Compendium of en 1993 1 1

Eurobuild in Steel
Compendium of EN1993-1-1
COMPENDIUM OF EN 1993-1-1
ECSC EURO BUILD IN STEEL PAGE 1 OF 84
Forschungsvereinigung Stahlanwendung e.V. (Contractor)
Peiner Trger GmbH (Contractor)
University of Dortmund Institute for Steel Construction (Sub-contractor)

This document is part of the ECSC EuroBuild project

Compendium of
EN 1993-1-1

Summary, design aids and flow charts

Table of contents
1 BASICS 5
1.1 Symbols 5
1.2 Concept of design 8
1.3 Partial factors 9
1.3.1 Partial factor
F
for loads 9
M
for resistances 9
1.4 Materials 9
1.4.1 Design values of material coefficients 9
1.4.2 Material properties 10
2 BASIS OF DESIGN 11
2.1 Classification of cross-sections 11
2.2 Internal forces and moments 14
2.2.1 Influence of second-order analysis 14
2.2.2 Influence of second-order analysis: portal frames structures 14
2.3 Structural stability of frames 15
2.4 Imperfection 16
2.4.1 Global initial sway imperfection 16
2.4.2 Initial local bow imperfection 17
2.4.3 Imperfection for analysis of bracing systems 19
2.5 Structural analysis 21
3 ULTIMATE LIMIT STATE 23
3.1 General 23
3.1.1 Von-Mises yield criterion 23
3.1.2 Section properties and resistances 23
3.2 Structural analysis of cross-section 24
3.2.1 Tension 24
3.2.2 Compression 27
3.2.3 Bending moment about one axis 28
3.2.4 Bending moment about both axes 29
3.2.5 Shear 29
3.2.6 Torsion 31
3.2.7 Interaction of torsion and shear 32
3.2.8 Interaction of bending and shear 33
3.2.9 Interaction of uniaxial bending and axial force 34
3.2.10 Interaction of bi-axial bending and axial force 36
3.2.11 Interaction of bending, shear and axial force 36
3.3 Structural analysis of members 39
3.3.1 Buckling length L
cr
39
3.3.2 Uniform members in compression 40
3.3.3 Uniform members in bending Lateral torsional buckling 44
3.3.4 Uniform members in bending and axial compression I-, H- and
hollow sections 48
3.3.5 Interaction factor k
ij
according to Annex B 51
4 DESIGN AIDS 53
4.1 Initial sway imperfection 53
4.2 Classification of cross-sections 54
4.3 Effective shear area A
V
56
4.4 Interaction of bending and shear 57
4.5 Interaction of uniaxial bending and axial force 58
4.6 Reduction factor and
LT
61
5 FLOW CHARTS 63
5.1 Design of steel structures 64
Flow chart 5.1: General procedure of the design of steel structures 64
Flow chart 5.1 (1): Continuation of General procedure of the design of steel structures 65
5.2 Basis of design 66
Flow chart 5.2: Initial sway imperfection 66
5.2.1 Classification of cross-sections 67
Flow chart 5.3: Classification of one side supported compression parts 67
Flow chart 5.4: Classification of both-side supported compression parts 68
5.3 Structural analysis of cross-sections 69
Flow chart 5.5: Tension 69
Flow chart 5.6: Compression 70
Flow chart 5.7: Bending 71
Flow chart 5.8: shear 72
5.3.1 Interaction 73
Flow chart 5.9: Interaction bending and shear of I-sections V + M 73
Flow chart 5.10: Interaction bending and axial force N + M
y
74
Flow chart 5.11: Interaction bending about z-z axis and axial force N + M
z
75
Flow chart 5.12: Interaction of uniaxial bending, shear and axial force N + V + M
y
76
Flow chart 5.12 (1): Continuation of interaction N + V + M
y
77
y
78
5.4 Structural analysis of members 79
Flow chart 5.13: Centrical compression flexural buckling 79
Flow chart 5.14: Lateral torsional buckling 80
Flow chart 5.14 (1): Continuation of lateral torsional buckling 81
Flow chart 5.15: Bending and compression 82
Flow chart 5.15 (1): Continuation of Bending and compression 83
6 LITERATURE 84
1 Basics
1.1 Symbols
This chapter notes and describes the basic symbols. The extra list of indices al-
lows by a combination with the major symbols, that all notations could be men-
tioned in a short way.

Material properties
f
y
yield strength
f
u
ultimate tensile strength
f
yb
yield strength of a bolt
f
ub
ultimate strength of a bolt
f
yp
yield strength of a pin
f
up
ultimate strength of a pin
f
ur
ultimate strength of a rivet

Variables of load, resistance and cross section
E force and load; modulus of
elasticity
R resistance
G dead load
Q variable load
F load; force
N axial force
V shear force
M bending moment
T torsional moment
M additional moment from shift
of the centre of the effective
area A
eff
relative to the cen-
tre of gravity of the gross
cross section
e
N,i
shift of the centre of the area
A
eff
relative to the centre of
gravity of the gross cross
section
Mi
partial factor for resistance
Fi
partial factor for material
combination factor
A gross area of cross-section
S first moment of inertia
I second moment of inertia
W section modulus
i radius of gyration
b width of a cross-section
h depth of a cross-section
c width or depth of a part of a
cross section
t thickness of a part of a cross
section

axial stress
shear stress
a effective throat thickness
l
eff
effective length
d nominal bolt diameter
d
0
hole diameter for a bolt, a pin
or a rivet

Variables of the system
F
cr
elastic critical buckling load
for global instability mode
based on initial elastic stiff-
nesses
N
cr
elastic critical force for the
relevant buckling mode
based on the gross cross
sectional properties
M
cr
elastic critical moment for
lateral torsional buckling
cr
amplification factor by which
the design loads have to be
increased to reach elastic
critical loads

non-dimensional slender-
ness
1
slenderness value to deter-
mine the relative slender-
ness

Indices
i; j general: variable, replace-
ment character
x; y; z symbol of cross-section axes
k nominal value
d design value
E stress
R resistance
A exceeding
ser serviceability
c cross section
pl plastic
el elastic
eff effectiv
net net
LT lateral torsion, torsional
buckling
u; t ultimate, tension
w welding
b bolt, bearing, buckling
v shearing
s slip
f flange
w web
V reduced by the presence of
shear force
N reduced by the presence of
normal force
vertical
II parallel


Figure 1.1: Dimensions and axes of cross-sections
EN 1990, 6.4.1(b)
1.2 Concept of design
The safety concept considers temporal and spatial variations as well as
insecurities of the mechanical and stochastic models by using partial fac-
tor to reduce the resistance and to increase the forces, compare Figure
1.2. By this differentiated concept a more realistic design of steel struc-
tures is possible in comparison to the concept of the global factors of
older standards.
dt

=
x
f(x) F(X) ; f: density function

Figure 1.2: Density function f(x) of load E and resistance R
From this facts follow the concept of design for all checks:
General concept of design

M
k
F k d d
R
E R E

with
E
d
: design value of loads in ultimate limit state
R
d
: design value of resistance
E
k
: characteristic value of loads
R
k
: characteristic value of resistance
Fi
: partial factor of loads
Mi
:

partial factor of resistances
EN 1993-1-1, 3.2.6

EN 1990, Table A.1.2 (B)

EN 1993-1-1, 6.1
M1
= 1,0

1.3 Partial factors
F
for loads
Table 1.1: Partial factor
F
for loads for the design of ultimate limit state
effects permanent load variable load
unfavourable
35 , 1
sup , j
G
= 50 , 1
sup
Q
=
favourable
00 , 1
inf , j
G
= 0
inf ,
Q
=

M
for resistances
Table 1.2: partial factor
M
for resistances
partial factor limit states
M0
= 1,00 resistance of cross-sections
M1
= 1,00 resistance of members due to instability
M2
= 1,25
resistance of cross-sections in tension
to fracture
The partial factors
Mi
may be defined in the National Annex. In Germany
for example
M1
= 1,10 is recommend to DIN-FB 103 for the design of
bridges.
1.4 Materials
1.4.1 Design values of material coefficients
modulus of elasticity: ] mm / N [ 000 . 210 E
2
=
shear modulus: ] mm / N [ 000 . 81
) 1 ( 2
E
G
2

Poissons ratio in elastic stage: 3 , 0 =
coefficient of linear thermal expansion: ] K [ 10 x 12
1 6
=
) C 100 T for (
1.4.2 Material properties
Table 1.3: Nominal value of yield strength and ultimate tensile strength for hot rolled
structural steel according to EN 1993-1-1, Table 3.1
nominal thickness t f
y
f
u

Steel grade
EN 10025
[mm] [N/mm] [N/mm]
mm 40 t 235 360
S 235
mm 80 t mm 40 < 215 360
mm 40 t 275 430
S 275
mm 80 t mm 40 < 255 410
mm 40 t 355 510
S 355
mm 80 t mm 40 < 335 470
mm 40 t 420 520
S 420 N/NL
mm 80 t mm 40 < 390 520
mm 40 t 440 550
S 450
mm 80 t mm 40 < 410 550
mm 40 t 460 540
S 460 N/NL
mm 80 t mm 40 < 430 540

Table 1.4: Nominal value of yield strength and ultimate tensile strength for hot rolled
structural hollow sections according to EN 1993-1-1, Table 3.1
nominal thickness t f
y
f
u

Steel grade
EN 10210-1
[mm] [N/mm]
[N/mm]
mm 40 t 235 360
S 235 H
mm 65 t mm 40 < 215 340
mm 40 t 275 430
S 275 H
mm 65 t mm 40 < 255 410
mm 40 t 355 510
S 355 H
mm 65 t mm 40 < 335 490
EN 1993-1-1, Table 3.1

proper thickness of material:
rolled

welded

EN 1993-1-1, Table 3.1
EN 1993-1-1, 5.5.2
2 Basis of design
2.1 Classification of cross-sections
Table 2.1: Classification of the analysis on the basis of the class of cross-section
Class Criterion Structural analysis
1
Cross-sections with rotation capacity to
form plastic hinges and -zones
plastic-plastic
2
Cross-sections with limited rotation capac-
ity, but able to develop plastic moment
resistance
elastic-plastic
3
Cross-sections which achieve the yield
strength in the outer compression fibre,
without plastic moment resistance
elastic-elastic
4
Cross-sections which fail of local buckling
before the yield strength will achieve.
elastic-elastic
in consideration of local
buckling on EN 1993-1-5

The following four tables include the criterion of the width-and-thickness
for the cross-section classes 1-3. It differentiates compressed plates that
are supported at one or both sides respectively and angels and hollow
sections. If the criterion of a class 3 cross-section fails, the cross-section
has to classify to class 4. Then an analysis on the basis of EN 1993-1-5
is necessary.
Table 2.2: Maximum width-to-thickness ratio for both-side supported compression parts

Class
Part subject to
bending
Part subject to
compression
Part subject to bending
and compression

: 5 , 0 >
1 13
396

1
72 33
: 5 , 0
36

: 5 , 0 >
1 13
456

2
83 38
: 5 , 0
5 , 41

: 1 >
33 , 0 67 , 0
42
+

3
124 42
: 1 ( ) ( ) 1 62

S235 S275 S355 S420 S460
y
f
235
=

1,0 0,92 0,81 0,75 0,71

Table 2.3: Maximum width-to-thickness ratio for one side supported compression parts

part subject to bending and compression
Class
part subject to
compression
Tip in compression Tip in tension

1
9
9

9

2
10
10

10

3
14
k 21
k
see Table 2.6

1
2
=

with
1
maximum compres-
sive stress
The compressive stress
is defined positive.
EN 1993-1-1, Tab. 5.2,
sheet 2
EN 1993-1-1, Tab. 5.2,
sheet 1
Table 2.4: Maximum width-to-thickness ratio of angles

Class Section in compression

3 5 , 11
t 2
h b
: 15 t / h
+

Table 2.5: Maximum width-to-thickness ratio of tubular sections

Class
Section in bending and/or compres-
sion
1 50
2 70
3 90

f
y S235 S275 S355 S420 S460

1,0 0,85 0,66 0,56 0,51

Table 2.6: Buckling factor k
for internal and outstand compression elements

Internal compression elements
1 1 > > 0 0 0 > > -1 -1 -1 > > -3
k
4,0
) 05 , 1 (
2 , 8
+

7,81 7,81 - 6,29 + 9,78 23,9 5,98 (1 - )
Outstand compression elements
Tip under compression
1 0 -1 1 > > -3
k
0,43 0,57 0,85 0,57 0,21 + 0,07

Outstand compression elements
Tip under tension
1 1 > > 0 0 0 > > -1 -1
k
0,43
) 34 , 0 (
578 , 0
+

1,70 1,7 - 5 + 17,1 23,8

Buckling factor k
on
EN 1993-1-5, Table 4.1
and 4.2
EN 1993-1-1, Tab. 5.2,
sheet 3
1
2
=

with
1
maximum compres-
sive stress

EN 1993-1-1, 5.2.1, (4)B
2.2 Internal forces and moments
First-order analysis
The internal forces and moments have to be determined in consideration
of the initial geometry of the structure with initial sway imperfections re-
placed by equivalent horizontal forces.
Second-order analysis
The internal forces and moments have to be determined in consideration
of the deformation of the structure and the imperfections, which are the
cause of an increasing moment.
2.2.1 Influence of second-order analysis
Structures, which fulfil the following conditions, are classified to stiff struc-
tures. Therefore the effects of the horizontal deformation does not have
to be considered. Accordingly a second-order analysis is not necessary.
For Structures, which dont achieve this criterions, the second-order ef-
fects have to be considered.
Elastic analysis
10
F
F
Ed
cr
cr
=
(2.1)

Plastic analysis
15
F
F
Ed
cr
cr
=
(2.2)
with
F
Ed
design loading on the structure
F
cr
elastic critical buckling load for global instability mode based on
initial elastic stiffnesses

2.2.2 Influence of second-order analysis: portal frames structures
Especially for portal frames constructions with a slope steeper of 1:2 or
26 respectively, the mentioned criterions also apply. Additionally, the
non-dimensional slenderness of the beams or rafters has to restrain the
following condition and it has to be provided, that the ends of the system
length are hinged.
2
2
cr
L
EI
F

=

EN 1993-1-1,
equation (5.1)
EN 1993-1-1,
equation (5.4)
EN 1993-1-1, 5.2.2, (5)B
Criterion:
Ed
y
N
f A
3 , 0

(2.3)
The factor
cr
is defined as follows:
15 . bzw 10
h
V
H
Ed , H Ed
Ed
cr

(2.4)

Figure 2.1: Definition of H
Ed
, V
Ed
und
H,Ed
2.3 Structural stability of frames
The influences of a second order analysis and imperfections and the fol-
lowing analysis of stability can occur in three ways.
Table 2.7: Summary of the analysis of stability
Analysis
Proper internal forces and mo-
ments
Stability
1
second order analysis in considera-
tion of all imperfections
Resistance of cross-sections
2
second order analysis in considera-
tion of the deformation released by
initial sway imperfection
Buckling resistance with end
moments of the members
and buckling length = system
length
3 first order analysis
Buckling resistance on the
basis of the appropriate
buckling length (= equivalent
column method)

Second order analysis by using the factor q for increase
Criterion:

3
cr

(2.5)
If
cr
complies with the requirement, the factor q can be determined:
cr
1
1
1
q
=
(2.6)
EN 1993-1-1, 5.3.2,
equation (5.5)
The analysis of the initial forces and moments is carried out by increasing
the horizontal forces F
h,Ed
.
I
Ed , h
II
Ed , h
F q F =
(2.7)
with
F
h,Ed
design value of the horizontal forces including the equivalent
horizontal forces of the initial sway imperfection
2.4 Imperfection
2.4.1 Global initial sway imperfection
If the following criterion is fulfilled, the initial sway imperfection does not
have to be considered.
Criterion:
Ed Ed
V 15 , 0 H (2.8)
with
H
Ed
sum of the horizontal forces at the bottom of the system
V
Ed
sum of the vertical forces at the bottom of the system

Initial sway imperfection
m h 0
=
(2.9)
with
0
basic value:
0
= 1/200
h
reduction factor for height h applicable to columns

h
2
h
= , but 0 , 1
3
2
h

h height of the structure in meters
m
reduction factor for the number of columns in one row

+ =
m
1
1 5 , 0
m

m the number of columns in one row including only those columns
which carry a vertical load N
Ed
not less than 50% of the average
value of the column in the vertical plane considered
EN 1993-1-1, 5.3.2, (4)B
EN 1993-1-1, Table 5.1

Figure 2.2: Equivalent initial sway imperfection
2.4.2 Initial local bow imperfection
A local bow imperfection is considered by a second-order analysis, if the
condition (1) or (2) is fulfilled.
(1)
Ed
y
N
f A
5 , 0 >
(2.10)
with
the in-plane non-dimensional slenderness calculated for the
member considered as hinged at its ends ( =1)

(2)
at least one moment resistant joint at one member end

Figure 2.3: Initial bow imperfection
Table 2.8: Value of the initial bow imperfection e
0

e
0
Buckling curves
elastic plastic
a
0
l/350 l/300
a l/300 l/250
b l/250 l/200
c l/200 l/150
d l/150 l/100

Class 1up to 3:
cr
y
N
f A
=

EN 1993-1-1, 5.3.2, (6)
EN 1993-1-1, 5.3.4, (3)
EN 1993-1-1, 5.3.2, (7)
and
Figure 5.4
Equivalent horizontal forces
The imperfections can also be considered by equivalent horizontal
forces. For multi-storey frame structures with the same geometry and
stiffness in each storey, the equivalent horizontal forces can be deter-
mined as shown in Figure 2.5.

Figure 2.4: Replacement of initial imperfection by equivalent horizontal forces

Figure 2.5: Equivalent horizontal forces for multi-storey frame constructions
Initial bow imperfections for lateral-torsional buckling
For members, that should be checked for lateral-torsional buckling on the
basis of a second-order analysis and an analysis according to chapter 0,
initial bow imperfections about the minor axis have to be considered, see
(2.11). The resulting and additional moments have to apply by determin-
ing the buckling resistances.
0 0
e k e
~
=
(2.11)
with
e
0
value of the initial bow imperfection about the minor axis
k reduction factor; k = 0,5 is recommended

2.4.3 Imperfection for analysis of bracing systems
Initial bow imperfection of the members to be restrained
500
L
e
m 0
=
(2.12)
with
m
reduction factor for the number of members to be restrained

+ =
m
1
1 5 , 0
m

m number of members to be restrained

Simplified, the initial bow imperfection can convert in an equivalent stabi-
lising forces as shown in Figure 2.6.

Figure 2.6: Equivalent stabilising force q
Equivalent stabilising force q
+
=
2
q 0
Ed
L
e
8 N q

(2.13)
with
q
deformation of the bracing system
L length of the bracing system
N
Ed
design value of the compression load in the flange or chord of
the members to be restrained, it can be accepted:
h / M N
Ed Ed
=
M
Ed
maximum bending moment in the beam
h overall height of the beam

EN 1993-1-1, 5.3.3
equation (5.12)
EN 1993-1-1,
equation (5.13)
Bracing forces at splices

Figure 2.7: Local forces to bracing system

Sway imperfections of vertical members to be restrained

1/2
1/2
N
Ed
N
Ed
h
h
H
i
= 1N
Ed
nordnung der Anfangsschiefst

1
1
H
i
= 1N
Ed
N
Ed
N
Ed
h
fstellung fr Horizontalkrfte
H
i
: additional load on horizontal bracing members
Figure 2.8: Configuration of sway imperfections for horizontal forces on floor dia-
phragms

EN 1993-1-1, 5.3.2, (5)B
for example:
floor
0 m
=
200 / 1
0
=

m
see equation (2.12)
force at the splice
100 / N N 2
Ed m Ed
=
EN 1993-1-1,5.3.3, (4)
and Figure 5.7
splice
b
r
a
c
i
n
g

s
y
s
t
e
m

EN 1993-1-1, 5.4.1
and
5.4.2

5.4.1, (4)B

EN 1993-1-1, 5.4.1
and
5.4.3
2.5 Structural analysis

Figure 2.9: Stress-strain relationship for elastic and plastic structural analysis

Elastic global analysis
The elastic global analysis admits redistribution of the support bending
moment in continuous beams, when they exceed the plastic bending re-
sistance of 15%. The requirements of a redistribution are:
1. after the redistribution, the internal forces an moments remain in
equilibrium with the applied loads
2. all members in which the moment are reduced have Class 1 or 2
cross-sections
3. lateral torsional buckling of the members is prevented.

Figure 2.10: Criterion on redistribution of the support moment

Plastic global analysis
Requirements:
1. The members have class 1 cross-sections with a sufficient rotation
capacity.
2. Futhermore the stability of the members at plastic hinges has to
be assured.
The analysis of the internal forces and moments can be done by three
methods:
1. elastic-plastic analysis with plastified sections and/or joints as
plastic hinges
2. non-linear plastic analysis considering the partial plastification of
members in plastic zones
3. rigid plastic analysis neglecting the elastic behavior between
hinges
3 Ultimate limit states
3.1 General
3.1.1 Von-Mises yield criterion
1
f
3
f f f f
2
0 M y
Ed
0 M y
Ed , z
0 M y
Ed , x
2
0 M y
Ed , z
2
0 M y
Ed , x
(3.1)
The von-Mises yield criterion applies if no other criterion of interaction or
analysis will be mentioned.
3.1.2 Section properties and resistances
Table 3.1: Resistance against classes of section
Class Resistance
Section properties
compression
Section properties
bending
1 plastic A W
pl,y
, W
pl,z
2 plastic A

W
pl,y
, W
pl,z
3 elastic A

W
el,y
, W
el,z
4
resistance on the basis of
the effective cross-
section, see EN 1993-1-5
and Figure 3.1
A
eff
W
eff,y
, W
eff,z
The effective section properties A
eff
and W
eff
have to be calculated on the
basis of a reduced cross-section due to local buckling, compare Figure
3.1, according to EN 1993-1-5.

Figure 3.1: Effective area A
eff
of Class 4 cross-sections under bending and compression
From this, additional moments M
y,Ed
or/and M
z,Ed
, that depend on the
shift of the major axes of the effective section area as regards to the axes
of the gross cross-section area result. They must be calculated by multi-
plying the axial force with the distance to the new balance point.
Ny Ed Ed , y
e N M =

and
Nz Ed Ed , z
e N M =
EN 1993-1-1,
equation (6.1)
EN 1993-1-1, Table 6.7
6.3.3, NOTE 3
EN 1993-1-1,
equation (6.6) and (6.7)
EN 1993-1-1,6.2.2.2,(3)
3.2 Structural analysis of cross-section
The assimilation of the analysis (el.-el., el.-pl., pl.-pl.) results from the
different classes in consideration of the cross-section properties and the
elastic or plastic analysis of the internal forces and moments. Respec-
tively, cross-sections with local buckling can be verified on the basis of
the following analysis, also, compare 3.1.2: Section properties and resis-
tances.
3.2.1 Tension
Check: 0 , 1
N
N
Rd , t
Ed

(3.2)
= =
=
2 M
u net
Rd , u
0 M
y
Rd , el Rd , pl
Rd , t
f A 9 , 0
N
f A
N N
min N

(3.3)
with
A gross cross-section area
A
net
net area along the critical fracture line

N
t,Rd
for cross-sections with bolted connections of category C ac-
cording to EN 1993-1-8
The cross-section with a bolted connection of category C has to be veri-
fied in the critical fracture line, in addition to the above named analysis.

0 M
y net
Rd , net Rd , t
f A
N N

= =
(3.4)

Net area A
net

For symmetric bolt connections, the critical fracture line is defined by the
line which runs rectangular to the axis of the member and through the
maximum numbers of holes, compare Figure 3.2.

EN 1993-1-1,
equation (6.5)
Figure 3.2: Critical fracture line in symmetrical bolted connections
If the bolt connections are staggered, compare Figure 3.3. The area A,
that has to deducted from the gross area, is the maximum of the follow-
ing two values (1) and (2).

Figure 3.3: Critical fracture line in staggered bolted connections
(1)
=

p 4
s
d n t A
2
line 1, compare Figure 3.3
with
s spacing of the centres of two consecutive holes in the
chain measured parallel to the member axis
p spacing of the centres of the same two holes measured
perpendicular to the member axis
t thickness
n number of holes extending over the fracture line
d diameter of hole
(2) A is like the deduction of non-staggered holes, line 2

Angels connected by one leg in tension
If the following criterions of bolted and welded connections are satisfied,
the eccentricity and the additional moments in the joints do not have to
be considered.
Bolted connections

Figure 3.4: Configuration und pitches of holes
EN 1993-1-1,6.2.2.2,(4)
EN 1993-1-8, 3.10.3
EN 1993-1-8, 3.10.2
EN 1993-1-8, 4.13

connection with 1 bolt
( )
2 M
u 0 2
Rd , u
f t d 5 , 0 e 0 , 2
N

=
(3.5)
connection with 2 bolts
2 M
u net 2
Rd , u
f A
N

=
(3.6)
connection with 3 or more bolts
2 M
u net 3
Rd , u
f A
N

=
(3.7)
Table 3.2: Reduction factors
2
and
3
pitch p
1
2,5 d
0
5,0 d
0
2 bolts
2
0,4 0,7
3 or more bolts
3
0,5 0,7
This factors may be interpolated linear, if the pitches p
1
are different from
the defined values in the table.

Welded connections

Figure 3.5: Definition of the area A for welded connection of angels by one leg

Block tearing
Tension members, which are connected with a connection plate by bolts,
have to achieve the analysis of block tearing, equation (3.8), additionally.

Check: 0 , 1
V
N
Rd , 1 , eff
Ed

(3.8)

0 M
nv y
2 M
nt u
Rd , 1 , eff
3
A f
A f
V
=
(3.9)
with
A
nt
net area subjected to tension
A
nv
net area subjected to shear

Figure 3.6: Tearing of a symmetrical bolted connections under centrical force
3.2.2 Compression
For members in compression instability failure has to be analysed, com-
pare chapter 3.3.2: Uniform members in compression. Furthermore the
cross-sections at the end of the members have to satisfy equation (3.10).

Check: 0 , 1
N
N
Rd , c
Ed

(3.10)

Class 1, 2 and 3 cross-sections
0 M
y
Rd , el Rd , pl Rd , c
f A
N N N

= = =
(3.11)

Class 4 cross-sections
0 M
y eff
Rd , c
f A
N

=
(3.12)
The area of the cross-section or the effective area should be determined
without a deduction of holes due to fasteners. But all other holes have to
be considered.
EN 1993-1-1,
equation (6.10)
EN 1993-1-1,
equation (6.9)
EN 1993-1-1,
equation (6.11)
EN 1993-1-8,
equation (3.9)
EN 1993-1-1, 6.2.5
EN 1993-1-1, 6.2.5,
(4)-(6)

3.2.3 Bending moment about one axis
Check: 0 , 1
M
M
Rd , c
Ed

(3.13)

Class 1 and 2 cross-sections
0 M
y pl
Rd , pl Rd , c
f W
M M

= =
(3.14)

0 M
y el
Rd , el Rd , c
f W
M M

= =
(3.15)

0 M
y eff
Rd , c
f W
M

=
(3.16)
The section modulus W
pl
, W
el
und W
eff
must be calculated for the respec-
tive axis.

Reduction in the tensile zone of the section
Reduction of the cross-section as a result of holes in the tension zone,
compare Figure 3.7, have to be considered by the analysis of the bend-
ing moment. If the requirement (3.17) for the flange in tension is not at-
tained, the section modulus W
y
and W
z
will be calculated by the consid-
eration of the new cross-section. Webs in tension have to be observed as
well. The mentioned criterion above must be applied to the whole tension
zone, accordingly the flange and part of web in tension.

Figure 3.7: Deduction of the flange
considering the holes in
the tension zone

equation (6.18)
EN 1993-1-1, 6.2.1(7)
or
6.2.9.1(6), = = 1,
respectively

EN 1993-1-1, 6.2.6, (7)
or
EN 1993-1-8, 3.10.2
respectively

EN 1993-1-1,
equation (6.17)

Criterion:
0 M
y f
2 M
u net , f
f A f 9 , 0 A

(3.17)
with
A
f,net
net area of the tension flange
A
f
gross area of the tension flange

3.2.4 Bending moment about both axes
To combine the bending moment about the y-y and z-z axes in a conser-
vative way, the utilisations have to be added, compare the von-Mises
yield criterion ( = = 1). This analysis can be applied to all classes of
cross-section.

Check: 0 , 1
M
M
M
M
Rd , z , c
Ed , z
Rd , y , c
Ed , y

(3.18)
For a differentiated analysis in consideration of the form of the cross-
section, the exponents and are defined in chapter 3.2.10: Interaction
of bi-axial bending and axial force.
3.2.5 Shear
Check: 0 , 1
V
V
Rd , c
Ed

(3.19)

( )
0 M
y v
Rd , pl Rd , c
3 f A
V V
= =
(3.20)
with
A
v
effective shear area, Table 3.3

Figure 3.8: Effective shear area of parallel to the web loaded cross-sections
EN 1993-1-1, 6.2.6, (3)

= 1,0,
compare DIN-FB 103

t
f
flange thickness
t
w
web thickness
b overall breadth
h overall depth
h
w
depth of the web
r root radius

Table 3.3: Effective shear area A
v

cross-section direction of load effective shear area A
v
rolled I- and H-sections parallel to web
w w f w f
t h t ) r 2 t ( bt 2 A + +

rolled U-sections parallel to web
f w f
t ) r t ( bt 2 A + +

rolled T-sections parallel to web ) bt A ( 9 , 0
f

welded I- ,H- and box sec-
tions
parallel to web

) t h (
w w

rolled I- and H-sections parallel to flange
f
t b 2

welded I- ,H- , U- and box
sections
parallel to flange
) t h ( A
w w

rolled rectangular hollow
sections
parallel to depth
parallel to width
) h b /( Ah +
) h b /( Ab +
tubular hollow sections and
tubes of uniform thickness
- / A 2

Check: 0 , 1
) 3 ( f
0 M y
Ed

(3.21)

t I
S V
Ed
Ed

=
(3.22)

For I- and H-sections with a distinctive flange, which means that the ratio
area of flange to area of web. A
f
/A
w
0,6 applies:
w
Ed
Ed
A
V
=
(3.23)
with
A
w
area of the web;
w w w
t h A =

Shear buckling for web without stiffeners
Ckeck:
72
t
h
t
w

(3.24)
with
EN 1993-1-1,
equation (6.19), (6.20)
EN 1993-1-1,
equation (6.21)
EN 1993-1-1, 6.2.6, (6)

y
f
235
=
EN 1993-1-8, 3.10.2
EN 1993-1-8,
equation (3.10)
= 1,0 (conservative value)

Block tearing at ends of members
Check: 0 , 1
V
V
Rd , 2 , eff
Ed

(3.25)

0 M
nv y
2 M
nt u
Rd , 2 , eff
3
A f
A f 5 , 0
V

+

=
(3.26)
with
A
nt
net area subjected to tension
A
nv
net area subjected to shear

Figure 3.9: Tearing under shear force
3.2.6 Torsion
For the verification of cross-sections loaded by torsion, the elastic yield-
criterion must be satisfied for all classes of cross-section.
For I-sections and other open cross-sections shear stresses subjected to
torsion result from St. Venant torsion moment and warping torsion mo-
ment, which arise from applicable bearing and furthermore from a chang-
ing torsional moment.

The analysis of I-sections evaluated by the shear stress and the geome-
try of the cross-section is defined as follows:

Check:

0 M
y
Ed , w Ed , t Ed
3
f
+ =
(3.27)
with
Ed , t
shear stress due to St. Venant torsion (maximum in the flange)
EN 1993-1-1, 6.2.7
compare EN 1993-1-1,
equation (6.23) and
(6.24)
For a calculation of
stress in I-section,
compare literature
EN 1993-1-1, 6.2.7, (9)
EN 1993-1-1,
equation (6.25)
EN 1993-1-1,
equation (6.26) up to
(6.28)
t
f Ed , t
Ed , t
I
t T
=

Ed , w
shear stress due to warping torsion

I
4 / b T
M Ed , w
Ed , w

=
T
t,Ed
design value of the St. Venant torsional moment
T
w,Ed
design value of the warping torsional moment

For I-sections with warping normal stress the following analysis has to be
satisfied:
Check:
0 M
y
Ed
B
f
I
B
Ed
=
(3.28)
with
BEd
normal stress to the bimoment
B
Ed
bimoment
For an analysis of other cross-sections, design aids in literature may be
used.
3.2.7 Interaction of torsion and shear
Check: 0 , 1
V
V
Rd , T , pl
Ed

(3.29)
The shear stresses must be determined in the shear loaded parts of the
section.
I- and H-sections
( )
Rd , pl
0 M y
Ed , t
Rd , T , pl
V
/ 3 / f 25 , 1
1 V =

(3.30)
U-sections
( ) ( )
Rd , pl
0 M y
Ed , w
0 M y
Ed , t
Rd , T , pl
V
/ 3 / f / 3 / f 25 , 1
1 V

(3.31)
EN 1993-1-1, 6.2.8, (2)

EN 1993-1-1, 6.2.8(3)
or
6.2.10 NOTE
respectively
EN 1993-1-1, 6.2.7, (5)
Hollow sections
( )
Rd , pl
0 M y
Ed , t
Rd , T , pl
V
/ 3 / f 25 , 1
1 V

(3.32)

The interaction of Class 3 and 4 sections results from the analysis of the
yield criterion equation (3.1).
3.2.8 Interaction of bending and shear
Criterion:

5 , 0
V
V
Rd , pl
Ed

(3.33)
If the condition is not satisfied, the interaction will take place by reducing
the loadbearing capacity of the shear loaded part of cross-section either
by
1. reducing the yield strength ( )
y red , y
f 1 f = or
2. reducing the thickness ( )
w red , w
t 1 t =
2
Rd , pl
Ed
1
V
V 2
= (3.34)

General
Check:
Rd , c Rd , V Ed
M M M (3.35)
with
M
V,Rd
reduced design plastic resistance because of shear force

Double-symmetric I-cross-section with bending about the major
axis
Rd , y , c
0 M
y
w
2
w
y , pl
Rd , y , V
M
f
t 4
A
W
M

(3.36)
This definition is valid for all classes of section. Therefore the limit value
M
c,y,Rd
must be determined depending on the class of section, compare
chapter 3.2.3.
EN 1993-1-1,
equation (6.30)

compare DIN FB 103,
5.4.7, (103)
EN 1993-1-1, equation
(6.33) and (6.34)
3.2.9 Interaction of uniaxial bending and axial force
Check:
Rd , N Ed
M M
(3.37)

Rectangular sections
( ) [ ]
2
Rd , pl Ed Rd , pl Rd , N
N / N 1 M M =
(3.38)

I- and H-sections and sections with flanges
Bending about y-y axis
If the design value of the axial force does not apply to both conditions
given in (3.39), the bending moment resistance will have to be reduced.
Criterion:
<
yd w
Rd , pl
Ed
f A 5 , 0
N 25 , 0
N with
M0 (3.39)
The reduced moment resistance must calculated in consideration of the
form of the cross-section. It must be differentiated between I, H sections
and hollow and welded box sections.
I- and H-sections
Rd , y , pl Rd , y , pl Rd , y , N
M
a 5 , 0 1
n 1
M M
=
(3.40)
with
Rd , pl
Ed
N
N
n = and 5 , 0
A
t b 2 A
a
f
=

Hollow and welded box sections
Rd , y , pl
w
Rd , y , pl Rd , y , N
M
a 5 , 0 1
n 1
M M

=
(3.41)
with
- hollow section: ( ) 5 , 0 A / t b 2 A a
w
=
- box section: ( ) 5 , 0 A / t b 2 A a
f w
=

EN 1993-1-1,
equation (6.39) and
(6.40)
EN 1993-1-1,
equation (6.31)
Bending about z-z axis
Criterion:
yd w Ed
f A N <

with
M0

(3.42)
I- and H-sections
= >
2
Rd , z , pl Rd , z , N
a 1
a n
1 M M : a n
(3.43)
M M : a n =
(3.44)
with
Rd , pl
Ed
N
N
n = and 5 , 0
A
t b 2 A
a
f
=

Hollow and welded box sections
Rd , z , pl
f
M
a 5 , 0 1
n 1
M M

=
(3.45)
with
- hollow sections: ( ) 5 , 0 A / t h 2 A a
f
=
- box sections: ( ) 5 , 0 A / t h 2 A a
w f
=

Class 3 cross-section
0 M
y
Ed , x
f

(3.46)

The insertion of all variables follows:
Check: 0 , 1
f W
M
f A
N
d , y el
Ed
d , y
Ed

(3.47)

Check:
0 , 1
f W
M M
f A
N
d , y eff
Ed Ed
d , y eff
Ed
+
+

(3.48)
For the determination of M
Ed
see the descriptions in chapter 3.1.2: Sec-
tion properties and resistances.
EN 1993-1-1,
equation (6.35)
EN 1993-1-1,
equation (6.39) and
(6.40)
EN 1993-1-1, 6.2.9.2
or
EN 1993-1-1, 6.2.1, (7)
respectively
EN 1993-1-1,
equation (6.31)
3.2.10 Interaction of bi-axial bending and axial force
Check: 0 , 1
M
M
M
M
Rd , z , N
Ed , z
Rd , y , N
Ed , y

(3.49)
with
- I -and H-sections: 0 , 1 n 5 2 = =
- circular hollow sections: 2 2 = =
- rectangular hollow sections: 0 , 6
n 13 , 1 1
66 , 1
2

= =

Check: 0 , 1
f W
M
f W
M
f A
N
d , y z , el
Ed , z
d , y y , el
Ed , y
d , y
Ed

(3.50)

Check: 0 , 1
f W
M M
f W
M M
f A
N
d , y z , eff
Ed , z Ed , z
d , y y , eff
Ed , y Ed , y
d , y eff
Ed
+
+
+
+

(3.51)

3.2.11 Interaction of bending, shear and axial force
Cross-sections, that are subjected to bending, shear and axial force have
to be checked, whether an interaction of the loads are necessary. In con-
sideration of the criterion in chapter 3.2.8, 3.2.9 and 3.2.10, the plastic
moment resistance M
pl,Rd
has to be determined.
First of all, it must be checked, whether an interaction due to shear load
is required. If this is the case, the yield strength or the thickness of the
shear loaded section part has to be reduced by the factor (1-), see
chapter 3.2.8. The reduced resistance has to be used also for the plastic
axial resistance. Finally the plastic moment resistance has to be reduced
by the shear and/or axial force.
For double-symmetric I- and H-sections, the interaction criteria are evalu-
ated for all classes of cross-section and forces, see Table 3.5 and 3.6.
EN 1993-1-1,
equation (6.41)
EN 1993-1-1,
equation (6.44)
Table 3.4: Interaction of double symmetric I- and H-sections with the internal forces N
Ed
,
V
z,Ed
and M
y,Ed

C
l
a
s
s
C
r
i
t
e
r
i
o
n
R
d
,
p
l
E
d
,
z
V
5
,
0
V
s
C
r
i
t
e
r
i
o
n
R
d
,
p
l
E
d
,
z
V
5
,
0
V
>
1 2
R
d
,
p
l
E
d
N
5
,
0
N
<
o
r
d
,
y
w
E
d
f
A
2
5
,
0
N
<
0
M
y
y
,
p
l
R
d
,
y
,
p
l
E
d
,
y
f
W
M
M
=
s
R
d
,
V
E
d
N
5
,
0
N
<
o
r
d
,
y
w
,
V
E
d
f
A
2
5
,
0
N
<
R
d
,
y
,
c
0
M
y
w
2
w
y
,
p
l
R
d
,
y
,
V
E
d
,
y
M
f
t
4
A
W
M
M
s
( ( (

=
s
3
0
,
1
M
M
N
N
R
d
,
y
,
c
E
d
,
y
R
d
,
c
E
d
s
+
0
,
1
M
M
N
N
R
d
,
y
,
V
E
d
,
y
R
d
,
c
E
d
s
+
4
a
l
w
a
y
s

i
n
t
e
r
a
c
t
i
o
n

N

+

M
0
,
1
M
M
M
N
N
R
d
,
y
,
c
E
d
,
y
E
d
,
y
R
d
,
c
E
d
s
A
+
+
a
l
w
a
y
s

i
n
t
e
r
a
c
t
i
o
n

N

+

M

0
,
1
M
M
M
N
N
R
d
,
y
,
V
E
d
,
y
E
d
,
y
R
d
,
c
E
d
s
A
+
+
1 2
R
d
,
p
l
E
d
N
5
,
0
N
>
a
n
d
d
,
y
w
E
d
f
A
2
5
,
0
N
>
R
d
,
y
,
p
l
R
d
,
y
,
p
l
R
d
,
y
,
N
E
d
,
y
M
a
5
,
0
1
n
1
M
M
M
s
=
s
R
d
,
V
E
d
N
5
,
0
N
>
a
n
d
d
,
y
w
,
V
E
d
f
A
2
5
,
0
N
>
R
d
,
y
,
p
l
V
V
R
d
,
y
,
V
R
d
,
y
,
V
,
N
E
d
,
y
M
a
5
,
0
1
n
1
M
M
M
s
=
s
3
0
,
1
M
M
N
N
R
d
,
y
,
c
E
d
,
y
R
d
,
c
E
d
s
+
0
,
1
M
M
N
N
R
d
,
y
,
V
,
N
E
d
,
y
R
d
,
c
E
d
s
+
4
a
l
w
a
y
s

i
n
t
e
r
a
c
t
i
o
n

N

+

M
0
,
1
M
M
M
N
N
R
d
,
y
,
c
E
d
,
y
E
d
,
y
R
d
,
c
E
d
s
A
+
+
a
l
w
a
y
s

i
n
t
e
r
a
c
t
i
o
n

N

+

M
0
,
1
M
M
M
N
N
R
d
,
y
,
V
,
N
E
d
,
y
E
d
,
y
R
d
,
c
E
d
s
A
+
+

Rd , y , c
0 M
y
w
2
w
y , pl
Rd , y , V
M
f
t 4
A
W
M

M
c,y,Rd
must be consid-
ered on the basis of the
class of cross-section.

Reduction factor
2
Rd , i , pl
Ed , i
1
V
V 2
=

Reducing the area of
web
( )
w red
t 1 t =

A
w
area of web
w w w
t h A =

A
V,w
reduced area of
web
( )
w w , V
A 1 A =

A
red,V
reduced area of
section
w V , red
A A A =

Additional moment
M
Ed
depending on the
shift of the major axes
Ni Ed Ed , i
e N M =

n = N
Ed
/N
pl,Rd

n
V
= N
Ed
/N
V,Rd

N
V,Rd
reduced resis-
tance of axial
force as a result
of a reduced web
thickness
0 M
y V , red
Rd , V
f A
N

=

( ) 5 , 0 A / t b 2 A a
f
=
( ) a 1 a
V
=

Table 3.5: Interaction of double symmetric I- and H-sections with internal forces N
Ed
, V
y,Ed

und M
z,Ed
C
l
a
s
s
C
r
i
t
e
r
i
o
n
R
d
,
p
l
E
d
,
y
V
5
,
0
V
s
C
r
i
t
e
r
i
o
n
R
d
,
p
l
E
d
,
y
V
5
,
0
V
>
1 2
0
M
y
w
E
d
f
A
N
<
0
M
y
z
,
p
l
R
d
,
z
,
p
l
E
d
,
z
f
W
M
M
=
s
0
M
y
w
,
V
E
d
f
A
N
<
R
d
,
z
,
p
l
R
d
,
z
,
V
E
d
,
z
M
M
M
s
s
3
0
,
1
M
M
N
N
R
d
,
z
,
c
E
d
,
z
R
d
,
c
E
d
s
+
0
,
1
M
M
N
N
R
d
,
z
,
V
E
d
,
z
R
d
,
c
E
d
s
+
4
a
l
w
a
y
s

i
n
t
e
r
a
c
t
i
o
n

N

+

M
0
,
1
M
M
M
N
N
R
d
,
z
,
c
E
d
,
z
E
d
,
z
R
d
,
c
E
d
s
A
+
+
a
l
w
a
y
s

i
n
t
e
r
a
c
t
i
o
n

N

+

M

0
,
1
M
M
M
N
N
R
d
,
z
,
V
E
d
,
z
E
d
,
z
R
d
,
c
E
d
s
A
+
+
1 2
0
M
y
w
E
d
f
A
N
>
n

>

a
:
( ( (

| . |
\ |

=
s
2
R
d
,
z
,
p
l
R
d
,
z
,
N
E
d
,
z
a
1
a
n
1
M
M
M
n
s

a
:
R
d
,
z
,
p
l
R
d
,
z
,
N
E
d
,
z
M
M
M
=
s
0
M
y
w
,
V
E
d
f
A
N
>
n
V

>

a
V
:
( ( (

| | . |
\ |
=
s
2
V
V
V
R
d
,
z
,
V
R
d
,
z
,
V
,
N
E
d
,
z
a
1
a
n
1
M
M
M
n
V
s

a
V
:
R
d
,
z
,
V
R
d
,
z
,
V
,
N
E
d
,
z
M
M
M
=
s
3
0
,
1
M
M
N
N
R
d
,
z
,
c
E
d
,
z
R
d
,
c
E
d
s
+
0
,
1
M
M
N
N
R
d
,
z
,
V
E
d
,
z
R
d
,
c
E
d
s
+
4
a
l
w
a
y
s

i
n
t
e
r
a
c
t
i
o
n

N

+

M
0
,
1
M
M
M
N
N
R
d
,
z
,
c
E
d
,
z
E
d
,
z
R
d
,
c
E
d
s
A
+
+
a
l
w
a
y
s

i
n
t
e
r
a
c
t
i
o
n

N

+

M

0
,
1
M
M
M
N
N
R
d
,
z
,
V
E
d
,
z
E
d
,
z
R
d
,
c
E
d
s
A
+
+

M
c,z,Rd
must be consid-
ered on the basis of
the class of cross-
section.

Reduction factor
2
Rd , i , pl
Ed , i
1
V
V 2
=

Reducing the area of
web
( )
w red
t 1 t =

Following to the reduc-
tion of the web thick-
ness, the section
modulus W
el,i,red
,
W
pl,i,red
, W
eff,i,red
must
calculated new.

0 M
y red , i
Rd , z , V
f W
M

=

A
w
area of a web
w w w
t h A =

A
V,w
reduced area of
web
( )
w w , V
A 1 A =

A
red,V
reduced area of
section
w V , red
A A A =

Additional moment
M
Ed
depending on the
shift of the major axes
Ni Ed Ed , i
e N M =

n = N
Ed
/N
pl,Rd

n
V
= N
Ed
/N
V,Rd

N
V,Rd
reduced resis-
tance of axial
force as a result
of a reduced
web thickness
0 M
y V , red
Rd , V
f A
N

=

( ) 5 , 0 A / t b 2 A a
f
=
( ) a 1 a
V
=

3.3 Structural analysis of members
In the following explanations the analyses are presented in general. Re-
spectively, they have a validity for all classes of cross-section. Therefore
the resistances and sections properties have to be adapted to the appli-
cable class of cross-section, compare 3.1.2: Section properties and resis-
tances. But all limit states can be proved simplified by the elastic resis-
tances.
The buckling resistance check of members will be carried out at a single
span member regarded cut out of the system and in consideration of
1. the global deformation and the first-order analysis or
2. the internal forces and moments by a second-order analysis. Then
the buckling length is equal to the system length.
3.3.1 Buckling length L
cr

General
The buckling length L
cr
will be equal to the length of the global deforma-
tion, if second-order effects are neglected (first-order analysis).
Generally, the condition (3.52) applies.
L L
cr
=
(3.52)
with
coefficient of buckling length
L system length
If the internal forces and moments are determined on the basis oft a sec-
ond-order analysis, the buckling length will be equal to the system length.

Triangulated and lattice structures
Table 3.6: Buckling length L
cr
of triangulated and lattic structures
Buckling
Members
in-plane out-of-plane
General L
cr
= L L
cr
= L
I- and H-sections L
cr
= 0,9 L L
cr
= L
Chord mem-
bers
Hollow section L
cr
= 0,9 L L
cr
= 0,9 L
General L
cr
= 0,9 L L
cr
= L
Triangulated
structures
Angels,
connected by one bolt
L
cr
= L L
cr
= L

The stiffness of triangulated structures of angles, that are connected with
one bolt, must be considered by an effective non-dimensional slender-
Annex BB.1
L = system length
EN 1993-1-1, 6.3.1.2, (4)

Critical buckling force
2
cr
2
cr
L
EI
N

=

EN 1993-1-1,
equation (6.46) and
(6.47) or (6.48) respec-
tively
ness. The slenderness for buckling about each axis should be taken as
follows:
-
v v , eff
7 , 0 35 , 0 + = ; for buckling about v-v axis
-
y y , eff
7 , 0 50 , 0 + = ; for buckling about y-y axis
-
z z , eff
7 , 0 50 , 0 + = ; for buckling about z-z axis
This specifications of the buckling length will be applicable, if no exact
length is assessed, see for example [13].
3.3.2 Uniform members in compression

Simplified assessment method for flexural buckling
If the following condition is satisfied, i.e. the non-dimensional slenderness
is 2 , 0 , so flexural buckling does not occur.
Criterion: 04 , 0
N
N
cr
Ed

(3.53)
with
N
cr
elastic critical force for the relevant buckling mode based on the
gross cross sectional properties

Flexural buckling
Check: 0 , 1
N
N
Rd , b
Ed

(3.54)

1 M
y
Rd , b
f A
N

= (3.55)
Class 4 sections with additional moments as a result of eccentricity of the
axial force must comply with the interaction, that is given in 3.2.9.

(6.50) or (6.51)

2
cr
2
cr
L
EI
N

=
y
1
f
E
=
Reduction factor
Non-dimensional slenderness
I-, H- and rectangular cross-sections
1
cr
cr
y
1
i
L
N
f A
=
(3.56)

1
eff
cr
cr
y eff A
A
i
L
N
f A
=
(3.57)
with
A gross cross-section
A
eff
effective cross-section
N
cr
elastic critical force for the relevant buckling mode based on the
gross cross sectional properties
L
cr
buckling length for the plane considered; chapter 3.3.1: Buckling
length L
cr

i radius of gyration about the relevant axis, determined the proper-
ties of the gross cross-section
1
slenderness value

1
= 93,9 with
y
f
235
=

For compression members, which are symmetrical to one axis or have a
restrained axis, for example T- and U- sections, it has to be verified,
which of the two failures, flexural or torsional buckling is the proper fail-
ure. Therefore both slenderness ratios and
T
have to be assessed.
The maximum value must be used to analyses buckling.

T
for torsional buckling
cr
y
T
N
f A
=
(3.58)

f
y
235 275 355 420 460
1
93,9 86,4 76,0 70,4 66,7
EN 1993-1-1,
equation (6.52)
Class 1-3 cross-sections
with
N
cr
= N
cr,TF
< N
cr,T

N
cr,TF
elastic torsional-flexural buckling force
N
cr,T
elastic torsional buckling force
For the resistance against torsional buckling, the buckling curve, relates
to the z-z axis is valid.

Imperfection factor
First of all, the buckling curve must be selected on the basis of the ge-
ometry of the cross section and the loaded axis, therefore see Table 3.7.

R
e
d
u
c
t
i
o
n

f
a
c
t
o
r

0,0
0,1
0,2
0,3
0,4
0,5
0,6
0,7
0,8
0,9
1,0
1,1
0,0 0,2 0,4 0,6 0,8 1,0 1,2 1,4 1,6 1,8 2,0 2,2 2,4 2,6 2,8 3,0
_

a
0
b
c
d
a

Figure 3.10: Buckling curves
T , cr
N see [13]
EN 1993-1-1, Figure 6.4
In addition to the known
buckling curve, a buck-
ling curve a
0
for S 460 is
mentioned.
Table 3.7: Selection of buckling curve for a cross-section
Buckling curve
Cross section Limits
Buckling
about
axis
S 235
S 275
S 355
S 420
S 460
tf 40 mm
y y
z z
a
b
a0
a0
h
/
b

>

1
,
2

40 mm < tf 100
y y
z z
b
c
a
a
tf 100 mm
y y
z z
b
c
a
a
R
o
l
l
e
d

s
e
c
t
i
o
n
s

b
h y y
z
z
t f
h
/
b

1
,
2

tf > 100 mm
y y
z z
d
d
c
c
tf 40 mm
y y
z z
b
c
b
c
W
e
l
d
e
d

I
-
s
e
c
t
i
o
n
s
t t
f f
y y y y
z z
tf > 40 mm
y y
z z
c
d
c
d
hot finished any a a0
H
o
l
l
o
w

s
e
c
t
i
o
n
s

cold formed any c c
generally (except as
below)
any b b
W
e
l
d
e
d

b
o
x

s
e
c
t
i
o
n
s

t
t
f
b
h y y
z
z
w
thick welds: a > 0,5tf
b/tf < 30
h/tw <30
any c c
U
-
,

T
-

a
n
d

s
o
l
i
d

s
e
c
t
i
o
n
s

any c c
L
-
s
e
c
t
i
o
n
s

any b b

Table 3.8: Imperfection factor for buckling curves
Buckling curve a
0
a b c d
Imperfection factor or
LT
0,13 0,21 0,34 0,49 0,76

Reduction factor
0 , 1
1
2 2

+
=

(3.59)

The value is defined as follows:
( ) [ ] 2 , 0 1 5 , 0 + + =
(3.60)
with
maximum of non-dimensional slenderness for buckling or tor-
sional buckling
In range of 2 , 0 , = 1,0.
EN 1993-1-1,
equation (6.49)

and

6.3.1.2 (1)
EN 1993-1-1, Tab. 6.1,
in addition: a
0
for S 460
EN 1993-1-1, Table 6.2
EN 1993-1-1, Annex B,
BB.2.1
EN 1993-1-1, Annex B,
BB.2.2
3.3.3 Uniform members in bending: Lateral torsional buckling
Continuous lateral restraints
This simplified check of lateral-torsional buckling for structures with
trapezoidal sheeting profiles according to EN 1993-1-3 can be used, if
the profiles are connected with the beam at each rib. For profile, that are
connected only at each second rip, the shear stiffness has to be reduced
as 0,2 S.
2
2
2
2
z t
2
2
w
h
70
h 25 , 0
L
EI GI
L
EI S

+ +

(3.61)
with
S shear stiffness provided by the sheeting regarding its deforma-
tion in the plane and connected to the beam at each rib, see EN
1993-1-3
I
w
warping constant
I
t
torsion constant
I
z
second moment of inertia of the cross-section about the minor
axis of the cross-section
L beam length
h depth of the beam

Continuous torsional restraints
Lateral-torsional buckling can also be avoided, if a rotation is restrained
by abutting members.

K K
EI
M
C
z
2
k , pl
k ,
> (3.62)
with
C
,k
rational stiffness provided to the beam by the stabilising contin-
uum and the connections
K
0,35 for elastic analysis

K
1,0 for plastic analysis

K
factor for considering the moment distribution and the type of

restraint
M
pl,Rk
characteristic value of the plastic moment of the beam
EN 1993-1-1, 6.3.2.4 (1)
k , D k , C k , R k ,
C
1
C
1
C
1
C
1

+ + =
(3.63)
with
C
R,k
rotational stiffness provided by the stabilising continuum to the
beam assuming a stiff connection to the member
C
C,k
rotational stiffness of the connection between the beam and the
stabilising continuum
C
D,k
rotational stiffness deduced from an analysis of the distorsional
deformations of the beam cross sections, where the flange in
compression not restrained; where the compression flange is the
restrained or where distorsional deformations of the cross sec-
tions may be neglected (e.g. for usual rolled profiles) C
D,k

= .
For more information see EN 1993-1-3 or [13].
Table 3.9: Factor K
for considering the moment distribution and the type of restraint

Case Moment distribution
without
translational
restraint
with
translational
restraint
1 M 4,0 0
2a
M
M
0,12
2b
M
M
M
3,5
0,23
3 M 2,8 0
4 M 1,6 1,0
5
M
5M
5 -0,3
1,0 0,7

Simplified calculation method for lateral-torsional buckling

Figure 3.11: Definition of the regarded part of the cross-section in compression to use in
the simplified calculation method
Ed , y
Rd , c
0 c
1 z , f
c c
f
M
M
i
L k
=
(3.64)
compression
EN 1993-1-1, 6.3.2.4 (2)
EN 1993-1-1, 6.3.2.4
NOTE 2B
with
M
y,Ed
maximum design value of the bending moment within the re-
straint spacing
1 M
y y
Rd , c
f W
M

=

W
y

appropriate section modulus corresponding to the compression
flange
k
c
slenderness correction factor for moment distribution between
restraints; see Table 3.10
L
c
length between restraints
i
f,z
radius of gyration of the compression flange including 1/3 of the
compressed part of the web area, about the minor axis of the
section
0 c
slenderness parameter of the above compression element;
5 , 0 1 , 0 4 , 0 1 , 0
0 , LT 0 c
= + = +
Table 3.10: Correction factors k
c
Moment distribution k
c
= 1
1,0
-1 1
33 , 0 33 , 1
1
0,94
0,90
0,91
0,86
0,77
0,82

If the formula (3.64) is not satisfied, the following check has to be carried
out:

Check: 0 , 1
M
M
Rd , b
Ed

(3.65)

Rd , c Rd , c fl Rd , b
M M k M =
(3.66)
with
k
fl
modification factor accounting to the conservatism of the equiva-
lent compression flange method
k
fl
= 1,10
M
c,Rd
design resistance for bending

1 M
y y
Rd , c
f W
M

=
Reduction factor for the simplified calculation method
The reduction factor must be determined on the basis of equation
(3.59), that is comparable to the resistance of flexural buckling. But the
non-dimensional slenderness must be simply substituted by the non-
dimensional slenderness
f
only. Moreover the imperfection factor is
defined in Table 3.11.
Table 3.11: Buckling curve for the simplified calculation method of lateral-torsional buck-
ling
Cross section Limits Buckling curve
welded sections
h/t
f
44
h/t
f
> 44
d
c
other sections - c

Lateral torsional buckling
Check: 0 , 1
M
M
Rd , b
Ed

(3.67)

1 M
y
y LT Rd , b
f
W M
=
(3.68)

Reduction factor
LT
LT

cr
y y
LT
M
f W
=
(3.69)

with
EN 1993-1-1, 6.3.2.1
derived from
EN 1993-1-1, 6.3.2.4,
(3)B
h overall depth of the
cross-section
t
f
thickness of the
compression flange
For the determination
of M
cr
see information
in literature, for exam-
ple [13] or EN 1993
(1993), Annex F.
M
cr
elastic critical moment for lateral-torsional buckling
Lateral-torsional buckling does not have to be considered, if the non-
dimensional slenderness will be 4 , 0
LT
.

Reduction factor
LT
for torsional buckling (general case)
The verification of the factor
LT
is like the one for flexural buckling. But
the buckling curves are different, compare Table 3.12.
Table 3.12: Selection of buckling curves to determine
LT
(general case)
Cross sections Limits Buckling curves
rolled I-sections
h/b 2
h/b > 2
a
b
welded I-sections
h/b 2
h/b > 2
c
d
other cross sections - d

Reduction factor
LT
for torsional buckling of rolled sections and
equivalent welded sections
+
=
1
0 , 1

1
LT
LT LT LT
LT

(3.70)
The value
LT
is defined as follows:
( ) [ ] 1 5 , 0
LT 0 , LT LT LT LT
+ + =
(3.71)
with
4 , 0
0 , LT
and 75 , 0 .
For a simple determination, the reduction factor
LT
is summarised tabu-
larly for
LT
in chapter 4.6.
Table 3.13: Selection of buckling curves to determine
LT
according to equation (3.70)
Cross section Limits Buckling curve
rolled I-sections
h/b 2
h/b > 2
b
c
welded I-sections
h/b 2
h/b > 2
c
d
Cross sections, which are not classified for this method, for example
cross sections with larger dimensions then rolled sections have to be
proved in consideration of the general case.

EN 1993-1-1, 6.3.2.3
equation (6.57)
hyperbola of Euler
EN 1993-1-1, Table 6.4
EN 1993-1-1, Table 6.5
3.3.4 Uniform members in bending and axial compression: I-, H-
and hollow sections
The interaction formulae are based on the modelling of simply supported
single span members with end fork conditions, which are subjected to
compression forces, end moments or transverse loads.
(1) Uniaxial bending and axial force
Members without torsional deformations
- Deflection normal to y-y axis
0 , 1
M
M M
k
N
N
1 M
Rk , y
Ed , y Ed , y
yy
1 M
Rk
y
Ed
+
+

(3.72)
- Deflection normal to z-z axis
Simplifying, it should be verified (k
zy
= 0):
0 , 1
N
N
1 M
Rk
z
Ed

(3.73)

Members with torsional deformations
0 , 1
M
M M
k
N
N
1 M
Rk , y
LT
Ed , y Ed , y
yy
1 M
Rk
y
Ed
+
+

(3.74)
0 , 1
M
M M
k
N
N
1 M
Rk , y
LT
Ed , y Ed , y
zy
1 M
Rk
z
Ed
+
+

(3.75)

(6.61) interpreted for
cross-sections without
susceptible torsional
deformations
(6.62) interpreted
compare note in
table B.1 last line;
k
zy
= 0
(6.61) and (6.62) inter-
preted
(2) Bi-axial bending and axial force
For bi-axial bending and axial force, the maxima bending moments M
y,Ed

and M
z,Ed
must be used independently from their point of occurrence.

Members without torsional deformations
0 , 1
M
M M
k
M
M M
k
N
N
1 M
Rk , z
Ed , z Ed , z
yz
1 M
Rk , y
Ed , y Ed , y
yy
1 M
Rk
y
Ed
+
+
+
+

(3.76)
0 , 1
M
M M
k
M
M M
k
N
N
1 M
Rk , z
Ed , z Ed , z
zz
1 M
Rk , y
Ed , y Ed , y
zy
1 M
Rk
z
Ed
+
+
+
+

(3.77)

Members with torsional deformations
0 , 1
M
M M
k
M
M M
k
N
N
1 M
Rk , z
Ed , z Ed , z
yz
1 M
Rk , y
LT
Ed , y Ed , y
yy
1 M
Rk
y
Ed
+
+
+
+

(3.78)
0 , 1
M
M M
k
M
M M
k
N
N
1 M
Rk , z
Ed , z Ed , z
zz
1 M
Rk , y
LT
Ed , y Ed , y
zy
1 M
Rk
z
Ed
+
+
+
+

(3.79)
with
y
;
z
reduction factors due to flexural buckling according to equation
(3.59)
LT
reduction factors due to torsional buckling according to equation
(3.70)
k
ij
interaction factors

(6.61) and (6.62) inter-
preted for cross-
sections without sus-
ceptible torsional de-
formations
(6.61) and (6.62)
3.3.5 Interaction factor k
ij
according to Annex B
Table 3.14: Equivalent uniform moment factors C
m
C
my
, C
mz
, C
mLT
Moment diagram range
Uniform loading Concentrated load

1 1 4 , 0 4 , 0 6 , 0 +
1 0
s
1 1 4 , 0 8 , 0 2 , 0
s
+ 4 , 0 8 , 0 2 , 0
s
+
1 0 4 , 0 8 , 0 1 , 0
s
4 , 0 8 , 0
s

h s s
M / M =
0 1
s
<
0 1 < ( ) 4 , 0 8 , 0 1 1 , 0
s
( ) 4 , 0 8 , 0 2 , 0
s

1 0
h
1 1
h
05 , 0 95 , 0 +
h
10 , 0 9 , 0 +
1 0
h
05 , 0 95 , 0 +
h
10 , 0 9 , 0 +
s h h
M / M =
0 1
h
<
0 1 < ( ) 2 1 05 , 0 95 , 0
h
+ + ( ) 2 1 10 , 0 90 , 0
h
+
The part of the beam between the restraints and the bending moment,
that produces the corresponding failure are decisive for the assessment
of C
m
.
- C
my
: M
y
with restraints in z-z plane
- C
mLT
: M
y
with restraints in y-y plane
- C
mz
: M
z
with restraints in y-y plane
Table 3.15: Interaction factor k
ij
for members not susceptible to torsional deformations
Interaction
factor
Type of section Class 1 and 2 Class 3 and 4
k
yy
I-sections
RHS-sections
( )
+
Rd y
Ed
my
Rd y
Ed
y my
N
N
8 , 0 1 C
N
N
2 , 0 1 C
+
Rd y
Ed
my
Rd y
Ed
y my
N
N
6 , 0 1 C
N
N
6 , 0 1 C

k
yz
I-sections
RHS-sections
0,6 k
zz
k
zz
k
zy
I-sections
RHS-sections
0,6 k
yy
0,8 k
yy
I-sections
( )
+
Rd z
Ed
mz
Rd z
Ed
z mz
N
N
8 , 0 1 C
N
N
6 , 0 2 1 C

k
zz
RHS-sections
( )
+
Rd z
Ed
mz
Rd z
Ed
z mz
N
N
8 , 0 1 C
N
N
2 , 0 1 C
+
Rd z
Ed
mz
Rd z
Ed
z mz
N
N
6 , 0 1 C
N
N
6 , 0 1 C

with
1 M
y
1 M
Rk
Rd
f A
N
N

= =
EN 1993-1-1, Annex B,
Table B.3

L distance between
the applicable re-
straint
M
h
bending moment
at the restraints
M
s
bending moment
at the half length
between the re-
straints
EN 1993-1-1, Annex B,
Table B.1
EN 1993-1-1, Annex
B, Table B.2

The factors k
yy
, k
yz

and k
z
are identical
with the factor of
members without
torsional deforma-
tions.
Table 3.16: Interaction factor k
ij
for members susceptible to torsional deformations
Interaction
factor
Type of sec-
tions
Class 1 and 2 Class 3 and 4
k
yy
I-sections
( )
+
Rd y
Ed
my
Rd y
Ed
y my
N
N
8 , 0 1 C
N
N
2 , 0 1 C
+
Rd y
Ed
my
Rd y
Ed
y my
N
N
6 , 0 1 C
N
N
6 , 0 1 C

k
yz
I-sections 0,6 k
zz
k
zz
k
zy
I-sections

( )
( )

Rd z
Ed
mlT
Rd z
Ed
mLT
z
N
N
25 , 0 C
1 , 0
1
N
N
25 , 0 C
1 , 0
1

for 4 , 0
z
<
( )
Rd z
Ed
mLT
z
z
N
N
25 , 0 C
1 , 0
1
6 , 0

+

( )
( )

Rd z
Ed
mLT
Rd z
Ed
mLT
z
N
N
25 , 0 C
05 , 0
1
N
N
25 , 0 C
05 , 0
1

k
zz
I-sections
( )
+
Rd z
Ed
mz
Rd z
Ed
z mz
N
N
8 , 0 1 C
N
N
6 , 0 2 1 C
+
Rd z
Ed
mz
Rd z
Ed
z mz
N
N
6 , 0 1 C
N
N
6 , 0 1 C

with
1 M
y
1 M
Rk
Rd
f A
N
N

= =

4 Design aids
4.1 Initial sway imperfection
Table 4.1: Initial sway imperfection in 10
-3
(%)
m
h
2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
4 4,330 4,082 3,953 3,873 3,819 3,780 3,750 3,727 3,708
4,2 4,226 3,984 3,858 3,780 3,727 3,689 3,660 3,637 3,619
4,4 4,129 3,892 3,769 3,693 3,641 3,604 3,575 3,553 3,536
4,6 4,038 3,807 3,686 3,612 3,561 3,525 3,497 3,475 3,458
4,8 3,953 3,727 3,608 3,536 3,486 3,450 3,423 3,402 3,385
5 3,873 3,651 3,536 3,464 3,416 3,381 3,354 3,333 3,317
5,2 3,798 3,581 3,467 3,397 3,349 3,315 3,289 3,269 3,252
5,4 3,727 3,514 3,402 3,333 3,287 3,253 3,227 3,208 3,191
5,6 3,660 3,450 3,341 3,273 3,227 3,194 3,169 3,150 3,134
5,8 3,596 3,390 3,283 3,216 3,171 3,139 3,114 3,095 3,079
6 3,536 3,333 3,227 3,162 3,118 3,086 3,062 3,043 3,028
6,2 3,478 3,279 3,175 3,111 3,067 3,036 3,012 2,993 2,978
6,4 3,423 3,227 3,125 3,062 3,019 2,988 2,965 2,946 2,932
6,6 3,371 3,178 3,077 3,015 2,973 2,942 2,919 2,901 2,887
6,8 3,321 3,131 3,032 2,970 2,929 2,899 2,876 2,858 2,844
7 3,273 3,086 2,988 2,928 2,887 2,857 2,835 2,817 2,803
7,2 3,227 3,043 2,946 2,887 2,846 2,817 2,795 2,778 2,764
7,4 3,184 3,002 2,906 2,847 2,808 2,779 2,757 2,740 2,726
7,6 3,141 2,962 2,868 2,810 2,770 2,742 2,721 2,704 2,690
7,8 3,101 2,924 2,831 2,774 2,735 2,707 2,685 2,669 2,655
8 3,062 2,887 2,795 2,739 2,700 2,673 2,652 2,635 2,622
8,2 3,024 2,851 2,761 2,705 2,667 2,640 2,619 2,603 2,590
8,4 2,988 2,817 2,728 2,673 2,635 2,608 2,588 2,572 2,559
8,6 2,953 2,784 2,696 2,641 2,604 2,578 2,557 2,542 2,529
8,8 2,919 2,752 2,665 2,611 2,575 2,548 2,528 2,513 2,500
9 2,887 2,722 2,635 2,582 2,546 2,520 2,500 2,485 2,472
Initial sway imperfection:
m h 0
=
0
= 1/200
h
2
h
= but 0 , 1
3
2
h

h: height of the structure in meters
+ =
m
1
1 5 , 0
m

m: the number of columns in one row including only those columns which carry a verti-
cal load N
Ed
not less than 50% of the average value of the column in the vertical
plane considered
4.2 Classification of cross-sections
Table 4.2: Classification of IPE-sections
S 235 S 275 S 355 S 460 S 235 S 275 S 355 S 460
80 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1
100 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1
120 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1
140 1 1 1 2 1 1 1 1
160 1 1 1 2 1 1 1 1
180 1 1 2 3 1 1 1 1
200 1 1 2 3 1 1 1 1
220 1 1 2 4 1 1 1 1
240 1 2 2 4 1 1 1 1
260 - - - - - - - -
270 2 2 3 4 1 1 1 1
280 - - - - - - - -
300 2 2 4 4 1 1 1 1
320 - - - - - - - -
330 2 3 4 4 1 1 1 1
340 - - - - - - - -
360 2 3 4 4 1 1 1 1
400 3 3 4 4 1 1 1 1
450 3 4 4 4 1 1 1 1
500 3 4 4 4 1 1 1 1
550 4 4 4 4 1 1 1 1
600 4 4 4 4 1 1 1 1
650 - - - - - - - -
700 - - - - - - - -
800 - - - - - - - -
900 - - - - - - - -
1000 - - - - - - - -
Compression Bending
IPE

Table 4.3: Classification of HEA-sections
S 235 S 275 S 355 S 460 S 235 S 275 S 355 S 460
80 - - - - - - - -
100 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1
120 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1
140 1 1 1 2 1 1 1 2
160 1 1 1 2 1 1 1 2
180 1 1 2 3 1 1 2 3
200 1 1 2 3 1 1 2 3
220 1 1 2 3 1 1 2 3
240 1 1 2 3 1 1 2 3
260 1 1 3 3 1 1 3 3
270 - - - - - - - -
280 1 2 3 3 1 2 3 3
300 1 2 3 3 1 2 3 3
320 1 1 2 3 1 1 2 3
330 - - - - - - - -
340 1 1 1 3 1 1 1 3
360 1 1 1 2 1 1 1 2
400 1 1 2 3 1 1 1 1
450 1 1 2 4 1 1 1 1
500 1 2 3 4 1 1 1 1
550 2 3 4 4 1 1 1 1
600 2 3 4 4 1 1 1 1
650 3 4 4 4 1 1 1 1
700 3 4 4 4 1 1 1 1
800 4 4 4 4 1 1 1 1
900 4 4 4 4 1 1 1 1
1000 4 4 4 4 1 1 1 2
Compression Bending
HEA

Table 4.4: Classification of HEB-sections
S 235 S 275 S 355 S 460 S 235 S 275 S 355 S 460
80 - - - - - - - -
100 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1
120 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1
140 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1
160 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1
180 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1
200 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1
220 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1
240 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1
260 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1
270 - - - - - - - -
280 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1
300 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1
320 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1
330 - - - - - - - -
340 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1
360 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1
400 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1
450 1 1 1 2 1 1 1 1
500 1 1 2 2 1 1 1 1
550 1 1 2 3 1 1 1 1
600 1 2 3 4 1 1 1 1
650 2 2 3 4 1 1 1 1
700 2 2 4 4 1 1 1 1
800 3 3 4 4 1 1 1 1
900 3 4 4 4 1 1 1 1
1000 4 4 4 4 1 1 1 1
Compression Bending
HEB

Table 4.5: Classification of HEM-sections
S 235 S 275 S 355 S 460 S 235 S 275 S 355 S 460
80 - - - - - - - -
100 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1
120 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1
140 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1
160 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1
180 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1
200 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1
220 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1
240 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1
260 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1
270 - - - - - - - -
280 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1
300 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1
320 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1
330 - - - - - - - -
340 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1
360 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1
400 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1
450 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1
500 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1
550 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1
600 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1
650 1 1 1 2 1 1 1 1
700 1 1 2 3 1 1 1 1
800 1 2 3 4 1 1 1 1
900 2 3 4 4 1 1 1 1
1000 3 4 4 4 1 1 1 1
Compression Bending
HEM

4.3 Effective shear area A
V

I-sections: Loaded parallel to the web
Table 4.6: Effective shear area A
V
[cm]
nominal
height

I IPE IPE a IPE o HEA A HEA HEB HEM
80 3,30 3,57 - - - - - -
100 4,72 5,06 - - 6,15 7,52 9,00 18,00
120 6,45 6,15 5,38 - 6,95 8,42 10,96 21,15
140 8,32 7,62 6,22 - 7,90 10,11 13,12 24,50
160 10,54 9,67 7,82 - 10,42 13,24 17,64 30,86
180 13,00 11,20 9,22 12,70 12,13 14,52 20,29 34,40
200 15,60 12,18 11,50 15,49 15,42 18,05 24,85 40,75
220 18,55 13,92 13,59 17,67 17,67 20,63 27,88 44,87
240 21,75 16,48 16,30 21,34 21,57 25,14 33,24 60,48
260 25,41 - - - 24,78 28,74 37,15 67,25
270 - 43,24 18,70 25,19 - - - -
280 29,43 - - - 27,50 31,78 40,73 71,87
300 33,75 50,70 22,22 29,02 32,36 37,75 47,35 90,45
320 38,34 - - - 35,42 40,77 51,43 94,80
330 - 59,05 26,95 34,87 - - - -
340 43,26 - - - 39,19 44,48 56,19 98,80
360 48,84 68,53 29,80 40,18 42,56 49,20 60,96 102,60
400 60,37 79,81 35,78 47,99 48,26 57,35 70,20 110,40
450 76,19 93,45 42,22 59,74 54,64 65,76 79,68 119,40
500 93,68 109,68 50,31 70,50 62,03 75,18 90,18 129,20
550 109,10 126,88 60,01 82,61 72,83 83,96 100,01 139,20
600 135,68 147,75 70,12 104,60 81,23 92,75 110,85 150,00
650 - - - - 90,64 103,55 121,70 160,00
700 - - - - 100,39 116,50 136,72 169,80
800 - - - - 123,32 139,00 161,58 194,00
900 - - - - 147,00 163,80 188,48 214,80
1000 - - - - 171,96 184,72 212,44 234,80

4.4 Interaction of bending and shear
Table 4.7: Reduction factor dependent on the utilisation ratio n
n (1-) n (1-)
0,51 0,0004 0,9996 0,76 0,2704 0,7296
0,52 0,0016 0,9984 0,77 0,2916 0,7084
0,53 0,0036 0,9964 0,78 0,3136 0,6864
0,54 0,0064 0,9936 0,79 0,3364 0,6636
0,55 0,0100 0,9900 0,80 0,3600 0,6400
0,56 0,0144 0,9856 0,81 0,3844 0,6156
0,57 0,0196 0,9804 0,82 0,4096 0,5904
0,58 0,0256 0,9744 0,83 0,4356 0,5644
0,59 0,0324 0,9676 0,84 0,4624 0,5376
0,60 0,0400 0,9600 0,85 0,4900 0,5100
0,61 0,0484 0,9516 0,86 0,5184 0,4816
0,62 0,0576 0,9424 0,87 0,5476 0,4524
0,63 0,0676 0,9324 0,88 0,5776 0,4224
0,64 0,0784 0,9216 0,89 0,6084 0,3916
0,65 0,0900 0,9100 0,90 0,6400 0,3600
0,66 0,1024 0,8976 0,91 0,6724 0,3276
0,67 0,1156 0,8844 0,92 0,7056 0,2944
0,68 0,1296 0,8704 0,93 0,7396 0,2604
0,69 0,1444 0,8556 0,94 0,7744 0,2256
0,70 0,1600 0,8400 0,95 0,8100 0,1900
0,71 0,1764 0,8236 0,96 0,8464 0,1536
0,72 0,1936 0,8064 0,97 0,8836 0,1164
0,73 0,2116 0,7884 0,98 0,9216 0,0784
0,74 0,2304 0,7696 0,99 0,9604 0,0396
0,75 0,2500
0,7500
1,00 1,0000
-
Utilisation ratio:
Rd , pl
Ed
V
V
n =

Reduction factor:
2
Rd , pl
Ed
1
V
V 2
=

reducing the yield strength ( )
y red , y
f 1 f = or
reducing the thickness ( )
w red , w
t 1 t =

4.5 Interaction of uniaxial bending and axial force
Table 4.8: Ratio a according to EN 1993-1-1, 6.2.9.1 (5)
nominal
height
I IPE IPE a IPE o HEA HEA A HEB HEM
80 0,35 0,37 - - - - - -
100 0,36 0,39 - - 0,25 0,29 0,23 0,20
120 0,37 0,39 0,41 - 0,24 0,29 0,22 0,20
140 0,38 0,39 0,39 - 0,24 0,27 0,22 0,20
160 0,38 0,40 0,40 - 0,26 0,26 0,23 0,21
180 0,39 0,39 0,40 0,39 0,25 0,26 0,23 0,21
200 0,39 0,40 0,40 0,39 0,25 0,27 0,23 0,21
220 0,39 0,39 0,40 0,39 0,25 0,27 0,23 0,21
240 0,40 0,40 0,40 0,40 0,25 0,28 0,23 0,21
260 0,40 - - - 0,25 0,28 0,23 0,21
270 - 0,40 0,40 0,38 - - - -
280 0,41 - - - 0,25 0,28 0,23 0,21
300 0,41 0,40 0,41 0,39 0,26 0,29 0,23 0,20
320 0,42 - - - 0,25 0,30 0,24 0,21
330 - 0,41 0,41 0,40 - - - -
340 0,42 - - - 0,26 0,32 0,25 0,22
360 0,43 0,41 0,39 0,40 0,27 0,33 0,25 0,23
400 0,43 0,42 0,41 0,41 0,28 0,34 0,27 0,25
450 0,44 0,44 0,42 0,43 0,29 0,36 0,28 0,27
500 0,44 0,45 0,43 0,44 0,30 0,39 0,30 0,29
550 0,43 0,46 0,44 0,45 0,32 0,41 0,31 0,31
600 0,45 0,46 0,44 0,45 0,34 0,43 0,33 0,33
650 - - - - 0,36 0,45 0,35 0,35
700 - - - - 0,38 0,47 0,37 0,37
800 - - - - 0,41 0,50 0,41 0,40
900 - - - - 0,44 0,50 0,43 0,43
1000 - - - - 0,46 0,50 0,46 0,46
Ratio of the web-area to the area of cross-section: 5 , 0
A
t b 2 A
a
f

=


Table 4.9: Factor f in [kNm] to determine M
N,y,Rd
of I-sections, S 235
nominal
height
80 6,48 6,71 - - - - - -
100 11,40 11,51 - - 16,10 22,23 27,68 61,73
120 18,35 17,74 14,69 - 23,15 31,91 43,71 91,54
140 27,61 25,74 20,90 - 33,63 46,36 64,90 129,20
160 39,54 36,28 29,13 - 51,52 66,36 94,21 177,33
180 54,49 48,60 39,69 55,20 69,70 86,77 127,86 232,10
200 73,11 64,77 53,49 73,18 94,78 115,45 170,64 298,90
220 94,86 83,70 70,56 93,95 121,43 152,31 219,41 373,11
240 120,84 107,41 91,75 120,21 156,19 199,82 279,91 555,53
260 151,19 - - - 195,57 247,25 340,19 661,00
270 - 142,18 120,97 166,86 - - - -
280 186,46 - - - 239,11 298,96 407,46 776,34
300 225,68 184,86 159,86 216,55 293,22 373,12 497,40 1.066,51
320 271,31 - - - 331,11 437,23 570,19 1.164,31
330 - 237,98 208,16 276,28 - - - -
340 321,60 - - - 374,18 498,46 642,96 1.244,70
360 380,79 300,76 264,33 348,11 420,30 563,70 721,48 1.320,57
400 513,94 390,29 337,96 445,31 516,12 700,76 881,62 1.495,74
450 722,13 512,28 443,79 609,63 625,60 886,14 1.090,35 1.719,31
500 977,34 666,36 580,99 789,21 751,70 1.091,24 1.330,30 1.949,61
550 1.272,51 848,94 745,46 989,14 923,29 1.293,08 1.561,98 2.206,17
600 1.657,21 1.077,16 944,79 1.362,15 1.085,72 1.514,20 1.810,44 2.470,53
650 - - - - 1.265,13 1.754,68 2.084,65 2.747,63
700 - - - - 1.482,89 2.038,60 2.402,78 3.029,87
800 - - - - 1.948,93 2.575,89 3.015,67 3.666,00
900 - - - - 2.506,67 3.258,31 3.775,52 4.323,32
1000 - - - - 3.064,40 3.922,73 4.535,19 5.040,46
To determine M
N,y,Rd
use the following equation:
( ) f n 1 M
Rd , y , N
= with utilisation ratio
Rd , pl
Ed
N
N
n =

Table 4.10: Factor f in [kNm] to determine M
N,y,Rd
of I-sections, S 355
nominal
height
80 9,78 10,13 - - - - - -
100 17,21 17,39 - - 24,32 33,58 41,82 93,24
120 27,72 26,80 22,19 - 34,97 48,20 66,03 138,29
140 41,71 38,88 31,57 - 50,80 70,03 98,05 195,18
160 59,73 54,81 44,01 - 77,83 100,25 142,31 267,88
180 82,31 73,42 59,95 83,38 105,29 131,08 193,15 350,62
200 110,44 97,84 80,80 110,55 143,18 174,41 257,78 451,54
220 143,29 126,44 106,59 141,92 183,44 230,09 331,46 563,64
240 182,55 162,26 138,61 181,59 235,94 301,85 422,84 839,21
260 228,39 - - - 295,43 373,50 513,90 998,54
270 - 214,78 182,74 252,07 - - - -
280 281,67 - - - 361,21 451,62 615,52 1.172,77
300 340,92 279,26 241,49 327,13 442,95 563,65 751,39 1.611,11
320 409,85 - - - 500,19 660,50 861,35 1.758,85
330 - 359,50 314,46 417,37 - - - -
340 485,83 - - - 565,24 753,00 971,28 1.880,29
360 575,23 454,34 399,31 525,87 634,92 851,54 1.089,89 1.994,91
400 776,38 589,58 510,53 672,71 779,67 1.058,60 1331,81 2.259,53
450 1.090,88 773,87 670,41 920,94 945,05 1.338,63 1.647,12 2.597,26
500 1.476,41 1.006,62 877,66 1.192,21 1.135,55 1.648,47 2.009,60 2.945,15
550 1.922,30 1.282,43 1.126,13 1.494,23 1.394,76 1.953,38 2.359,59 3.332,73
600 2.503,45 1.627,19 1.427,23 2.057,72 1.640,13 2.287,41 2.734,92 3.732,08
650 - - - - 1.911,15 2.650,69 3.149,15 4.150,67
700 - - - - 2.240,11 3.079,58 3.629,73 4.577,04
800 - - - - 2.944,13 3.891,24 4.555,58 5.538,00
900 - - - - 3.786,67 4.922,13 5.703,44 6.530,98
1000 - - - - 4.629,20 5.925,82 6.851,04 7.614,32
To determine M
N,y,Rd
use the following equation:
( ) f n 1 M
Rd , y , N
= with utilisation ratio
Rd , pl
Ed
N
N
n =

4.6 Reduction factor and
LT

Table 4.11: Reduction factor for flexural buckling
a
0
a b c d
0,2 1,0000 1,0000 1,0000 1,0000 1,0000
0,3 0,9859 0,9775 0,9641 0,9491 0,9235
0,4 0,9701 0,9528 0,9261 0,8973 0,8504
0,5 0,9513 0,9243 0,8842 0,8430 0,7793
0,6 0,9276 0,8900 0,8371 0,7854 0,7100
0,7 0,8961 0,8477 0,7837 0,7247 0,6431
0,8 0,8533 0,7957 0,7245 0,6622 0,5797
0,9 0,7961 0,7339 0,6612 0,5998 0,5208
1,0 0,7253 0,6656 0,5970 0,5399 0,4671
1,1 0,6482 0,5960 0,5352 0,4842 0,4189
1,2 0,5732 0,5300 0,4781 0,4338 0,3762
1,3 0,5053 0,4703 0,4269 0,3888 0,3385
1,4 0,4461 0,4179 0,3817 0,3492 0,3055
1,5 0,3953 0,3724 0,3422 0,3145 0,2766
1,6 0,3520 0,3332 0,3079 0,2842 0,2512
1,7 0,3150 0,2994 0,2781 0,2577 0,2289
1,8 0,2833 0,2702 0,2521 0,2345 0,2093
1,9 0,2559 0,2449 0,2294 0,2141 0,1920
2,0 0,2323 0,2229 0,2095 0,1962 0,1766
2,1 0,2117 0,2036 0,1920 0,1803 0,1630
2,2 0,1937 0,1867 0,1765 0,1662 0,1508
2,3 0,1779 0,1717 0,1628 0,1537 0,1399
2,4 0,1639 0,1585 0,1506 0,1425 0,1302
2,5 0,1515 0,1467 0,1397 0,1325 0,1214
2,6 0,1404 0,1362 0,1299 0,1234 0,1134
2,7 0,1305 0,1267 0,1211 0,1153 0,1062
2,8 0,1216 0,1182 0,1132 0,1079 0,0997
2,9 0,1136 0,1105 0,1060 0,1012 0,0937
3,0 0,1063 0,1036 0,0994 0,0951 0,0882
Buckling curve


Table 4.12: Reduction factor
LT
for lateral torsional buckling, equation (3.70)
b c d
0,4 1,0000 1,0000 1,0000
0,5 0,9602 0,8126 0,6892
0,6 0,9171 0,7989 0,6783
0,7 0,8696 0,7798 0,6621
0,8 0,8171 0,7529 0,6382
0,9 0,7600 0,7158 0,6046
1,0 0,6997 0,6676 0,5605
1,1 0,6386 0,6101 0,5076
1,2 0,5792 0,5476 0,4494
1,3 0,5236 0,4851 0,3905
1,4 0,4728 0,4262 0,3343
1,5 0,4273 0,3728 0,2831
1,6 0,3868 0,3256 0,2378
1,7 0,3460 0,2845 0,1986
1,8 0,3086 0,2490 0,1651
1,9 0,2770 0,2183 0,1368
2,0 0,2500 0,1918 0,1131
2,1 0,2268 0,1690 0,0934
2,2 0,2066 0,1493 0,0769
2,3 0,1890 0,1322 0,0634
2,4 0,1736 0,1174 0,0522
2,5 0,1600 0,1045 0,0430
2,6 0,1479 0,0933 0,0354
2,7 0,1372 0,0835 0,0292
2,8 0,1276 0,0749 0,0241
2,9 0,1189 0,0673 0,0199
3,0 0,1111 0,0607 0,0165
Buckling curve
LT

5 Flow charts
The following flow charts should clarify the workflow for a structure analysis that
is defined in the chapters above. The first flow chart: General structural analysis
shows the complete workflow for the design of steel structures. The following
diagrams apply to the first, but they can be regarded separately also.
The sheets should be used as follows:
yes
operation:
It determines the basic values for the structural
analysis.
junction:
It seperats the workflows on the basis of criterions.
beginning or ending:
It points the beginning and ending of the flow chart.
change:
It connects flow charts.
subprogram:
It chracterizes values, that have to be calculated by
another flow chart.
flow line:
It connects the sheets and shows the direction of
reading.
junction:
It separats workflows due to checks.

Definition of the hori-
zontal deflection
5.1 Design of steel structures
Flow chart 5.1: General procedure of the design of steel structures
10
cr

Afirst-orderanalysisis
permitted!
Determinationoftheinitial
swayimperfectionofthe
structureandreplacementby
equivalenthorizontalforces
Determinationoftheinternalforcesand
momentsandthehorizontal
deformationsbyafirst-orderanalysisin
considerationoftheequivalentforces
Check,whetheranfirst-
orderanalysisis
permitted
Internalforcesandmomentsby
second-orderanalysisconsidering
theinitialswayimperfections
Structuralanalysisaccordingto
theiternalforcesandmoments
thataredeterminedabove (first-
orderanalysis)
1.Determinationoftheelasticdecisiveinternalforcesandmoments
Definitionoftheloadcasecombinationfortheulitmatelimitstateandtheserviceabilitylimitstate
no
yes
yes
no
Determinationofthelocalbow
imperfectione0/laccordingto
Table2.12andoftheadditional
iternalforcesandmoments
Determinationofthelocalbow
imperfectione0/laccordingto
Table2.12andoftheadditional
iternalforcesandmoments
yes
Internalforcesandmomentsby
second-orderanalysisconsidering
theinitialswayimperfections
Threewaytoconsidertheadditionalinitialforcesandmomentsduetoeffectsofimperfectionsand second-orderanalysis
1. considerationofallimperfectionsand
second-ordereffectsintheglobal
structuralanalysis
2. Considerationoftheinitialsway
imperfectionsinaglobalstructural
analysis.Theinfluencesofthelocal
imperfectionsandthesecond-order
analysisarecomprehendintheanalysis
ofmembers.Futhermoretheapplicable
bucklinglengthisequaltothesystem
length.
3. Theiternalforcesandmomentsare
determinedonthebasisofanfirst -
orderanalysis.Thedesignofthe
structurewillbeachievedbyamember
designaccordingtoEC 3,chapter6.
Thebucklinglengthcorrespondstothe
globaldeformations.
1
Check,whetheranadditionalbow
imperfectionhastobepermitted.
Condition:
(1)
or
(2)atleastonemomentresistant
jointatonememberend
Ed
y
N
f A
5 , 0

>
Check,whetheranadditionalbow
imperfectionhastobepermitted.
Condition:
(1)
or
(2)atleastonemomentresistant
jointatonememberend
Ed
y
N
f A
5 , 0

>
Determinationof
(1)bracingstructure
(2)otherstructures
(forexamplecolumns)
cr
=
Ed , H Ed
Ed
cr
h
V
H
Ed
cr
cr
F
F
=

Non-dimensional slender-
ness
1
cr
cr
y
1
i
L
N
f A
=
Flow chart 5.1 (1): Continuation of General procedure of the design of steel structures

Analysis of cross-sections
according to Flow chart 5.5 up
to 5.12 (2)
Analysis of members according
to Flow chart 5.13 up to 5.15
with Lcr = L (System length)
Analysis of members according
to Flow chart 5.13 up to 5.15
with Lcr = distance between the
turningpoints of the buckling
deformation
2. Ultimate limit state
3. Serviceability limit state
Determination of the maximum horizontal and vertical deformations
1
Check
Vertical deflection
Horizontal deflection
max
w w
max
u u
The definition of limits for deflection should be specified for each project and agreed with the clients or
taken from ENV 1993-1-1 (1993), Table 4.1 and 4.2.2
3. Design of joints
Determination of design loads of the connections and fasteners
Bolted connection welded connection
Check of the bolted
connections
Check of the welded
connections
The design of the structure is totally done!
5.2 Basis of design
Flow chart 5.2: Initial sway imperfection
4 h
0 , 1
h
=
h
2
h
=
DeterminationoftheaveragevalueofallcolumnsintheverticalplaneNmforevery
storey
m:numberofcolumns
thatachievesthe
condition:NEd >0,5Nm
yes
yes
no
Determitationofheightofthestructureinmeters
+ =
m
1
1
2
1
m
9 h
Initialswayimperfection
m h
200
1
=
3
2
h
=
no

Therefore it is possible
to classify the cross-
sections in a more
favourable class of
cross-section. The
criterions are given in
EN 1993-1-1, 5.5.2,
(9)-(12).
f
y

235 1,0
275 0,92
355 0,81
420 0,75
460 0,71

y
f
235
=
stress distribution
about a section part

k buckling value,
Table 2.6
5.2.1 Classification of cross-sections
Through the following two flow charts, the classification of one and both
side supported compression parts of cross-section is given. The proce-
dure has to be apply to all total or partial compression parts of cross-
section. Finally, the cross-section is classified like the highest class of its
compression part.

Flow chart 5.3: Classification of one side supported compression parts
yes
Compression Compression and bending
nein
no
nein
yes
yes
no
yes
yes
yes
no
yes
Tip in compression Tip in tension
no
yes
Determination of c/t
c
t
c
t
c
t
t
c
c/t
max c/t = 9
c/t
max c/t = 10
c/t
max c/t = 14
c/t
max c/t =
k 21
c/t

max c/t =
9
c/t

max c/t =

9
c/t

max c/t =
10
c/t

max c/t =

10
no
no
yes
yes
no
no
f
y

235 1,0
275 0,92
355 0,81
420 0,75
460 0,71

y
f
235
=
1
2
=
with
1
maximum compres-
sion stress

stress distribution
about a section part

Flow chart 5.4: Classification of both-side supported compression parts
y
e
s
C
o
m
p
r
e
s
s
i
o
n
C
o
m
p
r
e
s
s
i
o
n
a
n
d
b
e
n
d
i
n
g
n
o
n
o
y
e
s
y
e
s
n
o
y
e
s
n
o
n
o
y
e
s
n
o
B
e
n
d
i
n
g
n
o
n
o
y
e
s
y
e
s
y
e
s
n
o
n
o
n
o
y
e
s
n
o
n
o
y
e
s
y
e
s
y
e
s
y
e
s
n
o
n
o
y
e
s
y
e
s
y
e
s
C
l
a
s
s
c
r
o
s
s
-
s
e
c
t
i
o
n
C
l
a
s
s
c
r
o
s
s
-
s
e
c
t
i
o
n
C
l
a
s
s
c
r
o
s
s
-
s
e
c
t
i
o
n
C
l
a
s
s
c
r
o
s
s
-
s
e
c
t
i
o
n
C
l
a
s
s
c
r
o
s
s
-
s
e
c
t
i
o
n
C
l
a
s
s
c
r
o
s
s
-
s
e
c
t
i
o
n
C
l
a
s
s
c
r
o
s
s
-
s
e
c
t
i
o
n
D
e
t
e
r
m
i
n
a
t
i
o
n
o
f
v
o
r
h
c
/
t
c
t
t
c
c
t
c
t
c
t
c
/
t
m
a
x
c
/
t
3
3
C
l
a
s
s
c
r
o
s
s
-
s
e
c
t
i
o
n
c
/
t
m
a
x
c
/
t
3
8
c
/
t
m
a
x
c
/
t
4
2
c
/
t
m
a
x
c
/
t
1
2
4
c
/
t
m
a
x
c
/
t
c
/
t
m
a
x
c
/
t
c
/
t
m
a
x
c
/
t
c
/
t
m
a
x
c
/
t
c
/
t
m
a
x
c
/
t
c
/
t
m
a
x
c
/
t
n
o
5
,
0
>
5
,
0
1
1
3 3
9
6
1
1
3 4
5
6
>
(
)
(
)
1
6
2
3
3
,
0
6
7
,
0
4
2
+
5
,
4
1
3
6
1
c
/
t
m
a
x
c
/
t
7
2
c
/
t
m
a
x
c
/
t
8
3

5.3 Structural analysis of cross-sections
Flow chart 5.5: Tension
Determination of a net area of a
cross-section Anet
yes
Cross-section is analysed!
ja
Nt,Rd = min(Npl,Rd; Nu,Rd)
C
r
o
s
s
-
s
e
c
t
i
o
n

h
a
s

t
o

b
e

d
i
m
e
n
s
i
o
n
e
d

n
e
w
!
no
Npl,Rd or Nel,Rd respectively
0 M
y
Rd , el Rd , pl
f A
N N

= =
Design value of the axial force NEd
Bolted connection Welded connection
Npl,Rd or Nel,Rd respectively
0 M
y
Rd , el Rd , pl Rd , t
f A
N N N

= = =
Determination of Nu,Rd
Angels connected by one leg
- 1 bolt:
- more bolts:
see Table 3.2
2 M
y net
Rd , u
f A 9 , 0
N

=
( )
2 M
u 0 2
Rd , u
f t d 5 , 0 e 0 , 2
N

=
2 M
u net
Rd , u
f A
N
no
Check
0 , 1
N
N
Rd , t
Ed
eff A = A gross A = A
- the larger leg - the smaller leg
connected by:
eff A
Determination of the cross-section area
A or Aeff for angels

A
net
net area along the
critical fracture line

M0
= 1,00
M2
= 1,25
Flow chart 5.6: Compression
Class 1, 2, 3 cross-sections
Cross-section is analysed!
ja
0 M
y
Rd , el Rd , pl Rd , c
f A
N N N

= = =
Classification of the cross-section according to Flow chart 5.3 and 5.4
Check of local buckling according to EN 1993-1-5
Determination of the effective cross-section
properties and the shift of the major axes eN
yes
no
T
h
e

c
r
o
s
s
-
s
e
c
t
i
o
n

h
a
s

t
o

b
e

d
i
m
e
n
s
i
o
n
e
d

n
e
w
!
no
0 M
y eff
Rd , c
f A
N

=
Design value of the axial force NEd
Check
0 , 1
N
N
Rd , c
Ed
M0
= 1,00
M2
= 1,25
M0
= 1,00
M2
= 1,25
Flow chart 5.7: Bending
The cross-section is ananlysed!
yes
Class 4
cross-section
yes
no
T
h
e

C
r
o
s
s
-
s
e
c
t
i
o
n

h
a
s

t
o

b
e

d
i
m
e
n
s
i
o
n
e
d

n
e
w
!
Determination of the normal stress of the cross-section
Class 1 or 2
Cross-section
yes
no
Bending Mz,Ed about the
z-z axis
no
yes
no
Design value of the bending moment MEd
Deduction in the tensile
zone of the cross-section?
Determination of the
section modulus
according to the
deduction
Bending resistance Mc,Rd
0 M
y pl
Rd , pl Rd , c
f W
M M

= =
0 M
y el
Rd , el Rd , c
f W
M M

= =
0 M
y eff
Rd , c
f W
M

=
no
yes
Check of local buckling, see EN 1993-1-5
Determination of the effective cross-section properties
and the shift of the major axes eN
yes
no
No deduction
Check
0 , 1
M
M
M
M
Rd , z , c
Ed , z
Rd , y , c
Ed , y
+
0 M
y f
2 M
u net , f
f A f 9 , 0 A

A
f
area of flange
A
f,net
net area of the
tension flange
with deduction of
the bolts
f
y

235 1,0
275 0,92
355 0,81
420 0,75
460 0,71
Flow chart 5.8: shear
The cross-section is analysed!
yes
Determination of the normal stress of the cross-section
Class 1 and 2
cross-section
Class 3 and 4 cross-
section
no
no
Effective shear area Av according to Table 3.3
I-, H-sections with
Af/Aw 0,6
Plate buckling, see EN 1993-1-5,
chapter 5
no
ja
ja
no
Shear stress
w
Ed
Ed
A
V
=
Ed
Shear stress
t I
S V
Ed
Ed

=
Ed
yes
yes
Shear resistance Vc,Rd
0 M
y v
Rd , pl Rd , c
3 / f A
V V
= =
Schub-
beulgefahr?
72
t
h
w
w

Design shear force VEd
Check
0 , 1
V
V
Rd , c
Ed

Check
0 M
y
Ed
3
f
no
T
h
e

c
r
o
s
s
-
s
e
c
t
i
o
n

h
a
s

t
o

b
e

d
i
m
e
n
s
i
o
n
e
d

n
e
w
!

= 1,2;
for S460 = 1,0

area of flange
f f
t b A =
area of web
w w w
t h A =

M0
= 1,00

5.3.1 Interaction
Flow chart 5.9: Interaction bending and shear of I-sections V + M
Thecross-sectionis
analysed!
Classifictionofthecross-sectionaccordingtoFlowchart 5.3and5.4
Determinationofthenormalstressofthecross-section
Interactionisnecessary!
no
yes
CheckofshearaccordingtoFlowchart 5.8
no
Interactionisntnecessary!
Reductionfactor
2
Rd , pl
Ed
1
V
V 2
=
PlasticshearresistanceVpl,Rd
0 M
y v
Rd , pl
3 / f A
V
=
Q
u
e
r
s
c
h
n
i
t
t
n
e
u
d
i
m
e
n
s
i
o
n
i
e
r
e
n
DesignshearforceVEdandbendingmomentMEd
no
no
Criterionofinteraction
5 , 0
V
V
Rd , pl
Ed

yes
yes
yes
Check
0 , 1
V
V
Rd , pl
Ed

ja
Class1or2
cross-sections
Class3and4cross-
sections
no
y-y-axis
z-z-axis
MV,z,Rd:Derterminationbyreducing
- theareaor
- theyieldstrength
oftheshearloadedpartsofthecross-section
0 M
y
w
2
w
y , pl
Rd , y , V
f
t 4
A
W
M
=
t ) 1 ( t
red
=
y red
f ) 1 ( f =
Elasticbendingresistance
0 M
y i
Rd , c
f W
M

=
Check
Rd , i , c Rd , i , V Ed , i
M M M
Check
Rd , c Ed
M M

A
v
effective shear area
see Table 3.3
A
w
area of web
w w w
t h A =

M0
= 1,00
A
w
area of web
w w w
h t A =

f
y,d
= f
y
/
M0

Flow chart 5.10: Interaction bending and axial force N + M
y

Thecross-sectionisanalysed!
Classificationofthecross-sectionaccordingtoFlowchart 5.3and5.4
Determinationofthenormalstressofthecross-section
Class1or2
cross-section
Class3or4cross-section
Interactionisnt
necessary!
no yes
yes
no
yes
no
Interactionisalways
necessary!
yes
yes
T
h
e
c
r
o
s
s
-
s
e
c
t
i
o
n
h
a
s
t
o
b
e
d
i
m
e
n
s
i
o
n
e
d
n
e
w
!
yes
no
no
DesignnormalforceNEdandbendingmomentMy,Ed
no
Check
0 M
y y , pl
Rd , y , c Ed , y
f W
M M

=
Check
0 , 1
M
M
N
N
Rd , y , c
Ed , y
Rd , c
Ed
+
Class4cross-
section
Class3cross-
section
no
yes
and
5 , 0
N
N
Rd , pl
Ed
<
d , y w Ed
f A 25 , 0 N <
PlasticresistancetonormalforcesNpl,Rd
0 M
y
Rd , pl
f A
N

=
Check
0 , 1
N
N
Rd , pl
Ed
Factorrtoreducetheplasticmoment
resistance Mpl,Rd
with
a 5 , 0 1
n 1
r
=
Rd , pl
Ed
N
N
n = ( ) 5 , 0 A / bt 2 A a
f
=
yes
no
Check
Rd , y , pl Rd , y , pl Rd , y , N Ed , y
M M r M M =
Check
0 , 1
M
M M
N
N
Rd , y , c
Ed , y Ed , y
Rd , c
Ed
+
+

r additional definition
for an easier use;
The coefficient r
isnt defined in
EN 1993-1-1
0 M
y i
Rd , y , c
f W
M

=
of the corresponding
class of cross-section
Flow chart 5.11: Interaction bending about z-z axis and axial force N + M
z

Determinationofthenormalstress
Class1or2cross-
section
Class3or4cross-section
Interactionisntnecessary!
no yes
yes
no
yes
no
Interactionisalways
necessary!
yes
yes
T
h
e
c
r
o
s
s
-
s
e
c
t
i
o
n
h
a
s
t
o
b
e
d
i
m
e
n
s
i
o
n
e
d
n
e
w
!
PlasticresistancetonormalforcesNpl,Rd
0 M
y
Rd , pl
f A
N

=
yes
no no
DesignnormalforceNEdandbendingmomentMz,Edaboutthez-zaxis
no
Interactioncriterion
d , y w Ed
f A N <
Class4cross-section Class3cross-section
no
no
yes
Check
0 , 1
M
M
N
N
Rd , z , c
Ed , z
Rd , c
Ed
+
Check
0 M
y z , pl
Rd , z , c Ed , z
f W
M M

=
Check
Rd , z , pl Rd , z , N Ed , z
M M M
ReducedmomentresistanceMN,Rd
with
Rd , pl
Ed
N
N
n = ( ) 5 , 0 A / bt 2 A a
f
=
= >
2
a 1
a n
1 M M : zu a n for
M M : zu a n for =
Check
0 , 1
M
M M
N
N
Rd , z , c
Ed , z Ed , z
Rd , c
Ed

+
+
Check
0 , 1
N
N
Rd , pl
Ed

yes

A
w
web area
w w w
h t A =

f
y,d
= f
y
/
M0

M0
= 1,00
Flow chart 5.12: Interaction of uniaxial bending, shear and axial force N + V + M
y

Determination of the normal stress
Design normal force NEd, shear force VEd and bending moment My,Ed
2
Class 1 or 2 cross-section Class 3 or 4 cross-section
1 3
no
yes
T
h
e

c
r
o
s
s
-
s
e
c
t
i
o
n

h
a
s

t
o

b
e

d
i
m
e
n
s
i
o
n
e
d

n
e
w
!

y

The cross-section is analysed!
Interaction isnt
necessary!
yes
Interaction is
necessary!
no no
yes
yes yes
no
T
h
e

c
r
o
s
s
-
s
e
c
t
i
o
n

h
a
s

t
o

b
e

d
i
m
e
n
s
i
o
n
e
d

n
e
w
!
1 3
Criterion of interaction
5 , 0
V
V
Rd , z , pl
Ed , z
0 , 1
V
V
Rd , z , pl
Ed , z
Interaction isnt
necessary!
Interaction is
necessary!
Interaction isnt
necessary!
Plastic shear resistance Vpl,Rd
0 M
y v
Rd , pl
3 / f A
V
=
yes no
yes
yes
Check
0 , 1
M
M
a 5 , 0 1
n 1
N
N
Rd , y , c
Ed , y
Rd , c
Ed
+
0 , 1
V
V
Rd , pl
Ed
Check
0 , 1
M
M
N
N
Rd , y , V
Ed , y
Rd , c
Ed
+
0 , 1
V
V
Rd , pl
Ed
Reduced resistance to bending

due to shear force MV,y,Rd
Plastic resistance to
normal forces Npl,Rd
0 M
y
Rd , pl
f A
N

=
Reduced resistance to normal
forces due to shear force NV,pl,Rd
0 M
y V , red
Rd , pl , V
f A
N

=
Coefficients
and
Rd , pl
Ed
N
N
n =
5 , 0
A
t b 2 A
a
f
=
Interaction is
necessary!
Criterion
of interaction
and
5 , 0
N
N
Rd , pl
Ed
<
d , y w Ed
f A 25 , 0 N <
Criterion
of interaction
and
5 , 0
N
N
Rd , pl , V
Ed
<
d , y w , V Ed
f A 25 , 0 N <
Check
0 , 1
N
N
Rd , pl
Ed

0 , 1
M
M
Rd , y , pl
Ed , y
0 , 1
V
V
Rd , pl
Ed

no no no
Reduction factor
Determination of the reduced
cross-section
2
Rd , pl
Ed , i
1
V
V 2
=
w V , red
A A A =
Check
0 , 1
M
M
a 5 , 0 1
n 1
N
N
Rd , y , V
Ed , y
V
V
Rd , c
Ed
+
0 , 1
V
V
Rd , pl
Ed
Coefficients
and
Rd , pl , V
Ed
V
N
N
n =
5 , 0
A
t b 2 A
a
V , red
f V , red
V

=
0 M
y
w
2
w
y , pl Rd , y , V
f
t 4
A
W M
=

A
v
effective shear
area, see Table 3.3
M0
= 1,00

A
w
area of web

w w w
t h A =
t
w
web thickness
h
w
depth of the web
f
y,d
= f
y
/
M0

A
V,w
reduced web
area
w w , V
A ) 1 ( A =
t
f
flange thickness
b overall breadth
0 M
y y , pl
Rd , y , c
f W
M

=
0 M
y
Rd , c
f A
N
=
y

Interactionduetoshear
forceisnecessary!
Interactionduetoshear
forceisntnecessary!
ja no
Class3cross-
section
yes
Class4cross-section
no
Class3cross-
section
Class4cross-section
yes
no
StructuralanalysisofshearaccordingtoFlowchart 5.8
yes yes yes yes
no
no
no
Reductionfactor
2
Rd , z , pl
Ed , zi
1
V
V 2
=
T
h
e
c
r
o
s
s
-
s
e
c
t
i
o
n
h
a
s
t
o
b
e
d
i
m
e
n
s
i
o
n
e
d
n
e
w
!
no
2 3
Interactionduetonormalforcesisalways
necessary!
Check
0 , 1
M
M
N
N
Rd , y , c
Ed , y
Rd , c
Ed
+
Check
0 , 1
M
M M
N
N
Rd , y , c
Ed , y Ed , y
Rd , c
Ed
+
+
Check Check
0 , 1
M
M
N
N
Rd , y , V
Ed , y
Rd , c
Ed
+ 0 , 1
M
M M
N
N
Rd , y , V
Ed , y Ed , y
Rd , c
Ed
+
+
PlasticshearresistanceVpl,Rd
0 M
y v
Rd , z , pl
3 / f A
V
=
Reducedresistancetobending
momentduetoshearforceMV,y,Rd
0 M
y
w
2
w
y , pl Rd , y , V
f
t 4
A
W M
=
5 , 0
V
V
Rd , z , pl
Ed , z

A
v
effective shear
area, see Table 3.3

M0
= 1,00
0 M
y i
Rd , y , c
f W
M

=
0 M
y i
Rd , c
f A
N

=
of the corresponding
class of cross-section
M1
= 1,00
Class A
i
1, 2, 3 A
4 A
eff
5.4 Structural analysis of members
Flow chart 5.13: Centrical compression flexural buckling
Determinationofthebucklingcurve
accordingtothedimensionsofthecross-
sectionandthedirectionofflexural
buckling,seeTable3.7
no
yes
no
yes
no
Thememberisanalysed!
yes
Class4cross-
section
localbuckling,seeEN1993-1-5
Determinationoftheeffectivecross-section
propertiesandtheshiftofthemajoraxeseN
no
yes
T
h
e
c
r
o
s
s
-
s
e
c
t
i
o
n
h
a
s
t
o
b
e
d
i
m
e
n
s
i
o
n
e
d
n
e
w
!
DesignvaluetonormalforcesNEd;Determinationofthematerialproperties
2 , 0
0 , 1 =
Hasbuckling
toz-zaxis
bechecked?
Check
0 , 1
N
N
Rd , b
Ed
z y
; min =
DesignbucklingresistanceNb,Rd
1 M
y
Rd , b
f A
N

=
) ; max(
T
=
Non-dimesionalslenderness
Class1-3 Class4
1
cr
cr
y 1
i
L
N
f A
=
cr
y eff
N
f A
=
Imperfectionfactor
Curve a0 a b c
0,13 0,21 0,34 0,49
d
0,76
Reductionfactor
2 2
1

+
=
[ ]
2
) 2 , 0 ( 1 5 , 0 + + =
BucklinglengthLcr
- LcrBucklinglengthisequaltotheglobaldeformations ,
forEuleritis :
Euler 1 2 3 4
2,0 1,0 0,7 0,5
L L
cr
=

1
= 93,3
2
cr
2
cr
L
EI
N

=
radius of gyration:
I
A
i =
Class W
i,y
1, 2 W
pl,y
3 W
el,y
4 W
eff,y
M1
= 1,00
Flow chart 5.14: Lateral torsional buckling
- Determination of the stress
distribution
- Determination of the heigth h* of the
compression web area
Compression area of the flange
with 1/3 of the compressed web
area
b t t h
3
1
A
f w
*
f
+ =
Distance Lc between the
restraints
Correction factor kc, see Table 3.10
Imperfection factor
Curve c
0,49
d
0,76
yes
yes
no
no
Corresponding radius of gyration
f
z , f
z , f
A
I
i =
Design buckling resistance moment Mb,Rd
with kfl = 1,1
Rd , c fl Rd , b
M k M =
[ ]
2
f f
) 2 , 0 ( 1 5 , 0 + + =
Corresponding moment of inertia If,z
About the minor axis
3
f z , f
t b
12
1
I =
no
T
h
e

c
r
o
s
s
-
s
e
c
t
i
o
n

h
a
s

t
o

b
e

d
i
m
e
n
s
i
o
n
e
d

n
e
w
!
Design value of the bending moment about the y -y axis My,Ed; Determination of the material properties
Simplified assessment method for flexural buckling, EN 1993-1-1, 6.3.2.4
Check
0 , 1
M
M
Rd , b
Ed , y
1 3 2
Analysis
Ed , y
Rd , c
f
M
M
5 , 0
Determination of the buckling curve
- welded sections
- other sections
44 t / h
f

44 t / h
f
>
d
c
c
Reduction factor
2
f
2
1

+
=
1 z , f
c c
f
i
L k
=
Design resistance for bending moment
Mc,Rd
1 M
y y , i
Rd , c
f W
M

=

Stress distribution of the
cross-section and the
definition of h*

M
cr
elastic critical mo-
ment for lateral tor-
sional buckling; For
determination see for
example [13] or ENV
1993-1-1, Annex F
Flow chart 5.14 (1): Continuation of lateral torsional buckling
Buckling curve, see Table 3.12
The member is analysed!
Reduction factor
0 , 1
LT
=
[ ]
2
LT LT LT LT
75 , 0 ) 4 , 0 ( 1 5 , 0 + + =
yes
no
yes
LT
4 , 0
LT

Check
0 , 1
M
M
Rd , b
Ed , y
1 3 2
Design buckling resistance
moment Mb,Rd
1 M
y
y , i LT Rd , b
f
W M
=
cr
y y , i
LT
M
f W
=
Imperfection factor
Curve a0 a b c
0,13 0,21 0,34 0,49
d
0,76
LT
LT
Reduction factor
or see Table 4.6
+
=
2
LT
2
LT
2
LT LT
LT
1
0 , 1
75 , 0
1

LT
Structural analysis of lateral torsional buckling, EN 1993-1-1, 6.3.2.1

Determination of LT


Class W
i,y
1, 2 W
pl,y
3 W
el,y
4 W
eff,y

Flow chart 5.15: Bending and compression
BucklinglengthLcr
- Lcr:Bucklinglengthaccordingtotheglobaldeformations ,(firstorderanalysis)
- Lcr:BucklinglengthisequaltothesystemlengthL ,(secondorderanalysis)
Determinationofthebucklingcurve
accordingtothedimensionsofthe
cross-sectionandthedirectionof
buckling,seeTable3.7
0 , 1 =
Hasbucklingto
z-zaxis
bechecked?
no
yes
yes
no
yes
cr
y y
LT
M
f W
=
4 , 0
LT

Reductionfactor
0 , 1
LT
=
no Determinationofthebucklingcurve
accordingtotheratioh/b
seeTable3.12
ja
1 2
no
3
A
n
e
w
c
r
o
s
s
-
s
e
c
t
i
o
n
m
u
s
t
b
e
e
l
e
c
t
e
d
o
r
t
h
e
b
u
c
k
l
i
n
g
l
e
n
g
t
h
h
a
s
b
e
r
e
d
u
c
e
d
.
LT
[ ]
2
LT LT LT LT
75 , 0 ) 4 , 0 ( 1 5 , 0 + + =
1 M
y i
Rd
f A
N

=
DesignforcesNEd,My,EdundMz,Ed,offirstorsecondorderanalysis;Determinationofthematerialproperties
) ; max(
T
=
2 , 0
Curve a0 a b c
0,13 0,21 0,34 0,49
d
0,76
Imperfectionfactor
[ ]
2
) 2 , 0 ( 1 5 , 0 + + =
Imperfectionfactor
Curve b c
0,34 0,49
d
0,76
LT
LT
Non-dimensionalslenderness
Class1-3 Class4
1
cr
cr
y 1
i
L
N
f A
=
cr
y eff
N
f A
=
Determinationof LT
Reductionfactor
orseeTable 4.6
+
=
2
LT
2
LT
2
LT LT
LT
1
0 , 1
1

LT
) or (
T

Reductionfactor
orseeTable 4.5
2 2
1

+
=
Memberwithtorsional
deformations

1
= 93,9
f
y

235 1,0
275 0,92
355 0,81
420 0,75
460 0,71

2
cr
2
cr
L
EI
N

=
I
A
i =
M
cr
elastic critical mo-
ment for lateral tor-
sional buckling; For
determination see for
example [13] or ENV
1993-1-1, Annex F
M1
= 1,00
QSK A
i
1, 2, 3 A
4 A
eff
M1
= 1,00

Class W
i
1, 2 W
pl
3 W
el
4 W
eff

Bending moment be-
tween the restraints
Flow chart 5.15 (1): Continuation of Bending and compression
1 2
Determination of the equivalent
uniform moment factors Cmy and Cmz
Mh1= max M
2 h
1 h
M
M
=
Linear
bending moment
Determination of Cmy, Cmz and CmLT
see Table 3.14
yes
no
Determination of the interaction factors
kyy, kzz, kyz and kzy
see Table 3.15 (without torsional deformation) or
3.16 (with torsional deformation)
Determination of the
equivalent uniform moment factors
Cmy, Cmz and CmLT
The member is analysed!
3
no
yes
Design resistance Mi,Rd depending on the class
of cross-section and the direction of load
1 M
y i
Rd , i
f W
M

=
0 , 1 =
0 , 1
LT
=
Check
Buckling to y-y axis
Buckling to z-z axis
For members without torsional deformation should
follows:

0 , 1
M
M M
k
M
M M
k
N
N
Rd , z
Ed , z Ed , z
yz
Rd , y LT
Ed , y Ed , y
yy
Rd y
Ed
+
+
+
+

0 , 1
M
M M
k
M
M M
k
N
N
Rd , z
Ed , z Ed , z
zz
Rd , y LT
Ed , y Ed , y
zy
Rd z
Ed
+
+
+
+

0 , 1
LT
=
Ratio of the support and midspan
moment
h
s
s
M
M
=
s
h
h
M
M
=
>
s h
M M
>
h s
M M

6 Literature
[1] CEN: Eurocode 3: Design of steel structures. Part 1-1: General rules and
rules for buildings. English version. prEN 1993-1-1:2003, November 2003
[2] CEN: Eurocode 3: Design of steel structures. Part 1-8: Design of joints.
English version. prEN 1993-1-8:2003, November 2003
[3] CEN: Eurocode 3: Bemessung und Konstruktion von Stahlbauten, Teil 1-1:
Allgemeine Bemessungsregeln und Regeln fr den Hochbau. Deutsche
Fassung. prEN 1993-1-1:2003, November 2003
Bemessung von Anschlssen. Deutsche Fassung. prEN 1993-1-8:2003,
November 2003
Allgemeine Bemessungsregeln und Regeln fr den Hochbau. Deutsche
Fassung. DIN ENV 1993-1-1:1992, April 1993
[6] Deutsches Institut fr Normung e.V.: DIN 18800: Stahlbauten, Teil 1:
Bemessung und Konstruktion, November 1990
[7] Deutsches Institut fr Normung e.V.: DIN 18800: Stahlbauten, Teil 2:
Stabilittsflle, Knicken von Stben und Stabwerken, November 1990
[8] Piechatzek, Erwin: Einfhrung in den Eurocode 3: Konzept, Bemessung,
Beispiele, Tabellen, Vieweg Braunschweig/ Wiesbaden 2002
[9] Vayas, Ioannis; Ermopoulos, John; Ioannidis, George: Bemessungs-
beispiele im Stahlbau nach Eurocode 3, Ernst & Sohn Berlin 2001
[10] Fritsch, Reinhold; Pasternak, Hartmut: Stahlbau: Grundlagen und Trag-
werke, Vieweg Braunschweig/ Wiesbaden 1999
[11] Falke, Johannes: Ingenieurhochbau: Tragwerke aus Stahl nach Eurocode
3 (DIN V ENV 1993-1-1): Normen, Erluterungen, Beispiele, Beuth Verlag
GmbH, Berlin, Wien, Zrich und Werner-Verlag GmbH Dsseldorf 1996
[12] Schneider, Klaus-Jrgen: Bautabellen fr Ingenieure mit Berechnungs-
hinweisen und Beispielen, Auflage 13, Werner Verlag Dsseldorf 1998
[13] Petersen, Christian: Statik und Stabilitt der Baukonstruktion, Vieweg
Braunschweig/ Wiesbaden 1982
[14] Greiner, Richard; Lindner, Joachim: Die neuen Regelungen in der euro-
pischen Norm EN 1993-1-1 fr Stbe unter Druck und Biegung, Stahlbau
72 (2003) Heft 3, Ernst & Sohn Berlin 2003

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Eurobuild in Steel

see Table 2.6

for internal and outstand compression elements

0,43 0,57 0,85 0,57 0,21 + 0,07

0,35 for elastic analysis

1,0 for plastic analysis

factor for considering the moment distribution and the type of

for considering the moment distribution and the type of restraint

Reduced resistance to bending

Structural analysis of lateral torsional buckling, EN 1993-1-1, 6.3.2.1

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