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Unit 2 mod 3 Atmosphere page 1 of 11

THE ATMOSPHERE Layers of Atmosphere


Earth's atmosphere can be divided into five main layers. These layers are mainly determined by whether temperature increases or decreases with altitude. From highest to lowest, these layers are: Troposphere The troposphere begins at the surface and extends to between 7 km (23,000 ft) at the poles and 17 km (56,000 ft) at the equator, with some variation due to weather. The lowest part of the troposphere is warmest and temperature decreases with altitude. The tropopause is the boundary between the troposphere and stratosphere. Stratosphere The stratosphere extends from the tropopause to about 51 km (32 mi; 170,000 ft). Temperature increases with height, which restricts turbulence and mixing. The stratopause, which is the boundary between the stratosphere and mesosphere. Mesosphere The mesosphere extends from the stratopause to 8085 km (5053 mi; 260,000 280,000 ft). It is the layer where most meteors burn up upon entering the atmosphere. Temperature decreases with height in the mesosphere. Thermosphere Temperature increases with height in the thermosphere from the mesopause up to the thermopause, then is constant with height. The top of the thermosphere is the bottom of the exosphere, called the exobase. Exosphere The outermost layer of Earth's atmosphere extends from the exobase upward. Here the particles are so far apart that they can travel hundreds of km without colliding with one another.

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Maintenance of ozone concentration in stratosphere Ozone is produced by uv radiation which is plentiful in the stratosphere.

These four equations are the Chapman reactions which regulate the concentration of ozone in the stratosphere. Note that hv represents uv light. (1) Photodissociation causes the oxygen molecule to dissociate, (2) each oxygen atom then can combine with an oxygen molecule to form ozone. (3) Ozone molecules dissociate when in contact with uv rays reforming an oxygen molecule and oxygen atom. (4) An ozone molecule and oxygen atom combine to form 2 oxygen molecules.

Significance of CFCs in ozone layer CFCs and other contributory substances are commonly referred to as ozone-depleting substances (ODS). Since the ozone layer prevents most harmful UVB wavelengths (270315 nm) of ultraviolet light (UV light) from passing through the Earth's atmosphere, observed and projected decreases in ozone have generated worldwide concern leading to adoption of the Montreal Protocol that bans the production of CFCs and halons (halogenoalkane) as well as related ozone depleting chemicals such as carbon tetrachloride and trichloroethane. It is suspected that a variety of biological consequences such as increases in skin cancer, cataracts, damage to plants, and reduction of plankton populations in the ocean's photic zone may result from the increased UV exposure due to ozone depletion. Ozone is also a very powerful oxidising agent. CFCs are non-toxic, low boiling, inert compounds and thus diffuse to the stratosphere where it undergoes fission by uv light. An example of the reactions are shown below Step 1 CFCl3 + h CFCl2 + Cl Step 2 Cl + O3 ClO + O2 Step 3 ClO + O3 Cl + 2 O2 Steps 2 and 3 result in a chain reaction. Essentially CFCs result in the destruction of the ozone layer. One chlorine atom can destroy 100,000 ozone molecules.

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a) Stratospheric ozone
Although the concentration of the ozone in the ozone layer is very small, it is vitally important to life because it absorbs biologically harmful ultraviolet (UV) radiation coming from the Sun. UV radiation is divided into three categories, based on its wavelength; these are referred to as UV-A (400315 nm), UV-B (315280 nm), and UV-C (280100 nm). UV-C, which would be very harmful to humans, is entirely screened out by ozone at around 35 km altitude. UV-B radiation can be harmful to the skin and is the main cause of sunburn; excessive exposure can also cause genetic damage, resulting in problems such as skin cancer. The ozone layer screens out 95% of UV-B; for radiation with a wavelength of 290 nm, the intensity at the top of the atmosphere is 350 million times stronger than at the Earth's surface.

b) Tropospheric ozone
The majority of tropospheric ozone formation occurs when nitrogen oxides (NOx), carbon monoxide (CO) and volatile organic compounds (VOCs), such as xylene, react in the atmosphere in the presence of sunlight. NOx, CO, and VOCs are called ozone precursors. Motor vehicle exhaust, industrial emissions, and chemical solvents are the major anthropogenic (man-made) sources of these chemicals. Ozone is known to have the following health effects at concentrations common in urban air: Irritation of the respiratory system, causing coughing, throat irritation, and/or an uncomfortable sensation in the chest. Reduced lung function, making it more difficult to breathe deeply and vigorously. Breathing may become more rapid and more shallow than normal, and a person's ability to engage in vigorous activities may be limited. Aggravation of asthma. When ozone levels are high, more people with asthma have attacks that require a doctor's attention or use of medication. One reason this happens is that ozone makes people more sensitive to allergens, which in turn trigger asthma attacks. Increased susceptibility to respiratory infections. Inflammation and damage the lining of the lungs. Within a few days, the damaged cells are shed and replaced much like the skin peels after a sunburn. Animal studies suggest that if this type of inflammation happens repeatedly over a long time period (months, years, a lifetime), lung tissue may become permanently scarred, resulting in permanent loss of lung function and a lower quality of life.

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Checkpoint A

Importance of carbon cycle

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The element carbon is necessary for all organic material. Its presence is maintained by the carbon cycle. On the previous page shows the various processes involved in the carbon cycle. If all the carbon was present in the atmosphere as CO 2, the greenhouse effect would be enhanced to such a level, that life as we know it on Earth would cease to exist. If all the carbon was locked in the sediments (rocks) or vegetation or animals, again life would cease as no more photosynthesis would be able to occur and life would swiftly end. In recent times, the balance of carbon has been disrupted by the extreme levels of fossil fuel combustion, causing a dramatic increase in the level of CO2 in the atmosphere. CO2 is a greenhouse gas and an increase in its levels causes an increase in the mean temperature of the Earth. This has undesirable effects on weather patterns and countries climates. In order to remove the excess carbon dioxide in the atmosphere, a concept such as carbon sequestering can be used. Carbon sequestering is a geoengineering technique for long-term storage of carbon dioxide or other forms of carbon to mitigate global warming. Carbon dioxide is usually captured from the atmosphere through biological, chemical or physical processes. Biological:- Reforestation i.e. the replanting of trees on marginal crop and pasture lands

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Physical:- Biomass burial i.e. burying trees which are now dead which resulting in a mimicking of the natural process of fossil fuel formation Chemical:- Mineral sequestration i.e. the reaction of carbon dioxide with either magnesium oxide or calcium oxide to form the respective carbonates.

The greenhouse effect The greenhouse effect is a process by which radiative energy leaving a planetary surface is absorbed by some atmospheric gases, called greenhouse gases. They transfer heat to other components of the atmosphere, and also re-radiate energy in all directions, including back down towards the surface. This transfers energy to the surface and lower atmosphere, so the temperature there is higher than it would be if direct heating by solar radiation were the only warming mechanism. Higher levels of CO2 in present time (around 380ppm) causes an enhanced greenhouse effect which results in an increase of the average temperature of the Earth than in the past with lower levels of CO 2 (315ppm) Causes of global warming High levels of combustion of fossil fuels releasing CO 2 High amounts of methane gas from grazing animals and landfills Release of nitrous oxide from fertilisers Release of refrigerants for industrial processes Deforestation whether man-made or natural via the burning of forests in dry seasons Effects of global warming

Sea levels to rise

Unit 2 mod 3 Atmosphere page 7 of 11 Change the amount and pattern of precipitation, probably including
expansion of subtropical deserts Continuing retreat of glaciers, permafrost and sea ice. Other likely effects include changes in the frequency and intensity of extreme weather events, species extinctions, and changes in agricultural yields. Warming and related changes will vary from region to region around the globe, though the nature of these regional variations is uncertain.

Photochemical smog Photochemical smog is the chemical reaction of sunlight, nitrogen oxides (NOx) and volatile organic compounds (VOCs) in the atmosphere, which leaves airborne particles (called particulate matter) and ground-level ozone.
Nitrogen oxides are released by nitrogen and oxygen in the air reacting together under high temperature such as in the exhaust of fossil fuel-burning engines in cars, trucks, coal power plants, and industrial manufacturing factories. VOCs are released from man-made sources such as gasoline (petrol), paints, solvents, pesticides, and biogenic sources, such as pine and citrus tree emissions.

Effects of photochemical smog It can inflame breathing passages, decrease the lungs' working capacity, cause shortness of breath, pain when inhaling deeply, wheezing, and coughing. It can cause eye and nose irritation and it dries out the protective membranes of the nose and throat and interferes with the body's ability to fight infection, increasing susceptibility to illness. Checkpoint B

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Effects of combustion of hydrocarbon based fuels Pollutants carbon dioxide Source/how produced burning of oil, coal and natural gas Effects Increase of carbon dioxide in the atmosphere leads to the "greenhouse effect". When the energy from the sun is reflected back from the earth, the gas prevents this energy from returning to outer space and ultimately causes temperatures on Earth to rise, similar to a greenhouse. the gas is absorbed in rain water which causes the formation of acid rain. acid rain destroys vegetation and damages marble and limestone buildings. poisonous, prevents uptake of oxygen by haemoglobin.

sulphur dioxide

burning of oil, coal or gasoline containing sulphur

carbon monoxide

incomplete burning of fossil fuels

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increases the formation of carbon dioxide i.e. enhancing the greenhouse effect Same as for sulphur dioxide

Oxides of nitrogen

Lead compounds CFCs

Internal combustion engine, reaction of nitrogen gas with oxygen gas Leaded gasoline specifically tetraethyl lead Petro-chemical industry, aerosol propellants

Forms volatile lead compounds or elemental lead. Lead acts as a cumulative poison and it can cause madness and then death Forms radicals in the ozone layer which ultimately destroys the ozone layer. This can cause an increased incidence of skin cancers.

NOx concentration in the atmosphere NOx is produced in the atmosphere by a variety of ways. Via lightning high temperature causes the reaction of nitrogen gas and oxygen gas to form nitrogen monoxide In the internal combustion engine, the high temperature causes the nitrogen and oxygen gases to react to form NOx Once NOx is in the atmosphere, their concentrations can be affected by precipitation resulting in acid rain. That is the reaction of NO x and water forming dilute solutions of nitric acid. The formation of acid rain, the Haber Process and use of fertilisers also affects the nitrogen cycle, the amount of nitrates present in the soil.

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Methods of control and prevention of atmospheric pollution Pollutant Method of control Particulate For large particles:- Baghouses or similar equipment are used which utilise centrifugal forces to create a cyclone to trap particles and collect them, removing them from the air flow For small particles:- Electrostatic precipitators are used, these exploit the fact that particles are usually charged and by passing dirty air through charged plates, the particles are attracted to the oppositely charged plate and the air comes out clean Scrubbers (wet)

Gases

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A wet scrubber uses an anti parallel flow of water against the flow of gas (gas travelling upward and water flowing downward). Note the water is in very fine droplets to increase surface area. The pollutant then dissolves or reacts with the water, allowing the air to become clean. Prevention of atmospheric pollution Use of alternative fuels (purely electric cars) Improved technology (improved catalytic converters, hybrid cars (use of electricity and gasoline for propulsion) Mass transit (car pooling, use of public transportation) (although the cars or vehicles would still cause pollution) Checkpoint C

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