{6

ANS\\ ER EXPLANATIONS- NIGERIA

ANSWER EXPLANATIONS _ NIGERIA (QUESTTONS ON pp. s02-512 rN THE COURSEBOOK)

The ethno-linguistic map shows the diversity of Nigeria and its neighboring countries, Benin and Cameroon. The shade variations in the map indicate different languages, and the names show some of the many ethnic groups that inhabit the area. Nigeria has between 250 and 400 separate ethnic groups with their own aray of customs, languages, and religions. The three largest groups - the Hausa-Fulani, Igbo, and Yoruba have very little in common, and generally cannot speak one another's languages. They live separately in their own enclaves, and viftually no contacts take place among the groups.
i'C

l. B - The map shows how the political boundaries

tt-r

between countries do not follow ethno-linguistic lines, with many

sroups and languages extending across the three countries. There is almost no correlation between boundaries for nations and states, leaving much room for conflict. In recent years, the capital of Nigeria was moved from Lagos (on the coast)
-A'buja

(in the center of the country) in an effort to create a neutral zone in the center of tlie country.

D - A generation ago novelist Chinua Achebe wrote, "The trouble with Nigeria is simply and squarely a failure of leadership." a statement that strikes at the heart of the country's legitimacy crisis. The deeply flawed election of 200i reinforced Achebe's statement, as it became apparent that the state and national leaders were selected amidst widespread rote rigging, intimidation, fraud, and violence. The international criticisms of the election, as well as the frustration and skepticism of the Nigerian people, are a strong challenge to the legitimacy of the new president, Goodluck Jolathan.
-{. - From 1960 to 1979 Nigeria followed the British parliamentary style government. However, the ethnic divisions soon made it difficult to identifu a majority party or allow a prime minister to have the necessary authority. In 1979 the country su.itched to a presidential system with a popularly-elected president, a separate legislature, and an independent judiciary. Hou ever, the latter two branches have not consistently checked the power of the president.

l.

-i'

- The British ruled indirectly by leaving chiefs and other natives in charge of governments designed to support British economic interests. In order to achieve their goals of economic domination, the British strengthened the authority of the traditional chiefs, making them accountable only to the British. This new pattern resulted in the looseping of the rulers'responsibilir,v" to the people. These political changes gave more power to the elites, and reinforced their tendencies to seek personal benefit from their positions.
5. E

6. E - In an attempt to mollift ethnic tensions yet still remain one country, Nigerian leaders set up a federalist system, r'r'ith some powers delegated to state and local governments. Although this system may eventually prove to be beneficial, under military regimes it did not work. Theoretically, power was shared. However, military presidents did not allow the sub-governments to function with any separate sovereignty. lnstead, the state remained unitary with all power centered in the capital city ofAbuja.
7

.B

17th century when the Dutch, British, French, and Spanish traders began transportingAfricans i1 large numbers to the New World from the Nigerian coast. The impact on the people is difficult to quantifz, but the u"ry *tr.. of the slave trade meant that countless young males were forced to leave their native lands.

Ocean trade. As a result, even before the colonial era, they came into contact with Europeans who converted many of them to Christianity. An important consequence of this contact plagued Nigeria from the 16'h through the l9,h century in the form of the slave trade. The first contacts were with the Portuguese, but the real displacernent oipeople began in the

In the pre-colonial era, people in the south generally lived communally and in closer contact with the Atlantic

flceinl9S3byamilitarycoupledbyGeneralMuhammedBuhari. TwomorecoupskeptNigeriaundermilitarydictatorship until 1999, when a democratic election brought Obasanjo back to power, but this time as a civilian.

8. C - An important change in the early post-colonial days came in 1966 when the parliamentary governmelt was replaced by a military dictatorship. This action set in motion the tendency for government to change hands quickly and violently, as the nation began to experience a series of military coups d'6tat . h"r 1979 the military dictator, Olusegr.rn Obasanjo, willingly stood down for a democratically-elected president, Shehu Shagari, but Shagari was forced out of of-

ANSWER EXPLANATIONS

- NIGERIA

17

9. D - Nigeria's overall literacy rate is 6802, but there is a gap between the male literacy rate at75.1%; and the female rate of 60.6Yo. ThisishigherthanformanyothernationsinAfrica,butisbelowtheworldaverage of 87% formen, andTToh for women. Iran's rates show a sirnilar gap, with a83.5o/o rate of men and a70.4Yo rate for women. A related statistic for Nigeria is that each woman bears an average of 4.91children in her lifetime, which means that women's educational opportunities are often cut short by having children at a young age and remaining at home with offspring.
1 0. A - In Iran, the Igbo are a distinct ethnic group that lives in southeastern Nigeria. The first military ruler, Agiyi Ironsi, was an Igbo who justified his authority by announcing his intention to end violence and stop political corruption. He was killed in a coup by a second general, but the coup sparked the Igbo to fight for independence for their land - called Biafra - from tlre new country of Nigeria. The Biafran Civil War raged on from 1967 until 1970, creating more violence and ethnic-based conflict. Although the country remained together, it did so only under military rule. The most impofiant single cleavage in the Russian Federation is nationality. Although about 80% are Russians, the country included sizeable numbers of Thtars, Ukrainians, Armenians, Chuvashes, Bashkis, Byelorussians, and Moldavians. These cleavages determine the organization of the country into a "federatiou," with "autonomous regions," republics, and provinces whose borders are based on ethn icity. Like the breakaway republics of I 99 1 , many would like to have their independence, although most have trade benefits from the Russian government that induce them to stay within the Federation. A notable exception is Checlinya, a primarily Muslim region that has fought for years for its freedom. The Russian government has had considerable difficulty keeping Chechnya a part of Russia, and the independence movement there is still very strong.

11. C -Nigeria's version of patron-clientelisrn is called prebendalism. Just as in China and Mexico, clientelism, the practice of exchanging political and economic favors among patrons and clients, is almost always accompanied by corruption. The patron (or political leader) builds loyalty among his clients (or lesser elites) by granting them favors that are denied to others. For example, in Nigeria, in exchange for their support, a president may grant to his clients a poftion of the oil revenues. This practice invites corruption, and it usually means that the larger society is hurt because only a few people benefit from the favors. In Nigeria, patrons are generally linked to clients by ethnicity and religion.

12.D - The Coruption Perception Index Score is compiled every year by Transparency International. Countries are ranked frorn I to 10, with a 10 reflecting a corruption-free government. Since Transparency International considers a score of 1 to be "highly corrupt," the chart supports the fact that coruption is a big problem in all of the six countries except for the United Kingdorn. In all five cases (China, Mexico, Nigeria, Iran, and Russia) corruption is parl of the political culture, and bribes and favoritism are a part of tlre ways that governments operate.
13. E - China, Mexico, and Nigeria all are characterized by patron-clientelism, so it is not surprising that all have relatively low CPI scores. Nigeria's prebendalism permeates the political system to such a degree that political participation

cannot take place outside its inflr.rence.

14. B - After the election of 201 I , when Goodluck Jonathan, a Christian from the south, retained the presidency that he had assumed when Yar'AdLra died in 2010, protests erupted in the north among people who believed that the informal rule of alternating presidents from the north and south had been violated. One group, Boko Haram, carried out almost daily shootings and occasional bombings, trying to undermine Jonathan's authority. The group, whose name means'oWestern education is sinful," says it is fighting for the wider application of sharialaw in Nigeria, and has claimed responsibility for hundreds of attacks in the north, often aimed at police, churches, and bars.
15. E - Even though Russia suffers from "asymmetrical federalism" in which some regions have more power than others, it is a forrnally federalist state. Mexico's constitution set up a federalist system in 1917, and today, federalism sometimes operates, even though the courrtry is still a strong presidential system. Nigeria is in theory a federal political systern with government organizations on local, state, and national levels. Its various constitutions have provided for three branches of government, but in reality its executive branch has dominated policymaking. In the Second, Third, and Fourth Republics (all since 1979), Nigeria has had a presidential system, with a strong president theoretically checked by a bicameral legislature and an independent judiciary. Each of the 36 state governments andTl4local governments has an executive and a legislative branch, and a network of local, district, and state courts exists. Currently, neither federalism nor checks and balances operate, and state and local governments are totally dependent on the central government.

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ANSWER EXPLANATIONS

NIGERIA

16. C We refer to a regime clrange wlren a country's institutiorrs and practices change. not.just leaders arrd pafticular leaders change. For Nigeria, a regime change occurred wlren a rnilitary dictatorship ended with the election of 1999 and a democratic regime came in. Everr though the new president, Obasanjo. was a forrner military leadeq he was a civil-

ian when elected, and the election imperfectly.

of

1999 was the first one to actually stick, and so regime charrge took place, lrowever

11. A- Nigeria and Chirra have both sought to devolved powers away frorn the centralized state in order to ease ethnic tensions. Federalism is seen by most Nigerians as a positive, desirable characteristic for their country. Federalisnr appeals to many countries because it promises that power will be shared, and that all people in all parls of the country will be fairly represented. Federalism also allows citizens more contact points with governntent, so that true denrocratic rule can be more easily achieved. In Nigeria, the goal is to seek a "federal clraracter" for tlre nation, a principle tlrat recognizes people of allethnicities, religions, and regiorrs, arrd takes their needs into account. The Nigeriarr Corrstitr-rtion has put many provisions in place that support the goal of "federal character." For example, senators represent diverse states. representatives are elected frorn diverse districts, and the president must receive 25%o of the vote in 213 of the regions in ordertobeelected. Howeveqsofarthisetlrnicbalancinghasnotpromotedunityornationalism,buthasorrlyservedto divide the country more. China's autlroritarian regirne has the same problern that elnperors of past dynasties had - how to effectively govern tlre huge expanse of land arrd large population frorn one centralized place. As China has rnoved away from a command economy toward a market economy. this centralization has become even more problernatic in recelrt years. As a result, a major feature of economic decision-making is now decentralization. or devolution of power to subnational governments. Local governments often de[, or ignore the central government by setting their own tax rates or building projects without consulting the central government. 18. C - In Mexico, after years of conflict and rrumerous presidential assassinations, President Calles broLrght caudillos togetherforanagreementin 1929. Hisplan-tobringallcaudillosunderonebigpolitical pafty-wasintendedtobring stability tlrrough agreement to "pass around" the power frorn one leader to the next as the presidency changed hands. Each president could only lrave one six-year tenn (sexenio), and then must let another leader have his term. Meanwlrile. otlrer leaders would be given major positions in the governmentto establish their influence. This giant urnbrella party PRI (lnstitutional Revolutionary Party) - "institutionalized" the revolution by stabilizing conflict between leaders. Other parties were allowed to run candidates for office, but tlre urnbrella agreement precluded them fronr winning. PRI broLrght stability to Mexico for the remainder of the century. Predictably, political parlies in Nigeria have almost always been regionally and ethnically based. Unlike Mexico, Nigeria did not develop a one-party system in the 20'1'century that contributed to political stability. lnstead, Nigeria's extrerne factionalisrn led to the developrnent of so nrany pafties that it was almost impossible to create a cohererrt party system. The resulting rnulti-party systern has reinforced and deepened etlrnic and religious cleavages. Parlies also fonr around powerful individuals. and so tend to fade with leadership changes. Par-

ties have appeared, disappeared, arrd reorganized frequently.

19. B - Intenrational observers have been invited to Nigeria durirrg previons elections. All the other refornrs listed were initiatedfortheelectionof20ll. Beforetheelectionof20ll,PresiderrtJonatlranaskedAttahiruJega.arespectedaca-

demic, to head the INEC, and Jega drew up a new voter registeq renroving names that were obviously fraudulent. For example, a village in Kanduna state that reported 50,000 votes for the PDP in 2007, was shown to contain only 4.000 voters. He also had ballot papers printed abroad to lirnit their supply, tlrough a later delivery forced a one-week delay in legislative, gubematorial, and presidential elections. Jega also supervised a switch to the "operr secret ballot" systern:
voters were asked to register at polling stations on election day, and they were errcouraged to stay there until results were posted locally in order to verifu them and to prevent rnultiple voting. Tlrese reforrrs contributed to a relatively fair and
open election in 2011, the first in Nigeria's recent history.

20'D- Thefirst presidentialelection aftertlre annulled election of 1993 took place in 1999, followed by a second election in 2003. If a presidential candidate does not receive an outright maiority, a second ballot election rray take place. Acandidatewoninthefirstroundforthefirsttimein20ll,whenGoodluck.tonathanwonalmost5g%ofthevote. An
unusual requirement, however, reflects Nigeria's attempt to unite its people. A president also rnust receive at least 25oh

of

all the votes cast in 2/3 ofthe states

In other words. a pr-rrely regionat candidate canrrot win tlre presidency, or,:TJ,:i,rt"iJii}$1#:;#: t'T,ir# 21. E in most regions of the country. The requirernent also indicates lrow difficult Lrnification has been for Nigeria since independence

in I 960.

22. D - Both lran and Nigeria have so lreavily subsidized oil and gas prices that they lrave to irnport oil to meet the denrand. The situatiorr lras encouraged oil srnuggling to neighboring conntries and corruption anrong the quasi-state companies that deal in oil prodLrcts. Both countries have recently cut back on tlrese subsidies in an effort to cut down on
budget expenses.

Many N igerian govenrntent agencies are actually para-statals, or corporations owned by the state and designated to provide commercial and social welfare services. Theoretically the para-statals are privately owned, but their boards are appointed by government nrinisters, and their executives are itrterwoven into the president's patronage system. Parastatals comrnonly provide pLrblic utilities. such as water, electricity, pLrblic transportation, and agricultural subsidies. Others control nra.ior industries sr-rch as steel, defense products, and petroleum.
23 .

C -Nigerians elect a president, seltators, and members of the House of Representatives all governed by the rules of a plurality electoral system. If a presidential candidate does not receive an outright rnajority, a second ballot election may take place. The Senate has I 09 serrators, three from each of 36 states, and one from the federal capital territory, Abuja. They are elected by direct popular vote. Tlre 360 nrernbers of the House of Representatives are elected from single member districts by plLrrality vote. No run-offs take place for these seats.
24.

25. A- Although tlre rnilitary is a strongly intirnidating force in the Nigeriarr political system that has often blocked democratic reforms, it is irnportant to understand that it is one of the few institutiorrs in the country that is truly national irt character. When the deep ethnic cleavages within Nigerian society have threatened instability, the rnilitary has been there to restore order. Nigeria's best, brightest, and most anrbitious have often rnade their way by rising tlrrough the rnilitary, a fact particularly irnportant for the ethnic Muslirns of nortlrern Nigeria who have not had the sanre oppoftunities that many in the south have had. Because of these factors, generals had the ability to keep control of tlre government for many years, and it helps to explain why the democracy ltas been so fragile so far.

26.8 - The lranian Majles,though restricted in its power, has nrore irrput into the policyrnaking process that does the Nigerian National Assernbly. Nigerian legislatures under rnilitary governrnents have had ahnost no power, and even under civilian control, the legislature has only recently become an effective check on the president's power. A notable example is the National Assernbly's failure to ratifo President Obasanjo's plan to alter the Constitutiorr to allow him to run for a
tlrird ternr in 2007 . Even though the president's party (PNP) held a rnajority in the Assembly, the legislative leaders were h igh 11, critical of the fraud and violence associated with the election of 2007 . Even tlrough the election of 201 I was an irnprovement, like so rnany other govenrment officials, representatives and serrators have often been irnplicated in corruption scandals. The Iranian Majles was first created by the Constitution of 1906. when it was part of Iran's early 20'h centuryexperintentwithdemocracy. The Majles survivedtlreturmoil of itsearlydaysaswellasthedictatorshipofthe Pahlavi shahs, and was retained as tlre central legislative body by the Constitution of 1979. Although the 1989 constitutionalamendrnerrts weakened the Majles in relationslrip to the presidency, it is stillan impoftant political irrstitution witlr significant powers, including enacting and changing laws arrd shaping tlre national budget.

27.E-Likelran.Nigeriaisarentierstate. Arentiereconomyisheavilysupportedbystateexpenditure,whilethestate receives rent fi'onr other countries. Iran arrd Nigeria receive incorne by exporting their oil and leasing out oil fields to
foreign cornpanies. The state's main role in the econorny is in controlling the nation's revenues, and in spending those earnings, known as rents, which come mainly frorn oil. Individuals, groups, and comtnunities lrave learned to respond through rent-seeking behavior. prirnarily by cornpeting for the governrxent's largesse. Those that wirr the cornpetition do so thror:gh political corrnections provided through the patron-client systenr, with tlre president lraving control over wlro gets what. MostNigerians struggle along without much access. and participate in the inforrnal economy of unreported incomes fronr small-scale trade and subsistence agriculture.
28. D - After internatiorral oil prices plurnmeted in the early 1980s, Nigeria was forced to turn to irrternational organizations for help in nranaging its huge national debt. In 1985. the Babangida regime developed an economic structural adjr.rstment program with the suppoft of the World Bank and the International Monetary Fund. The program sought to

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ANSWER EXPLANATIONS- NIGERIA

restructure and diversifu the Nigerian economy so that it could decrease its dependence on oil. The government also pledged to reduce government spending and to privatize its para-statals. This "shock treatment" has had mixed results, but generally timelines for debt repayment have been restructured because Nigeria could not keep up with its payments. Para-statals are still under state control, and the private economic sector has not grown signiflcantly. The large national debt remains a major problem for Nigeria today, especially as oil prices plummeted in 2008. By 2011, with oil prices once again higher, the challenge of using the oil-created wealth to benefit the country was still unmet.

29. A- One negative effect of federalism has been to bloat and promote corruption within the bureaucracy. Since all ethnicities must be represented, sometimes jobs have been created just to satisfu the demand. Once established within bureaucratic posts, these appointees see themselves as beholden to ethnic and regional interests. Another negative effect takes place within the legislative chambers. The 36 states vie for control of government resources, and see themselves in competition with other ethnic groups for political and economic benefits.

A- Citizens of all countries have different opinions about how political power should be distributed and how the government should be structured. However, in Nigeria the differences run far deeper than in most other countries. Even though it has been an independent nation since 1960, neither its leaders nor its citizens agree on the basics of who should rule and how. This dilemma is known as the "national question" of how the country should be governed, or even if Nigeria should remain as one nation. The issue is magnified by regional disagreements and hostilities and by the tendency to solve problems by military force and authoritarian leaders, not by mutual agreement.
30. RUBRTC FOR. COUNTRY-CONTEXT QUESTTON:
Para-statals are political institutions in both the Nigerian and Mexican political systems.

(a) Describe the relationship between para-statals and the government in Nigeria. (b) Describe the relationship between para-statals and the government of Mexico before 2000. (c) Explain two problems that the relationship between para-statals and the govemment created for both the Nigerian political system and the Mexican political system before 2000. (d) Describe one change in the relationship between the government in Mexico and para-statals since 2000.
5 Points

Part (a):

I point

I point is eamed for an accurate description of the relationship between para-statals and the government in Nigeria.
Possible descriptions include:

. . .

government agencies owned by the state and designated to provide commercial and social welfare services theoretically privately owned companies with boards appointed by government ministers companies whose executives are interwoven into the president's patronage system

Part (b): 1 point

I point is earned for an accurate description of the relationship between para-statals and the government in Mexico
before 2000. Possible descriptions include: semiautonomous or autonomous government agencies that produce goods and services that in other countries are carried out by private individuals state-owned companies, such as PEMEX, that controlled a good part of the Mexican economy

ANSWER EXPLANATIONS

_ NICERIA

5I

Part (c): 2 points:

1 point is earned for an accurate explanation of one problem that the relationship between para-statals and the govemment created for both the Nigerian political system and the Mexican political system before 2000.

I point is earned for an accurate explanation of a second problern that the relationship between para-statals and the government created for both the Nigerian political system and the Mexican political system before 2000.
Possible problems include:

. . . . . .

corruption
indebtedness

inefficiency lack of capital

discourage democracy concentrate wealth in the hands of a few

Part (d):

I point

point is earned for an accurate description of one change in the relationship between the government in Mexico and

para-statals since 2000. Possible changes include:

. . . .

Government has encouraged privatization. Governrnent has disbanded many para-statals. Government has loosened restrictions. Parly competition has meant that para-statals that remain are controversial.