(64) Equation(63)
System efficiency of 15 % means that 8 m2 of panel delivers one 1 kWp which equals approximately 750 kWh per year [4].
The system physical size will then be: (47393000 / 750) x 8 = 50553 m2 panel Equation (65)
Equation(67)
The system size will have to be 9309 kW and it will be operating 1500 hours per year. The estimated operating hours is from a Hoare Lea internal report [10]. 9309 x 1500 = 13963500 MWh/year Equation(68)
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Appendix B References
[1] Hoare Lea Consulting [Verbal Source], Hoare Lea Consulting, Bristol, 2007 [2] Hoare Lea Consulting [Verbal Source], Hoare Lea Consulting, Bristol, 2007 [3] Hoare Lea Consulting [Verbal Source], Hoare Lea Consulting, Bristol, 2007 [4] Maunsell F, London Renewables Integrating renewable energy into new developments: Toolkit for Planners, developers and consultants, London, Greater London Authority, 2004, p.52, ISBN:1852616601 [5] Maunsell F, London Renewables Integrating renewable energy into new developments: Toolkit for Planners, developers and consultants, London, Greater London Authority, 2004, p.41, ISBN:1852616601 [6] BRE, SAP 2005:The Governments Standard Assessment Procedure for Energy Rating of Dwellings, Watford, DEFRA, 2005, p.67 [7] BRE, SAP 2005:The Governments Standard Assessment Procedure for Energy Rating of Dwellings, Watford, DEFRA, 2005, p.42 [8] Action energy, Good Practise Guide Combined heat and power in buildings, England, Carbon Trust, 2004, p.04 [9] Maunsell F, London Renewables Integrating renewable energy into new developments: Toolkit for Planners, developers and consultants, London, Greater London Authority, 2004, p.162-175, ISBN:1852616601 [10] Hoare Lea Consulting [Internal Report], G C Bankside Energy Strategy Report For Planning Submission, Hoare Lea Consulting, 2006. [11] Energy Savings Trust [Home page on the Internet], Energy Savings Trust [Updated 2008, Cited 21-07-2007], Available from: http://www.whatyoucando.co.uk/i/u/6024622/i/EST_factsheet_Small_wind.pdf [12] BRE, SAP 2005:The Governments Standard Assessment Procedure for Energy Rating of Dwellings, Watford, DEFRA, 2005, p.67 [13] Hoare Lea Consulting [Internal Report], Architectural Drawings of the Lots Road Site, Hoare Lea Consulting, 2001 [14] Office Of The Deputy Prime Minister, The building regulations 2000 Approved Documents L1A New Dwellings 2006 Edition, ODPM, 2006, p. 16-21, ISBN:139781859462171 [15] Mayor of London, Green light to clean power The Mayors Energy Strategy, London, Greater London Authority, 2004, p.47-48. [16] Mayor of London, Green light to clean power The Mayors Energy Strategy, London, Greater London Authority, 2004, p. X. [17] Mayor of London, Green light to clean power The Mayors Energy Strategy, London, Greater London Authority, 2004, p. XIII-XIV. [18] Mayor of London, Supplementary Planning Guidance: Sustainable Design and Construction The London Plan Supplementary Planning Guidance, London, Greater London Authority, 2004, p. 6.
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[19] Mayor of London, Supplementary Planning Guidance: Sustainable Design and Construction The London Plan Supplementary Planning Guidance, London, Greater London Authority, 2004, p. 15. [20] Office Of The Deputy Prime Minister, The building regulations 2000 Approved Documents L1A New Dwellings 2006 Edition, ODPM, 2006, p. 5, ISBN:139781859462171 [21] Office Of The Deputy Prime Minister, The building regulations 2000 Approved Documents L1A New Dwellings 2006 Edition, ODPM, 2006, p. 15, ISBN:139781859462171 [22] Office Of The Deputy Prime Minister, The building regulations 2000 Approved Documents L1A New Dwellings 2006 Edition, ODPM, 2006, p. 16-21, ISBN:139781859462171 [23] Proven Energy, Health and Safety Information for Installation of Proven Wind Turbines in Public Areas, Scotland, Proven Energy, 2003 [24] BRE, SAP 2005:The Governments Standard Assessment Procedure for Energy Rating of Dwellings, Watford, DEFRA, 2005, p.42 [25] Hoare Lea Consulting [Internal Report], G C Bankside Energy Strategy Report For Planning Submission, Hoare Lea Consulting, 2006.
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