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The Dalcroze Approach to Music Therapy

R. J. David Frego Greta Gillmeister Mika Hama Robin E. Liston
INTRODUCTION

American music education is and has been very eclectic in its approaches. Music education simply reflects Americas national character, which is a diverse blend of cultures, philosophies, and academic practices. A basic tenet of educational philosophy and law is that every child shall have access to free and appropriate education. This idea carries over into music education, in that music should be for every childnot just for the gifted and talented minority. There are many music educators whose philosophies embrace the idea of music for all people. Among these music educators is mile-Henri Jaques-Dalcroze. PHILOSOPHY The Dalcroze philosophy centers on an idea that has been valued at various times throughout history, that the synthesis of the mind, the body, and the emotions is fundamental to all learning. Plato said in his Laws: "Education has two branches, one of gymnastics, which is concerned with the body and the other of music, which is designed for the improvement of the soul (Pennington, 1925, p. 9). Jaques-Dalcroze believed that the goal of every musician is to be sensitive and expressive, and to express music through movement, sound, thought, feeling, and creation. Mead (1994) describes the Dalcroze philosophy in terms of four basic premises: 1. Eurhythmics awakens physical, aural, and visual images of music in the mind. 2. Solfge (sight-singing and ear training), improvisation, and eurhythmics together work to improve expressive musicality and enhance intellectual understanding. 3. Music may be experienced through speech, gesture, and movement. These can likewise be experienced in time, space, and energy. 4. Humans learn best when learning through the senses. Music should be taught through the tactile, the kinesthetic, the aural, and the visual senses. HISTORY mile-Henri Jaques was born into a musical home on July 6, 1865. His Swiss parents were living in Vienna, and young mile and his sister Hlne were supported in their artistic education by their mother Julie, herself a fine music teacher and pianist. She had studied the philosophy and teaching methods of educational reformer Heinrich Pestalozzi (1746-1827). He was an early advocate of teaching through the senses and through experience, not merely through the written word. He also supported the addition of vocal music instruction to school

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curricula. Pestalozzi's influence on Madame Jaques was evident in her son as well. Since the Dalcroze approach centers on the philosophy that experience in music is key to musical understanding, it seems that both Pestalozzi and Dalcroze philosophies share common ground (Collins, 1993). Childhood in the Jaques household was a time of singing, playing, dancing, acting, and creating. Emile had a happy childhood and was described as "lively, friendly, and even contemplative for a child" (Spector, 1990, p. 5). In 1875, the family moved to Geneva. After several years in a private school, mile Jaques enrolled at the Geneva Conservatory. At the age of eighteen, he had not yet decided upon a career. The following year, 1884, he went to Paris where he studied drama at the Comdie Franaise and music at the Paris Conservatory. Young Emile reveled in the artistic atmosphere of the city. A passionate young actor and musician, he also found time to compose and perform, singing as he accompanied himself on the piano. While in Paris, mile Jaques became familiar with the teachings of Mathis Lussy (18281910), a piano instructor and writer. Lussy wrote extensively on the subject of expressive musical performance and musical understanding (Caldwell, 1995). Through Lussy, mile Jaques learned of the process of scholarly inquiry: to recognize problems; to approach them scientifically; and to devise methods for their solution (Spector, 1990). mile Jaques interests were shifting toward an emphasis in music, and after a visit with his family in Geneva in the summer of 1886, he accepted the position of assistant conductor and chorus master at the Thtre des Nouveaux in Algiers, North Africa. Algeria had been a French colony since 1847, and consequently felt the influence of Western European culture. mile Jaques underwent two changes while enjoying his first professional employment. Feeling that his youthful appearance might inhibit his effectiveness as a leader, he began sporting the mustache and goatee he would maintain for the rest of his life. This was also the time when he added Dalcroze to his birth name Jaques. It seems that a composer of polkas in Bordeaux, France, also had the name Emile Jaques. To avoid confusion, mile-Henri borrowed the name Valcroze from a friend, changed the first letter to D, and was known thereafter as Emile Jaques-Dalcroze (Spector, 1990). After one season, Jaques-Dalcroze returned to Geneva in 1887 and, later that year, moved to Vienna and enrolled at the Vienna Conservatory in the studio of Anton Bruckner (18241927). Their collaboration was brief: Bruckner insisted that "der dumme Franzose" study harmony from the beginning, which Jaques-Dalcroze refused to do. Eventually Bruckner attempted to have Jaques-Dalcroze thrown out of the conservatory, but was thwarted by the faculty. Adolf Prosniz (1827-1917) invited Jaques-Dalcroze into his studio. It may have been Prosniz who helped Jaques-Dalcroze focus his musical concentration and learn to study music with greater depth (Spector, 1990). In spite of his clashes with Bruckner, JaquesDalcroze considered their association valuable. Bruckner's intolerance and authoritative style were the antithesis of Jaques-Dalcroze's loving, playful nature. Perhaps this experience helped to solidify his idea that an effective teacher is one who respects and educates the whole child. Spring of 1889 brought Jaques-Dalcroze's return to the Paris Conservatory and composition study with Gabriel Faur. The twenty-four-year-old musician made the most of his opportunities, moving in the same musical circles as Csar Franck and other artists of his stature. Jaques-Dalcroze continued to compose an assortment of songs, ensembles, and sketches based on the customs of the day.

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In 1892, Jaques-Dalcroze returned to the Geneva Conservatory, this time as a professor of solfge. He began to question the teaching methods of the day and wonder what improvements he could make. Careful observation of his students showed him that while the students could be good musical technicians, they often did not hear or feel the nuances of the music they were required to play. Just keeping a steady beat was often difficult for the students. Jaques-Dalcroze began by getting the students up from their seats keeping a steady beat by moving about the space. From there he added other fundamental qualities of singing, breathing, walking at various tempi, skipping, and conducting with large gestures (Odom, 1998). He then added quality to the movement by asking them to physically react to the improvised music that he was providing at the piano. These qualities included legato, marcato, and staccato movements to complement the music. Cooperative work with a partner allowed the students to experience timing, space, strength and weight, creativity, and cooperative learning. By adding rhythmic movement to music, students acknowledged the body as the first instrument of expression (Dutoit, 1971, p. 9). As instructor of solfge, Jaques-Dalcroze believed that the compartmentalization of music courses was detrimental to the pupils' true musical development (Carder, 1990). By combining solfge with rhythmic movement and improvisation into rhythmic gymnastics, as he first called this work, JaquesDalcroze began to teach in a holistic style. From 1903 to 1910, Jaques-Dalcroze actively pursued the development of a teaching approach based on rhythmic gymnastics. However, his colleagues at the Geneva Conservatory considered him something of a radical. The disapproval that met his innovations was due partly to the conservatory faculty's unwillingness to condone his experimental techniques, and to have its students become "performing monkeys" (Dutoit, 1971, p. 14). Another branch of resistance was from Genevan society itself. JaquesDalcroze's students dressed in short-sleeved tunics, with bare legs and feet, to allow free movement in class. This was quite an affront to most Genevans, who lived according to the rigid morality of the early twentieth century. People outside of Geneva, however, were keen to adopt Jaques-Dalcrozes philosophy of music and movement education. After a demonstration of his approach in Berlin, JaquesDalcroze received an offer to develop an institution for rhythmic study at an experimental Garden City being designed north of Dresden, Germany. The premise of Hellerau was to be a community that combined a planned industrial settlement with a school for artistic development attended by children and adults. Between the period of 1910 and 1914, Hellerau became a cultural center for music, theatre, and dance. In partnership with Adolphe Appia, a noted theatre designer, Jaques-Dalcroze supervised the construction of a school and performance space that was noted for its architectural and theatrical innovationsinstead of a proscenium, the space was now open, which brought the audience closer in to the performances. In addition, all components were completely modular, which allowed the performers to move the stage in front of the audience (Spector, 1990). During performances, students were not categorized as musicians, dancers, or actors, but functioned as all three. In the summers of 1912 and 1913, audiences flocked to Hellerau to see the student summer performance of Glucks Orfeo ed Euridice. These demonstrations attracted notable artists and teachers from around the world: theatre luminaries Konstantin Stanislavsky and George Bernard Shaw; dancers Mary Wigman, Sergei Diaghilev and Rudolf von Laban; and musician Darius Milhaud (Martin, 1965).

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With the outbreak of World War I, the Hellerau school was closed and a permanent school was founded in Geneva. Jaques-Dalcroze, recognizing the need for qualified instructors, designed a professional training curriculum that enabled others to teach his approach. Instructors continue to graduate in Dalcroze Eurhythmics from the Dalcroze School in Geneva. These graduates have established training schools in many cities around the globe (Dutoit, 1971). Jaques-Dalcroze continued writing, composing, and teaching in Geneva until his death in 1950. Besides his teaching philosophy, he is also remembered as a prolific composer of songs, operettas, and large-scale festival presentations. Today, Dalcroze Eurhythmics is taught in music preparatory schools and is part of the music theory and aural skills curriculum in conservatories and universities throughout North America, Europe, Asia and Australia. Training in the approach is available in the United States and in Europe. In addition, national and international professional organizations exist to support eurhythmics teachers and those interested in pursuing the experience. Jaques-Dalcroze wanted to create an approach to music education in which sensory and intellectual experiences are fused into one neuromuscular experiencereinforcing the bodys response to music (Caldwell, 1995). He felt that this would lead to performance at high levels, beyond expectation (Carder, 1990). He believed that music education should center on active involvement in musical experience. Technique and intellectual understanding are important, but active experience must come first. Todays music education is based on the "sound before the symbol" philosophy, a legacy of Jaques-Dalcroze and Pestalozzi before him. Jaques-Dalcroze felt that students could practice and learn musical expression through the active discovery of time, space, and energy. He believed that as music moves, so should musicians; therefore, rhythm is elemental to this philosophy. Jaques-Dalcroze taught that through rhythmic movement, musicians could experience symmetry, form, tension and relaxation, phrasing, melody, and harmony. Experience should teach the musical elements. DESCRIPTION The Dalcroze approach, often identified as Eurhythmics, consists of three related components. The first component is solfge, or ear training. Jaques-Dalcroze believed that students must learn sophisticated listening skills and develop "inner hearing." Musicians should be able to hear what they write and write what they hear. Music notation is meaningless unless realized in real performance or in the imagination. Solfge is taught using the fixed-do approach, based on the French system. Students develop a sensitivity to pitches, their relation to each other, and to the tonal framework. What makes Dalcroze solfge unique is that it is always combined with rhythm and movement, both locomotor and nonlocomotor. The second component of a Dalcroze music education is improvisation. Improvisation skills are developed sequentially and used in many ways. An instructor may play the piano while students improvise movement, react spontaneously to verbal instructions, or change in musical character. In the reverse, a student might improvise movement while another accompanied with a drum, at the piano, or in song. Students soon develop skills to be able to improvise musically and expressively on their own instruments. These spontaneous performance activities are designed to improve response time and communication accuracy (Mead, 1994).

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The final piece in the puzzle is the eurhythmics itself. Often considered the core of the Dalcroze approach, eurhythmics was actually the last part to be developed. It is of equal importance with rhythmic solfge and improvisation, but not more. The term eurhythmics is from the Greek "eu," meaning good, and "rhythmy," meaning rhythm, proportion, and symmetry. This idea embodies Dalcroze philosophy in two ways. First, human beings can experience symmetry, balance, and rhythmic accuracy in music through symmetry, balance, and rhythmic accuracy in movement. Second, the three components of the Dalcroze approach (rhythmic solfge, improvisation, and eurhythmics) are interdependent and must be taught together. The three complement and reinforce each other, providing a complete and balanced musical education. Modern music educators and music therapists often identify the approach as Eurhythmics, though all three facets are implied. A typical introductory Dalcroze lesson involves activities or games that require total mental and kinesthetic awareness. The lesson is presented in a somatic approach that allows the participant to hear and react physically to the musical stimulus, which produces body awareness and sensations. These physical sensations are transmitted back to the brain as emotions and a more developed comprehension of the experience. It is common to begin a Dalcroze lesson with walking to improvised music and responding to changes in tempo, dynamics, and phrase in quick reaction games. Through these activities, the students begin to understand how physical adjustments, such as energy and flow of the body weight, need to occur in order to physicalize the music. Through these basic instructions, the teacher can address musical elements such as pulse, beat, subdivision, meter, rhythm, phrase, and form. Intermediate Dalcroze lessons can address polymeters, polyrhythms, canon, tension and relaxation, breathing, conducting, counterpoint, and the interactions of anacrusis, crusis, and metacrusis. Creativity is pervasive throughout the lesson. All classes are in a group setting where the participants interact with partners or small groups to develop the nonverbal communication skills and creativity necessary in music and movement. Plastique Anime, or more often referred to as plastique, is the culminating experience in a Dalcroze class. A plastique combines the skills addressed throughout the class, and from previous rhythmic experiences, into a loosely based choreography that is both physically expressive and musical. The students are provided with the basics of the requirements and are asked to spontaneously create an interactive composition with the music. Someone who is stepping into a Dalcroze studio at that moment would see music in motion and might not be aware that the movement is spontaneous. Modern music education benefits from Jaques-Dalcroze's teaching in many ways. Today's teachers focus on active learning on the part of the students. This implies less instruction and more experience for the students (Caldwell, 1993). Dalcroze philosophy also places emphasis on musical behavior and expression, and their demonstration through observable movement. Visible evidence of musical understanding through experience takes some of the mystery out of the verbal definitions of musicality. Another aspect of modern music education inherited from Jaques-Dalcroze is the celebration of the individual. Teachers expect to provide appropriate musical experiences for all their students. Creativity and imaginary play are encouraged through improvisation. Music class is student oriented, with groups of students actively thinking about, listening to, and analyzing and creating music (Johnson, 1993).

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Dalcroze exercises and pedagogical principles are easy to apply to most teaching situations (Johnson, 1993). Multiage classrooms are becoming popular; Dalcroze exercises can be adapted to suit a variety of student skill and experience levels. Dalcroze teacher training allows instructors to become creative and flexible in the give-and-take of modern education. The ability to be spontaneous in the classroom is valuable for all educators. Teachers can follow through unexpected teaching opportunities with ease, and provide students with a model of an adaptable and creative personality. DALCROZE PHILOSOPHY Jaques-Dalcroze intended for his approach to develop musical understanding through eurhythmics and to help students develop immediate physical responsiveness to rhythmic stimuli. Developing muscular rhythms and nervous sensibility would ultimately lead to the capacity to discriminate even slight gradations of duration, time, intensity, and phrasing. Through rhythmic movement, students would begin to think and express themselves more musically. Initially, Jaques-Dalcrozes conception of eurhythmics was designed for the education of conservatory musicians but soon expanded to the early musical education of children, and to those with special needs. His philosophy grew to include his belief in the development of a more musical society through rhythmic training in the schools (Campbell, 1991). Jaques-Dalcroze believed the learning process involved direct sensory experience. He advocated kinesthetic learning. Through movement, learning comes through experience in addition to observation. Varied musical experiencesincluding movement, singing, improvisation, music reading and writing, and playing instrumentsreinforce musical learning (Johnson, 1993). Moreover, Jaques-Dalcroze believed that the way to health was through a balance of mind, body, and senses. Many people have discovered that they can improve and refine skills by rehearsing a combination of movements, first in the real body and then imagining going through these movements with special fluidity in the kinesthetic body. One can then return the same movement in the real body, allowing the improved flow of kinesthetic rehearsal to carry over into actual movement (Abramson, 1980). Jaques-Dalcroze placed special emphasis on child-centered learning. He developed a particular interest in the natural development of the child (Johnson, 1993). Across ages, Jaques-Dalcroze developed music teaching strategies that were age and ability-level appropriate. His approach to music learning was broken down into experiences for the primary grades, intermediate grades, and upper grades (Mead, 1994).

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REFERENCES Abramson, R. M. (1980). Dalcroze-Based Improvisation. Music Educators Journal. January, 1980. Brick, R. M. (1973). Eurhythmics: One aspect of audition. Volta Review, 75(3), 155-160. Brown, J., Sherrill, C., & Gench, B. (1981). Effects of an integrated physical education/music program in changing early childhood perceptual/motor performance. Perceptual and Motor Skills, 53(1), 151-154. Caldwell, J. T. (1993). A Dalcroze perspective on skills for learning music. Music Educators Journal, 79(7), 27-28. Caldwell, J. T. (1995). Expressive singing: Dalcroze eurhythmics for voice. Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice Hall. Campbell, P. S. (1991). Rhythmic movement and public school education: progressive views in the formative years. Journal of Research in Music Education, 19, 12-22. Carder, P. (Ed.). (1990). The eclectic curriculum in American music education (2nd ed.). Reston, VA: Music Educators National Conference. Collins, D. L. (1993). Teaching choral music. Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice Hall. Dutoit, C. L. (1971). Music movement therapy. Geneva, Switzerland: Institut JaquesDalcroze. Frego, R. J. D. (1995). Music movement therapy for people with AIDS: The use of music movement therapy as a form of palliative care for people with AIDS. International Journal of Arts Medicine, 4(2), 21-25. Hibben, J. K. (1984). Movement as musical expression in a music therapy setting. Music Therapy, 4, 91-97. Hibben, J. K. (1991). Identifying dimensions of music therapy activities appropriate for children at different stages of group development, Arts in Psychotherapy, 18, 301-10 Jaques-Dalcroze, E. (1920). The Jaques-Dalcroze method of eurhythmics: rhythmic movement, Vols. 1 and 2. London: Novello, 1920. (Orgininal work published in 1918) Jaques-Dalcroze, E. (1921). Rhythm, music and education (H. F. Rubinstein, Trans.). New York: G.P. Putnam's Sons. (Original work published in 1921). Jaques-Dalcroze, E. (1931). Eurhythmics, art and education (F. Rothwell, Trans.; C. Cox, Ed.). New York: Barnes. (Original work published in 1930). Johnson, M. D. (1993). Dalcroze skills for all teachers. Music Educators Journal, 79(8), 4245. Martin, F., Dnes, T., Berchtold, A., Gagnebin, H., Reichel, B., Dutoit, C., Stadler, E. (1965). mile Jaques-Dalcroze: Lhomme, le compositeur, le crateur de la rhythmique. Neuchtel, Swisse: Baconnire. Mead, V. H. (1994). Dalcroze eurhythmics in today's music classroom. New York: Schott Music Corporation. Odom, S. L. (1998) Jaques-Dalcroze, Emile. International Encyclopedia of Dance, Vol. 3. New York: Oxford. Pennington, J. (1925). The importance of being rhythmic. New York: Knickerbocker Press. Spector, I. (1990). Rhythm and life: The work of Emile Jaques-Dalcroze. Stuyvesant, NY: Pendragon Press.

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Swaiko, N. (1974). The role and value of a eurhythmics program in a curriculum for deaf children. American Annals of the Deaf, 119(3), 155-160. RECOMMENDED ADDITIONAL READINGS Aronoff, F. W. (1983). Dalcroze strategies for music learning in the classroom. International Journal of Music Education, 2, 23-25. Bachmann, M. L. (1991). Dalcroze Today. An Education through and into Music (D. Parlett, Trans.). New York: Oxford University Press. Dale, M. (2000). Eurhythmics for Young Children: Six Lessons for Fall. Ellicott City, Maryland: MusiKinesis, 2000. Driver, E. (1951). A Pathway to Dalcroze Eurhythmics. London: T. Nelson and Sons. Findlay, E. (1971). Rhythm and Movement: Applications of Dalcroze Eurhythmics. Secaucus, New Jersey: Summy Birchard, 1971. Joseph, A. (1982). A Dalcroze Eurhythmics Approach to Music Learning in Kindergarden Through Rythmic Movement, Ear- training and Improvisation. Doctoral dissertation, Carnegie Mellon University, Pittsburgh. Moore, S. F. (1992). The Writings of Emile Jaques-Dalcroze: Toward a theory for the performance of musical rhythm. Doctoral dissertation, Indiana University. (University Micro-films International, MI 48106).

R. J. David Frego School of Music The Ohio State University Columbus, OH Philosophy of a Dalcroze-based lesson:

The human body is the first instrument Rhythm bridges what we hear with what we do Lessons integrate rhythmic skills with ear-training and improvisation Music is abstractwe hear it moving through time Movement is concretewe see it moving through space Rhythmic movement manipulates time, space, and energy Movement generates feelings, which form emotions All lessons develop listening skills, reaction, focus, self-control, coordination, cooperation, self-expression, imagination, and creativity

A Dalcroze-based lesson needs to contain:

Set-up with quick reaction games and focus activities Provide opportunities for the instructor to see ability levels of all Allow opportunities for participants to assess their own abilities Introduce the theme through movementensuring success by all Add sequential challenges in the way of games Introduce nuances in music to measure participants reactions Create improvisation opportunities for the participants Introduce singing/chanting activities that respond to the music Facilitate large and small group cooperative activities Provide problem solving and creative development Culminate the theme in a Plastique anime, using composed or improvised music

Further reading:
Findlay, E. (1971). Rhythm and movement: Applications of Dalcroze Eurhythmics. Miami: Warner. Frego, D., & Leck, H. (2005). Creating Artistry Through Movement. (DVD). Milwaukee, Hal Leonard #08744511. ISBN: 0634098381. Mead, V. H. (1994). Dalcroze eurhythmics in todays music classroom. Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice Hall. www.dalcrozeusa.org/

Sample Dalcroze Lessons Warm-up: A-1, B-2, C-3, D-4 1-A, 2-B, 3-C, 4-D A-1, B-2, 3-C, 4-D Go! Stop! Melt! Grow! Finding your personal pulse Discriminating pulse Strategies for movement in the classroom

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Discovering Space: Discovering space in eight beats, four beats, and 16 beats Awareness of ones own space and the space of others Locomotor and nonlocomotor realization of space Pulse & Beat: Circular clapping and quick reaction games Disappearing beat game Subtract or add one beat Substitute beat with a clap Rankin Family: Fare Thee Well, Love (Tell My Ma) Subdivision: Circular clapping; change size of circle on hip or hop Tapping on a partners hand; use vertical space Rock, Paper, Scissors game Walking the subdivisions Walking and tapping the subdivisions Ennio Morricone: The Mission (Falls) Subdivision Canon: Walk the previous pulse Move the walking pulse up to the hands Move the hand pulse up to the tongue Overlapping and continuous canon Meter: Rubber balls to discover anacrusis, crusis, & metacrusis Manipulate meters of two, three, & four Quick reaction to meter changes Rolling the Ball between partnerstime, space, & energy Accents on beats other than the first beat San Antonio Vocal Arts Ensemble: El Milagro de Guadalupe Zap Mama: Adventures in Afropea (The Boat Goes to the Bottom) Loreena McKennitt: The Visit (Tango to Evora)

Canon:

Visual Canon: four beats behind; two beats behind; one beat Interrupted canon with partners and ropes Interrupted canon individually Overlapping canon with partners and individually Brother John Canon with movement

Tension & Relaxation: Use a stocking to feel the gradual increase and decrease of tension Work with partners and in small groups to feel the group effect of tension Ennio Morricone: The Mission (Gabriels Oboe) Solfge: Vocal improvisation on a descending natural minor line Incorporate the body with the voice Try five different ways to sing the line Work in ensembles of five Move and catch the wave with Arvo Prts Cantus in Memory of Benjamin Britten

Mixed Meter: Thread pull game with partners ||: 5 | 3 | 2 :|| Longer counts have longer threads Add to the meter ||: 5 | 3 | 2 | 4 | 1 :|| Keep the thread at the same length and move with the thread Step every beat of the pattern Step beat one and clap the complements Step beat one and pull the thread from yourself Change the meter to the following phrase ||: 4 | 6 | 8 :|| Partners gesture moves to each other; getting progressively larger Alternate who begins the phrase Create a plastique anime with the piece Philip Glass: Songs From the Trilogy (Knee I) Abstract Space: Working with the horizontal space 1. mirror, 2. circus mirror, 3. magnet, 4. opposite magnet Work with a partner in eight beat phrases; Change leaders SaraLee Hosiery, Leggs Products, PO Box 719, Marion, SC 29571 Enclose a check for $12.00 to cover shipping and handling of Leggs waste products. Ask for white because they can be dyed. Let them know that the material will be used for educational purposes.