9.3 Acidic Environment Booklet

Unit 9.
HSC Chemistry
The Acidic Environment
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HSC Chemistry
Unit 2: 9.3 The Acidic Environment
Contents
Indicators ............................................................................................................................................... 5
Question Set 1 ................................................................................................................................... 5
Common Indicators ............................................................................................................................. 6
Question Set 2 ................................................................................................................................... 6
A Natural Indicator.............................................................................................................................. 7
A Range of Indicators .......................................................................................................................... 8
Everyday uses of Indicators ............................................................................................................... 9
Question Set 3 ................................................................................................................................... 9
Classifying Household Substances .................................................................................................. 10
Non-Metal Oxides .............................................................................................................................. 11
Question Set 4 ................................................................................................................................. 11
Mapping the oxides on the Periodic Table ..................................................................................... 12
Question Set 5 ................................................................................................................................. 12
Le Chateliers Principle ..................................................................................................................... 13
Question Set 6 ................................................................................................................................. 13
Reversible Reactions .......................................................................................................................... 14
Question Set 7 ................................................................................................................................. 14
Solubility of CO2 in Water................................................................................................................. 16
Question Set 8 ................................................................................................................................. 16
De-carbonating Soft Drinks .............................................................................................................. 18
Nitrogen Dioxide Fact Sheet ............................................................................................................. 19
Question Set 9 ................................................................................................................................. 20
Sulfur Dioxide Fact Sheet .................................................................................................................. 22
Question Set 10 ............................................................................................................................... 23
SOx and NOx ...................................................................................................................................... 24
Question Set 11 ............................................................................................................................... 24
Changing Atmospheric Levels of SOx and NOx ........................................................................... 26
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Question Set 12 ............................................................................................................................... 27

Calculating Gas Volumes .................................................................................................................. 28
Acid Rain ............................................................................................................................................. 29
Question Set 13 ............................................................................................................................... 29
Common Acids ................................................................................................................................... 31
Question Set 14 ............................................................................................................................... 31
Measuring pH ..................................................................................................................................... 33
Some Definitions of Acids ................................................................................................................ 34
Question Set 15 ............................................................................................................................... 34
Using the pH scale ............................................................................................................................. 36
pH ......................................................................................................................................................... 38
Question Set 16 ............................................................................................................................... 38
Ionisation of Acids ............................................................................................................................. 40
Question Set 17 ............................................................................................................................... 40
Relative Strength of Acids ................................................................................................................ 42
Commonly occurring acids and bases ............................................................................................ 43
Acid Base equilibrium ....................................................................................................................... 45
Question Set 18 ............................................................................................................................... 45
Classifying Acids................................................................................................................................ 46
Question Set 19 ............................................................................................................................... 46
Brnsted-Lowry Acids and Bases .................................................................................................... 48
Question Set 20 ............................................................................................................................... 49
Conjugate Pairs................................................................................................................................... 50
Question Set 21 ............................................................................................................................... 51
Salts ...................................................................................................................................................... 52
Question Set 22 ............................................................................................................................... 53
pH of Salt Solutions ........................................................................................................................... 54
Neutralisation ..................................................................................................................................... 55
Volumetric Analysis .......................................................................................................................... 56
Question Set 23 ............................................................................................................................... 57
Preparing a Standard Solution ......................................................................................................... 58
Question Set 24 ............................................................................................................................... 59
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Identifying End Points of Titrations ................................................................................................ 60

Question Set 25 ............................................................................................................................... 60
Titrations Exploring Indicators ..................................................................................................... 62
Titrations Finding the Concentration of an Unknown Solution............................................... 63
Buffer Solutions .................................................................................................................................. 65
Comparing Concentrations using Different Methods .................................................................. 66
Chemical Spills and Neutralisation ................................................................................................. 67
Question Set 26 ............................................................................................................................... 67
Alkanols and Alkanoic Acids ........................................................................................................... 69
Question Set 27 ............................................................................................................................... 69
Esterification ....................................................................................................................................... 70
Question Set 28 ............................................................................................................................... 70
Physical properties of alkanols and alkanoic acids ....................................................................... 73
Question Set 29 ............................................................................................................................... 73
Esterification using Reflux ................................................................................................................ 74
Refluxing ............................................................................................................................................. 75
Question Set 30 ............................................................................................................................... 75
Esters .................................................................................................................................................... 76
Question Set 31 ............................................................................................................................... 76
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Indicators
I can classify common substances as acidic, basic or neutral.
Indicators are dyes which use specific pH values. Most acid-base indicators are weak acids
whose corresponding (conjugate) base is a different colour.
1. Litmus: Unionised acid litmus is dominant at pH < 5.5 and so the solution is red. At
pH > 8, the conjugate base is dominant and the solution turns blue. Through the
transition range the indicator changes through shades of purple as the equilibrium
shifts. Litmus can be used as a solution, or soaked paper.
2. Universal:
Universal indicator is a very useful indicator as it shows a range of
colour changes over a range of acidic or basic concentrations (pH values). Universal
indicator is a mixture of other indicators.
Question Set 1
1. What is an indicator?
...................................
...................................
2. Name three places or situations where pH is an important factor.
3. Name 3 indicators with which you are familiar?
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Common Indicators
I can identify that indicators such as litmus, phenolphthalein, methyl orange and
bromothymol blue can be used to determine the acidic or basic nature of a
material over a range, and that the range is identified by a change in colour.
There are a number of common indicators that we use in Chemistry. The table below shows
some of the colour change ranges.
Question Set 2
1. If a substance turns yellow in bromothymol blue, how would
you classify it?
..
2. What other result would you need to conclude that the
substance had a pH of around 5?
..
..
3. Which type of indicator might have produced the
results shown to the right? Justify your answer.
..
..
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A Natural Indicator
I can perform a first-hand investigation to prepare and test a natural indicator.
Prepare and test an indicator made from red cabbage. Use water,
hydrochloric acid, vinegar, sodium hydroxide and ammonia.
Method:
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Results:
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A Range of Indicators
I can identify data and choose resources to gather information about the colour
changes of a range of indicators.
Test the following indicators on each the these substances: water,
hydrochloric acid, vinegar, sodium hydroxide and ammonia.
Indicators: universal indicator, red and blue litmus, phenolphthalein,
methyl orange and bromothymol blue.
Method:
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Results:
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Everyday uses of Indicators

I can identify and describe some everyday uses of indicators including the testing
of soil acidity/basicity.
There are a number of situations where indicators are used to maintain key conditions for
living things.
In swimming pools, pH must be kept within a narrow range to ensure the safety of
swimmers and prevent growth of algae.
In natural water systems, plants use CO2, causing a rise in pH, animals produce CO2 causing
a drop in pH.
pH affects body chemistry. Protein digestion starts in the stomach. An enzyme called
pepsin catalyses the reaction. This enzyme works optimally at very low pH values. Blood
and body cells require a neutral pH. This is maintained by a buffer consisting of H2CO3 and
HCO3- as well as amino acids.
Soil pH can affect the colour and growth of plants.
As foods ripen, there are changes in acidity. Low pH values preserve foods against
pathogens.
pH is also important in the cosmetics industry, to ensure against skin irritations.
Question Set 3
1. Explain the process for testing soil pH. Carry out this process in
a section of the school garden.
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2. What is a buffer? Why are buffers important in natural systems, such as the
bloodstream?
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Classifying Household Substances

I can solve problems by applying information about the colour changes of
indicators to classify some household substances as acidic, neutral or basic.
Apply information about the colour changes of indicators to classify
some household substances as acidic, basic or neutral.
Method:
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.
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Results:
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Non-Metal Oxides
I can identify oxides of non-metals which act as acids and describe the conditions
under which they act as acids.
Elements to the right in the Periodic Table (not including the Noble gases) can be reacted
with oxygen to form non-metal oxides. Examples include carbon dioxide, nitrogen dioxide
or sulfur dioxide.
When these no-metal oxides are dissolved in water, they can produce acidic solutions. The
strength of the acid depends on the particular non-metal.
Eg.
SO2(g) +
H2O(l)
H2SO3(aq)
The sulfur dioxide is an acidic oxide as it produces sulfurous acid when diossolved in water.
It will increase the concentration of hydrogen ions.
Question Set 4
1. Write down balanced chemical reactions for two other nonmetallic oxides to show their acidic nature.
.
.
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Mapping the oxides on the Periodic Table

I can analyse the position of these non-metal in the Periodic Table and outline the
relationship between position of elements in the Periodic Table and
acidity/basicity of oxides.
Now we have an idea about non-metallic oxides, it should be a small stretch to realise there
are metallic oxides and these produce basic solutions. There are also substances, such as
aluminium which are amphoteric. Their oxides can act as either weak acids or weak bases.
Question Set 5
1. Outline the relationship between the position of elements in the
Periodic Table and the acidity/basicity of oxides.
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.
.
.
2. Describe the conditions under which non-metallic oxides act as acids and metallic
oxides act as bases.
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Le Chateliers Principle
I can define Le Chateliers Principle.
So far we have considered reactions as proceeding to completion, however many products

of a reaction may themselves react and reform the original substances; this is called a
reversible reaction.
Both a forward reaction and a reverse reaction may be occurring at the same time. When the
rate of the forward reaction equals the rate of the reverse reaction, we say the system has
reached equilibrium.
There are three important features of equilibrium systems.
Equilibrium is achieved when the system is closed. (Matter will neither be lost or
gained.)
Constant macroscopic properties are an indicator of dynamic equilibrium. (includes
colour, pressure, volume, electrical conductivity.)
Chemical equilibria are dynamic. (the rate of the forward reaction = the rate of the
reverse direction).
Le Chateliers Principle applies to systems which are in equilibrium.
When a system in equilibrium is subjected to a change in concentration, temperature,
external pressure, or some other factor which upsets the equilibrium, the system reacts in
such a way as to counteract that change.
Question Set 6
1. What is Le Chateliers Principle?
2. What are the three important features of equilibrium systems?
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Reversible Reactions
I can identify factors which can affect the equilibrium in a reversible reaction.
There are many examples of reversible reactions which are important in natural systems.
Various factors affect both the position of equilibrium and how the system can be changed.
Factors which affect a system in equilibrium include:
Temperature
Gas pressure (if one or more substances exist in their gaseous form)
Concentration
Note while both the presence of a catalyst and the surface area of one or more reactants can
change the rate of the reaction, neither can shift the position at equilibrium.
One example of a natural system in equilibrium which we have previously mentioned is
human blood.
Oxygen exchange and blood acidity levels.
A.
HHb+
O2(aq)
haemoglobin
B.
H+(aq)
HbO2
H+(aq)
CO2(aq)
oxyhaemoglobin
+
HCO3-(aq)
H2CO3(aq)
H2O
In the lungs, high oxygen pressure shifts A to the right to form oxyhaemoglobin. This
molecule is moved in the blood to an oxygen poor cell where the equilibrium of A shifts to
the left releasing the oxygen for the cell.
A shift in the equilibrium position of A increases the [H+] (blood acidity).
This will in turn shift B to the right, reducing blood acidity levels and increasing [CO2],
which can escape from the lungs.
The maintenance of blood acidity levels using shifts in the equilibrium position is known as
buffering. Buffer solutions are vital in maintaining balanced conditions in the body as well
as in many other situations.
Question Set 7
1. What factors affect the equilibrium in a reversible reaction?
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2. Explain what is happening to the equilibrium system shown below.

...
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Solubility of CO2 in Water

I can describe the solubility of carbon dioxide in water under various conditions
as an equilibrium process and explain in terms of Le Chateliers Principle.
Carbon dioxide is slightly soluble in water. When CO2 is bubbled into water, an equilibrium
is established. The carbon dioxide is ionised to become a bicarbonate ion (HCO3-), by
accepting an OH- ion from the water. This leaves a H+ ion. Write an equation to demonstrate
this equilibrium.
Soft drinks contain dissolved carbon dioxide which bubbles out of the solution when the
pressure is reduced according to the following equation.
A.
B.
CO2(g)
H2O
CO2(aq)
CO2(aq)
H2CO3(aq)
H+(aq)
HCO3-(aq)
CO2 is pumped into the solution under pressure, driving both equilibrium positions to the
right. This gives soft drinks a slightly acidic taste (this is why sugar is a major ingredient in
soft drinks). The equilibrium is maintained until the bottle is opened. The system now
becomes an open system. CO2 escapes and is replaced by CO2 bubbling out of solution. Both
equilibria shift to the left. The soft drink loses its acidity and eventually becomes flat.
Question Set 8
1. How does the solubility of carbon dioxide change under different
conditions?
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2. Why does a soft drink eventually go flat even if you keep the lid on it?
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De-carbonating Soft Drinks

I can identify data, plan and perform a first-hand investigation to decarbonate
soft drink and gather data to measure the mass changes involved and calculate
the volume of gas released at 25oC and 100kPa.
Decarbonate a soft drink and gather data to measure the mass changes
involved. Calculate the volume of gas released at SLC.
Method:
Results:
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Nitrogen Dioxide Fact Sheet

I can identify natural and industrial sources of oxides of nitrogen.
What is nitrogen dioxide?

Nitrogen dioxide is a nasty-smelling gas that is acidic enough to
corrode metal, stone and other materials. Some nitrogen dioxide is
formed naturally in the atmosphere by lightning and by natural
changes (oxidation) to ammonia found in plants, soil and water. However, only about 1% of
the total amount of nitrogen dioxide found in our cities' air is formed this way.
An important problem with nitrogen dioxide is that it forms photochemical smog, which is
extremely dangerous for human health.
The major source of nitrogen dioxide in Australia's atmosphere is from burning our main
fossil fuels: coal, oil and gas. Most of the nitrogen dioxide in cities comes from motor vehicle
exhaust (about 80%). Other sources of nitrogen dioxide are petrol and metal refining,
electricity generation from coal-fired power stations, other manufacturing industries and
food processing and manufacturing.
Unflued gas heaters and cookers are the major source of nitrogen dioxide in Australian
homes.
I can analyse information from secondary sources to summarise the industrial
origins of oxides of nitrogen and evaluate reasons for concern about their release
into the environment.
How does nitrogen dioxide affect your health?

The main effect of breathing in nitrogen dioxide is that you would be more likely to suffer
from respiratory problems. Nitrogen dioxide inflames the lining of the lungs, and it can
reduce immunity to lung infections. This can cause problems such as wheezing, coughing,
colds, flu and bronchitis.
Nitrogen dioxide is even more dangerous for asthmatics because it can cause more frequent
and more intense attacks.
Children with asthma and older people with heart disease are the most at risk.
How much of a problem is nitrogen dioxide in Australia?
The amount of nitrogen dioxide in our atmosphere is generally higher in autumn and winter
than at other times of the year. Although in most Australian towns and cities even the
highest amounts of nitrogen dioxide have been at a level that is thought to be safe for
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humans since the early 1990s.

In some of Australia's larger cities, it is possible that the concentration of nitrogen dioxide
sometimes increases for a short amount of time to levels that are not safe for people who are
the most at risk. Air pollution authorities are monitoring the situation to see if this is the
case.
What are we doing to manage nitrogen dioxide?
Because of the dangers to our health of high concentrations of nitrogen dioxide, the
Australian Government has taken steps to manage and reduce the amount of nitrogen
dioxide produced. These include:
reviewing our fuel production methods and implementing national fuel quality
standards
supporting the implementation of tighter vehicle emission standards
developing a diesel NEPM, to improve the in-service performance of diesel vehicles
developing and promoting alternative fuels
developing pollution forecasting systems for Australia's major cities
encouraging community awareness and involvement through initiatives such as
Smogbusters.
The Commonwealth, State and Territory Governments have also agreed on a National
Environment Protection Measure (NEPM) for Ambient Air Quality. By the year 2008, the
NEPM aims to keep the ambient air concentration of nitrogen dioxide to:
less than 0.12ppm (parts per million) over a one hour period
less than 0.03 ppm averaged over a one year period.
These levels have not been exceeded since the early 1990s in any Australian capital city.
(Australian Government Department of the Environment and Heritage)
Question Set 9
1. Identify natural sources of oxides of nitrogen.
2. Identify industrial sources of oxides of nitrogen.
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3. Evaluate reasons for concern about the release of oxides of nitrogen into the
atmosphere.
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Sulfur Dioxide Fact Sheet

I can identify natural and industrial sources of sulphur dioxide.
What is sulfur dioxide?
Sulfur dioxide is a gas that is in our atmosphere. It is invisible, but it has a
dreadful, sharp smell, and it reacts easily with other substances to form
harmful compounds, such as sulfuric acid, sulfurous acid and sulfate
particles. About 99% of the sulfur dioxide in our atmosphere comes from
human sources.
The main source of sulfur dioxide in the atmosphere is industrial activity that processes
materials that contain sulfur. This includes generating electricity from coal, oil or gas that
contains sulfur. Some mineral ores also contain sulfur, and sulfur dioxide is released when
they are processed. Industrial activities that burn fossil fuels that contain sulfur can also be
important sources of sulfur dioxide.
In Australian towns and cities, pollution from motor vehicle exhaust is an important but not
the main source of sulfur dioxide in our atmosphere.
I can analyse information from secondary sources to summarise the industrial
origins of sulphur dioxide and evaluate reasons for concern about their release
into the environment.
How does sulfur dioxide affect your health?
Sulfur dioxide affects your health when you breathe it in. It irritates the nose, throat, and
airways to cause coughing, wheezing, shortness of breath, or a tight feeling around the
chest. Sulfur dioxide works very quickly, so most people would feel the worst symptoms in
10 or 15 minutes after they had breathed it in.
Asthmatics and other people with similar conditions are most at risk of developing
problems if they are exposed to sulfur dioxide.
How much of a problem is sulfur dioxide in Australia?
The amount of sulfur dioxide in Australia's atmosphere is well within a safe level in most
Australian towns and cities. The highest concentrations of sulfur dioxide in the air are found
around petrol refineries, chemical manufacturing industries, mineral ore processing plants
and power stations.
The only areas with high amounts of sulfur dioxide in the atmosphere, and then only
occasionally, are around Mt Isa and Kalgoorlie.
What are we doing to manage sulfur dioxide?
Because of the dangers to our health of high levels of sulfur dioxide, the Commonwealth
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Government has taken steps to manage and reduce the amount of sulfur dioxide produced.
These include:
reviewing our fuel production methods and implementing national fuel quality
standards
supporting the implementation of tighter vehicle emission standards
promoting alternative fuels
developing pollution forecasting systems for Australia's major cities.
The Commonwealth, State and Territory Governments have also agreed on a National
Environment Protection Measure (NEPM) for Ambient Air Quality. The NEPM aims to keep
the ambient air concentration of sulfur dioxide to:
less than 0.20 ppm (parts per million) averaged over a one hour period
less than 0.08 ppm averaged over a 24 hour period
less than 0.02 ppm averaged over a one year period.
We expect that most areas in Australia will meet these standards by the year 2008
(Australian Government Department of the Environment and Heritage)
Question Set 10
1. Identify natural sources of sulfur dioxide.
2. Identify industrial sources of sulfur dioxide.
3. Evaluate reasons for concern about the release of sulfur dioxide into the atmosphere.
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SOx and NOx

I can describe, using equations, examples of chemical reactions which release
sulphur dioxide and chemical reactions which release oxides of nitrogen.
1 mole of gas at 101.3 kPa has a volume of
L at 273 K (0C)
or
L at 298 K (25C).
Sulfur is present in many of the minerals which are processed in factories. This includes coal
used in power stations. Write an equation to represent the reaction between sulfur and
oxygen.
What important property of SO2 and NO2 has environmental implications?
SO2 in the air can react with water forming sulfurous acid. What is the equation?
Before this happens, most SO2 is oxidised to SO3 which forms a stronger acid, sulfuric acid,
with water. What is the equation for this?
Nitrogen is the main atmospheric gas, accounting for around 78% of the total constitution.
When fuels are burned in car engines, there is a large amount of notirogen mixed with the
oxygen required for combustion. As a result, the nitrogen can combine with oxygen at the
high temperatures produced when fuel combusts. Write an equation to represent this
process.
NO2 is usually the main NOx in air:
2NO2 + H2O
Question Set 11
1. Identify the most common sources of sulfur oxides and nitrogen
oxides in the air.
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...
2. Why are scientists concerned about their release into the atmosphere?
...
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Changing Atmospheric Levels of SOx and NOx

I can assess the evidence which indicates increases in atmospheric concentration
of oxides of sulphur and nitrogen.
Australia have nationally agreed standards for protection and regulation
of air quality.
Through the National Environment Protection Council, the Australian,
State and Territory Governments agreed to the National Environment and
Protection Measure for Ambient Air Quality on 26 June 1998. These are set
out in the table below:
National Air Quality Standards
Pollutant
Concentration and averaging period
Carbon monoxide
9.0 ppm (parts per million) measured over an eight hour period
Nitrogen dioxide
0.12 ppm averaged over a one hour period

0.03 ppm averaged over a one year period
Ozone
0.10 ppm of ozone measured over a one hour period

0.08 ppm of ozone measured over a four hour period
Sulfur dioxide
0.20 ppm averaged over a one hour period

0.08 ppm averaged over a 24 hour period
0.02 ppm averaged over a one year period
Lead
0.5 g/m (micrograms per cubic metre) averaged over a one

year period
Particles as PM10
50 g/m averaged over a 24-hour period
Particles as PM2.5
Advisory reporting standard: 25 g/m over a one day period; 8

g/m over a one year period
Note: PM10 inhalable particles are less than or equal to 10m in diameter. PM2.5 respirable
particles are less than or equal to 2.5m in diameter.
The 2001 report revealed the following changes in concentration of NO2 and SO2 for the
period 1991-2001.
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Question Set 12
1. What has happened to the atmospheric levels of nitrogen dioxide
and sulphur dioxide over the past 10 years?
2. Is this pattern the same for different parts of the world?
3. Explain the patterns you have observed.
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Calculating Gas Volumes

I can calculate volumes of gases given masses of some substances in reactions,
and calculate masses of substances given gaseous volumes, in reactions involving
gases at 0oC and 100kPa or 25oC and 100kPa.
1. 50 g of sulfur reacts with excess oxygen from the air to
produce sulfur dioxide gas. Calculate the mass of oxygen
needed for complete combustion. What volume of sulfur
dioxide would be produced at STP?
2. A student produced 100 mL of carbon dioxide gas at 25oC and 101.3 kPa by
decomposing a lump of calcium carbonate. What was the mass of the original
sample?
3. Sulfur dioxide produced in a furnace reacts with atmospheric oxygen to produce

sulfur trioxide. If the original quantity of sulfur dioxide had a mass of 1 kg, what
would be the difference in the amount of sulfur trioxide formed at 0oC compared
with that formed at 25oC (assume the pressure is constant at 101.3 kPa).
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Acid Rain
I can explain the formation and effects of acid rain.
Distilled water in contact with the atmosphere is not neutral. It has a pH

of 5.5 to 6, due to absorption of the acidic gas CO2 from the atmosphere. In
Australia, unpolluted rainwater has a pH between 5 and 6. If the pH is
below 5, an acidic substance, such as SO2 or NO2, has dissolved in the
water, which is sometimes called acid rain. In the Northern Hemisphere, pHs as low as 2
have been recorded in acid rain. The source of the SO2 or NO2 could be hundreds or
thousands of kilometres from where the acid rain falls.
SO2 sources, such as fossil fuel burning power stations and metal sulfide smelters, are larger
but fewer in number than NO2 sources, like internal combustion engines in vehicles. If the
quantity of acid rain is greater than the capacity of an environment to neutralise it then the
following can occur.
Soil pH can drop, making it difficult for plants to absorb sufficient calcium or potassium.
Soil chemistry can change, leading to the death of important microorganisms and release of
normally insoluble aluminium and mercury into soil water.
Protective waxes can be lost from leaves, causing leaf damage.
Buildings made of carbonates, such as concrete, mortar, limestone and marble, can be
gradually dissolved away.
Aquatic animals can die as water pH drops below 5.
Smog and acid rain can combine to form killer fog, as happened after the Second World War
in London, when many homes burnt sulfur dioxide-releasing coal.
Question Set 13
1. Explain the formation and effects of acid rain (include at least one
equation):
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Common Acids
I can define acids as proton donors and describe the ionisation of acids in water.
An acid is a proton donor. When an acid molecule is in contact with

water it can ionise, donating a proton to a water molecule. A
hydrogen atom, H, consists of one proton and one electron. A
hydrogen ion, H+ , is formed when a H atom loses its electron, leaving
just a proton. A proton and a hydrogen ion are thus the same and can
be represented by H+. When an acid molecule is placed in water, it can ionise, releasing a
proton and forming a negative ion. The proton, H+, can attach to a water molecule, H2O,
forming what is called a hydrated hydrogen ion or hydronium ion, H3O+.
Complete these equations:
HCl
H2O
HNO3
H2O
H2SO4
H2O
Sulfuric acid is called a diprotic acid because each molecule can release up to two protons.
H2SO4
2H2O
Phosphoric acid is called a triprotic acid because each molecule can release up to three
protons.
H3PO4
3H2O
Question Set 14
1. To what does the term proton donor refer?
I can identify acids including acetic (ethanoic), citric (2-hydroxypropane-1,2,3tricarboxylic), hydrochloric and sulphuric acid.
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2. Draw structural formulae for the following acids:

a) Acetic acid (ethanoic acid)
b) Citric acid (2-hydroxypropane-1,2,3-tricarboxylic acid)
3. Draw Lewis structures to represent hydrochloric acid, carbonic acid, nitric acid and
sulfuric acid.
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Measuring pH
I can solve problems and perform a first-hand investigation to use pH
meters/probes and indicators to distinguish between acidic, basic and neutral
chemicals.
Previously we looked at indicators as a method for identifying the
acidity of a solution. pH meters and/or probes can also be used to
idenitfy the acidity or basicity of a solution.
Measure the pH of a weak acid and base, a strong acid and base and a
neutral substance using a pH probe or meter.
List the substances you will test in the table below.
Describe the method used to test the substances, then complete the table.
Method:
Results:
Substance
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Some Definitions of Acids

I can describe acids and their solutions with the appropriate use of the terms
strong, weak, concentrated and dilute.
Acids are classified on the basis of their strength and concentration.
The strength of the acid relates to
The difference between strong acids and weak acids is
The concentration of an acid refers to
The difference between a concentrated acid and a dilute acid is
I can plan and perform a first-hand investigation to measure the pH of identical

concentrations of strong and weak acids.
Question Set 15
1. Use the pH meter from the previous experiment to record the pH of
1M solutions of sulfuric acid, hydrochloric acid and acetic acid.
Discuss the significance of your results.
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2. Start with a 2M hydrochloric acid solution and perform a series of dilutions so you
end up with 4 different hydrochloric acid solutions with the following
concentrations: 2M, 1M, 0.5M and 0.1M. Test each of these solutions with the pH
meter and record your observations. Discuss the significance of your results.
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P a g e | 35
Using the pH scale

I can describe the use of the pH scale in comparing acids and bases.
The pH scale is the most convenient and comprehensive tool for identifying the relative
acidity or basicity of solutions. The table below shows the colours and their corresponding
pH values and some examples of substances which have the corresponding pH. We can use
the pH scale not only to compare acids and bases, but also to compare relative strengths of
different acids.
What could you say about the acid strength in lemon juice compared to tomato juice?
Why do you think toothpaste has such a high pH?
Water is a weak electrolyte which partly ionises (in itself!) to produce the following
equilibria:
H2O
At 25oC, [H+] = [OH-] = 10-7 mol.L-1. This corresponds to a pH of 7.
In water, acids increase [H+]. A proton is equivalent to an H+ ion. Protons are highly reactive
HSC Chemistry
P a g e | 36
and attach to water molecules forming H3O+ (hydronium ions).

Example:
0.005 mol of sulfuric acid is dissolved in sufficient water to make 500 mL of
solution. Calculate the concentration of hydroxide and hydrogen ions in this solution.
In general,
Acid solutions:
pH < 7
[H+] > 10-7 mol L-1
Neutral solutions:
pH = 7
[H+] = 10-7 mol L-1
Basic solutions:
pH > 7
[H+] < 10-7 mol L-1
Examples of naturally occurring acids are:
Examples of manufactured acids include
HSC Chemistry
P a g e | 37
pH
I can identify pH as log10[H+] and explain that a change in pH of 1 means a tenfold change in [H+].
As we saw above, a simpler way to determine the acid, basic or neutral nature of a solution
is to use a function called pH. Mathematically,
pH = - log10 [H+]
also
pH + pOH = 14
[H+] x [OH-] = 10-14
Question Set 16
I can process information from secondary sources to calculate pH of strong acids
given appropriate hydrogen ion concentrations.
1.
Calculate the pH of a 0.01 M HCl solution.
2.
Calculate the pH of a 0.05 M NaOH solution.
Acidic solutions have [H+] > 10-7 M. The table below shows equivalent pH values for acid
solutions.
[H+] M
pH
1.0
0
0.1 0.01 0.001 0.0001 0.00001 0.000001

1
Neutral solutions have a pH of 7 while basic solutions have a [H+] < 10-7 M.
[OH-] M
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1.0 0.1 0.01 0.001 0.0001 0.00001 0.000001
P a g e | 38
pH
14 13
12
11
10
3. What is the pH of a 0.2 M Ca(OH)2 solution?
4. A small quantity of tartaric acid was dissolved in water to give a final hydrogen ion
concentration of 1.3 x 10-6 mol.L-1. Calculate the pH of this solution.
HSC Chemistry
P a g e | 39
Ionisation of Acids
I can gather and process information from secondary sources to write ionic
equations to represent the ionisation of acids.
Acids are classified on the basis of their strength and concentration.
The strength of an acid relates to its degree of ionisation. Strong acids are completely
ionised, weak acids are only partly ionised.
The concentration of an acid is equivalent to its molarity.
Do not confuse the terms weak and strong with dilute and concentrated.
Acids may also be classified on the basis of the number of protons they are capable of
donating in an acid-base reaction.
Monoprotic:
Donate one proton per molecule
eg.
HCl
Diprotic:
Donate two protons per molecule
eg.
H2SO4
Triprotic:
Donate three protons per molecule eg.
H3PO4
I can use available evidence to model the molecular nature of acids and simulate
the ionisation of strong and weak acids.
Question Set 17
1. Write ionic equations to represent the following acids in solution:
a) Hydrochloric acid
b) Sulfuric acid
c) Acetic acid
d) Carbonic acid
HSC Chemistry
P a g e | 40
2. Look at the model of a weak acid right.

Now look at the model of a strong acid
below right.
Explain how such models can be used
to explain the difference between a
weak acid and a strong acid.
.......................................................................
.......................................................................
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.......................................................................
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http://highered.mcgrawhill.com/sites/dl/free/0072512644/117354/07_Strong_
Weak_Nonelectrolytes.swf
......................................................................
......................................................................
......................................................................
......................................................................
......................................................................
......................................................................
......................................................................
......................................................................
......................................................................
......................................................................
......................................................................
http://www.mhhe.com/physsci/chemistry/essentialch
emistry/flash/acid13.swf
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Relative Strength of Acids

I can compare the relative strengths of equal concentrations of citric, acetic and
hydrochloric acids and explain in terms of the degree of ionisation of their
molecules.
Differences in the degree of ionisation allows us to explain differences in

the relative strengths of equal concentrations of different acids.
Record the pH of 1M solutions of citric acid, acetic acid and hydrochloric
acid in the table below.
Use your knowledge of ionisation to help explain any differences.
Acid (1M)
pH
Explanation
Citric acid
Acetic acid
Hydrochloric acid
HSC Chemistry
P a g e | 42
Commonly occurring acids and bases

I can gather and process information from secondary sources to explain the use of
acids as food additives.
Acids and bases are everywhere. They are important for our swimming
pools, fish tanks, gardens as well as our bloodstream and digestive system.
There are even acids in the food we eat. Weak acids are added to foods
to inhibit the growth of microorganisms, prevent spoilage, improve

shelf life, improve flavour or as a leavening agent.
Find out what sorts of foods contain the following acids and explain why they are used.
Citric acid
Lactic acid
Ascorbic acid
Tartaric acid
Malic acid
Phosphoric acid
I can identify data, gather and process information from secondary sources to
identify examples of naturally occurring acids and bases and their chemical
composition.
For each of the acids listed below, draw the structural formula and identify the natural
source.
HSC Chemistry
P a g e | 43
Acid
Structural formula
Source
Benzoic acid
Citric acid
Malic acid
Tartaric acid
HSC Chemistry
P a g e | 44
Acid Base equilibrium

I can describe the difference between a strong and a weak acid in terms of an
equilibrium between the intact molecule and its ions.
We now know that many acids are only partially ionised in water. The stronger the acid, the
more readily it is ionised. The weaker the acid, the less it is ionised.
An equilibrium exists between the acid molecule and its constituent ions.
HA(aq)
H+(aq)
A-(aq)
The extent to which acids are ionised can be determined using a special equilibrium constant
known as the acid ionisation constant, Ka. You do NOT need to remember, nor perform
calculations with the acid equilibrium constant, however it may help you understand these
key concepts for acid strength.
For weak monoprotic acids which undergo partial ionisation thus:
[H+] [A-]
Ka
=
-----------[HA]
The smaller the value of Ka the weaker the acid.
Question Set 18
1. Explain the meaning of the following statement: When a weak acid
dissolves in water an equilibrium is established between the acid
molecule and its constituent ions.
2. Why is it incorrect to identify a strong acid solution, such as hydrochloric acid in

water, as an equilibrium?
HSC Chemistry
P a g e | 45
Classifying Acids
I can outline the historical development of ideas about acids including those of:
Lavoisier, Davy and Arrhenius.
Antoine Lavoisier (1780) first defined acids as an oxide of a non-metal. He
notice that non-metal oxides formed acidic solutions when reacted with
water. He concluded that acids must contain oxygen.
Humphry Davy (1815) observed displacement reactions where the
hydrogen in the acid was displaced by a metal during a reaction. He noted
that metal oxides were basic. He concluded that acids must contain hydrogen.
Svante Arrhenius (1884) definition of acids was not based on direct observation, as were the
ideas of Lavoisier and Davy. It was theoretical, based on the particulate behaviour of acids
and bases in water. He concluded that acids produce H+ ions when dissolved in water and
bases produce OH- ions when dissolved in water.
Arrhenius definition of acids was based on his observation that hydrogen gas was evolved
at the anode when an electric current was passed through an acid. He suggested that acids
contain H+ ions in solution and it was these positive ions which gave acids their
characteristic properties. (Note: Free H+ ions do not exist in water but become bound by coordinate bonds to water molecules forming the hydronium ion (H3O+))
A substance which provides H+ ions in aqueous solutions (or a compound with hydrogen
which ionises water producing hydronium ions) is termed an Arrhenius acid. The excess
[H+] gives the solution its acidic properties.
eg.
H2SO4(aq)
2H+
SO42-
A substance which produces hydroxide ions in aqueous solutions is called an Arrhenius

base. The excess [OH-] gives the solution its basic properties.
eg.
Ca(OH)2
Ca2+
2OH-
Question Set 19
1. Contrast the theories of Lavoisier, Davy and Arrhenius regarding the
nature of acids.
........
.......
........
HSC Chemistry
P a g e | 46

2. Write a chemical equation to demonstrate an example of the behaviour of an acid
according to each theory below:
a) Lavoisier definition of an acid
b) Davy definition of an acid
c) Arrhenius definition of an acid
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P a g e | 47
Brnsted-Lowry Acids and Bases

I can outline the Brnsted-Lowry theory of acids and bases.
Despite the fact that the Arrhenius definition is good enough to be used for Junior High
School Chemistry, there are some problems with the Arrhenius definition of an acid and
base.
Problem 1:
ZnCO3(s) + 2H+ Zn2 + CO2(g) + H2O(l)
Here, the zinc carbonate has neutralised the acid (producing water) and so could be
classified as a base, yet the zinc carbonate does not produce hydroxide ions in aqueous
solutions.
Problem 2:
Na2CO3(s)
2Na+
CO32- +
H2O
HCO3-
OH-
CO32- +
2H+
H2O(l)
CO2(g)
CO32-
The sodium carbonate dissolves in water to produce a solution which contains OH- ions.
Solutions turn red litmus blue and neutralise acids liberating CO2 gas.
Hydroxide ions form as a result of the ionising reaction between CO32- and H2O. Reactions
involving water which lead to changes in acidity or basicity are called hydrolysis reactions.
In the reactions above, the resulting solutions are said to be alkaline, due to the presence of
OH- ions.
Whilst the Arrhenius definition works for many acid base reactions, it does not explain them
all.
A better explanation, based on proton transfer, was independently outlined in 1923 by the
Johannes Brnsted, and Thomas Lowry.
A Brnsted-Lowry acid is a proton donor.
A Brnsted-Lowry base is a proton acceptor.
An acid-base reaction involves proton transfer from an acid to a base.
So:
A species capable of donating a proton (molecule or ion) is classified as an ACID.
A species capable of accepting a proton is cl;assified as a BASE.
HSC Chemistry
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Acid-Base reactions involve the transfer of a proton from an acid species to a base species:
Eg.
HCl(aq)
NH3(aq)
NH4+Cl-.
(A coordinate covalent bond forms - H+ has no electrons!)
Question Set 20
1. Complete the following statements:
a) A Brnsted-Lowry acid is
b) A Brnsted-Lowry base is
c) In an Acid-Base reaction a proton is transferred from
I can gather and process information from secondary sources to trace
developments in understanding and describing acid/base reactions.
2. Complete the timeline below to identify the major developments in our
understanding of acids and bases.
1985
HSC Chemistry
P a g e | 49
Conjugate Pairs
I can describe the relationship between an acid and its conjugate base and a base
and its conjugate acid.
Conjugate pairs are species involved in the transfer of protons.
Generally:
Acid 1 +
Base 2
Conjugate Base 1
Conjugate Acid 2
The equilibrium position of an acid base system is determined by the relative strengths of
the bases involved. If the equilibrium lies to the right, acid 1 is a stronger proton donor than
conjugate acid 2. (ipso facto for the bases.)
Strong bases have weak conjugate acids and vice versa.
The strength of an acid is a measure of its ability to transfer protons to water molecules.
HCl is a strong acid, almost all molecules form ions, so its conjugate base Cl- is a weak base.
CH3COOH is a weak acid, only a small percentage of the molecules form ions, so its
conjugate base CH3COO- is relatively strong.
Acid
H+
Conjugate Base
HA
H+
A-
The strength of a base is a measure of its ability to accept protons from water molecules.
NaOH is a strong base, so its conjugate acid H2O is a weak acid.
NH3 is a weak base, only a small percentage of the molecules form ions, so its conjugate base
NH4+ is relatively strong.
Base +
H+
Conjugate Acid
A-
H+
HA
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P a g e | 50
Question Set 21
I can identify conjugate acid/base pairs.
1. Complete the equations below by identifying the product and one

conjugate pair.
HCl
H+
HNO3
H+
H3O+
H+
HSO4-
H+
HF
H+
HCOOH
H+
CH3COOH
H+
NH4+
H+
H 2O
H+
2. Identify the conjugate pairs in the following reaction:

HCl
HSC Chemistry
NH3
NH4+
Cl-
P a g e | 51
Salts
I can identify a range of salts which form acidic, basic or neutral solutions and
explain their acidic, neutral or basic nature.
Salt ions formed when weak acids or weak bases dissolve in water can be added to water to
reform the acid or base. During these hydrolysis reactions, they release OH- or H+ions which
can produce basic or acidic salt solutions.
Salts can be classified on the basis of their reaction with water.
Ammonium salt solutions are acidic, because
NH4+(aq) + H2O(l) NH3(aq) + H3O+
Sodium chloride solution is neutral, because Na+ and Cl- (ions from the strong base NaOH
and the strong acid HCl) do not undergo hydrolysis.
Sodium carbonate solution is basic, because the carbonate ion from the weak acid carbonic
acid can hydrolyse.
CO32- + H2O(l) HCO3- + OHLikewise, potassium acetate solution is basic.
CH3COO- + H2O(l) CH3COOH(aq) + OHIf a salt is made up of two ions that hydrolyse to the same extent, the salt solution could be
close to neutral, e.g. ammonium acetate NH4CH3COO.
NH4+ + H2O(l) NH3(aq) + H3O+
CH3COO- + H2O(l) CH3COOH(aq) + OHThe resulting reaction, H3O+ + OH- 2H2O(l), results in a neutral solution.
I can identify amphiprotic substances and construct equations to describe their

behaviour in acidic and basic solutions.
There are some species which are capable of behaving as either a base or an acid according
to the Bronsted-Lowry definition given certain circumstances. We say that a species is
amphiprotic if is capable of donating or accepting a proton
eg. HCO3-, HSO4- and H2O are good examples.
HCO3HSC Chemistry
OH-
CO32-
H2O(l)
P a g e | 52
HCO3-
H3O+
H2CO3
H2O(l)
A polyprotic species is an acid which can donate more than one proton.
eg. H2SO4, H2CO3, H3PO4.
An amphoteric species is a species capable of acting as either an acid or a base. This
definition is not dependent on proton transfer, so it can include Arrhenius acids and bases.
This becomes clearer when we look at some oxides.
MgO(s)
2HNO3(aq)
2NaNO3(aq)
H2O(l)
2NaOH(aq)
Na2SO3(aq)
H2O(l)
basic oxide
SO2(g)
acidic oxide
Al2O3(s) +
3H2SO4 (aq)
Al2(SO4)3(aq)
3H2O(l)
amphoteric oxide
Al2O3(s)
2KOH(aq)
2KAlO2(aq)
H2O(l)
amphoteric oxide
Question Set 22
1. Show that water is also an amphiprotic substance
2. Complete the following sentences:

a) Polyprotic acids are acids which
b) An example of a diprotic acid is
c) An example of a triprotic acid is
d) An acidic salt is
e) A basic salt is
f) A neutral salt is
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pH of Salt Solutions
I can choose equipment and perform a first-hand investigation to identify the pH
of a range of salt solutions.
Test the following salts with universal indicator and identify whether
they are acidic, neutral or basic: ammonium nitrate, sodium nitrate,
aluminium nitrate, magnesium nitrate, sodium chloride, sodium
carbonate, sodium sulfate, sodium bicarbonate, sodium iodide.
Method:
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
Results:
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
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Neutralisation
I can identify neutralisation as a proton transfer reaction which is exothermic.
Neutralisation has previously been defined as the reaction between an acid and a base to
form a salt and water.
The solutions reacted to demonstrate neutralisation are usually of a strong acid, such as
hydrochloric acid, and a strong base, such as sodium hydroxide.
acid
base salt
HCl(aq)
NaOH(aq)
water
NaCl(aq)
H2O(l)
OR
H+ + Cl- + Na+ + OH- Na+ + Cl- +
H2O(l)
The net ionic equation for reaction is:

H+
OH-
H2O(l)
or if you used the hydronium ion instead of hydrogen ions

H3O+ +
OH-
2H2O(l)
The net ionic equation shows that neutralisation is a proton transfer reaction. A proton from
the acid transfers to the hydoxide ion of the base.
All neutralisations are exothermic. When the heat of neutralisation is measured for a range
of strong acids and strong bases, the amount of heat released is always approximately 57 kJ
per mole of water formed.
This is the heat change for the following reaction:
H+
OH-
H2O(l)
= - 57 kJ mol-1
A study of the heat energy released for various (strong) acid-base reactions reveal values
which are very close to one another, suggesting that the same type of reaction is occurring
each time, ie. the production of a salt and water, or more specifically, the transfer of a proton
species from a proton donor to a proton acceptor.
We will be focussing on neutralisation reactions in the next few sections.
To review:
Neutralisation reactions may regarded as a _ _ _ _ _ _ transfer reactions. They are
exothermic/endothermic.
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Volumetric Analysis
I can describe the correct technique for conducting titrations and preparation of
standard solutions.
Volumetric analysis is an important technique in chemistry. It is used to measure the
volume of a solution of known concentration needed to react with a solution of unknown
concentration. The technique used is called titration.
Titration is the process by which a solution of known concentration reacts with a solution of
unknown concentration until the equivalence point is reached. This point is usually
identified by the use of an indicator changing colour. Measurement of volumes allows the
unknown concentration to be determined (using stoichiometry).
We use the following reaction types in acid-base titration. The reactions need to proceed to
completion in order that the calculations will be accurate.
1. Strong acid - strong base.
In these reactions, both species are completely dissociated, so the net ionic equation
will be H+ + OH- H2O(l)
The mole ratio here is 1:1. This ratio will change if we use a diprotic acid or base or a
triprotic acid. It is essential to write out an equation for the reaction so that the mole
ratio can be established prior to calculations. The final solution is neutral so the
indicator chosen should have a colour change where the end point coincides with the
equivalence point. Phenolphthalein fulfils this requirement.
2. Weak acid - strong base.
Weak acids only partially ionise, so much of the acid remains in molecular form.
Consider acetic acid (CH3COOH). The OH- ions from the base react directly with the
molecular acid. The reaction again proceeds to completion. The equation becomes:
CH3COOH(aq) + OH- CH3COO- + H2O(l)
Again this is a 1:1 ratio, but not all weak acids are monoprotic (eg. H2CO3), so once
again write out an equation prior to solving the problem. In this case, the equilibrium
mixture is basic at the equivalence point (CH3COO- ions react with water molecules
to produce CH3COOH molecules and OH- ions). Once again phenolphthalein is
suitable to use as an indicator.
3. Strong acid - weak base.
This time much of the base remains in molecular form. The reverse situation from
that above occurs. The H+ from the acid reacts directly with the unionised base. The
reaction again goes to completion. One example is:
NH3(aq)
HSC Chemistry
H+
NH4+
P a g e | 56
The ammonium ion reacts with water to liberate hydronium ions. As a result the
equilibrium mixture is slightly acidic at the equivalence point. Methyl orange is a
suitable indicator in this case
4. Weak acid weak base.
We cannot titrate a weak acid against a weak base as it will not proceed through to
completion. In these titrations the change in pH is so gradual that it is almost
impossible to monitor with an indicator, no rapid pH transition occurs at the
equivalence point. For such titrations pH meters are more suitable.
Question Set 23
1. Define the following terms:
a) Volumetric analysis
b) Titration
c) Equivalence Point
2. If we were to titrate a solution of acetic acid against sodium hydroxide, what
equation would we write? What type of reaction would this be? Which indicator
would you choose for this reaction?
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Preparing a Standard Solution

I can describe the correct technique for conducting titrations and preparation of
standard solutions.
An important component of a titration is the solution of known concentration. This is called
the standard solution. It is prepared by adding a known weight of reagent in a definite
volume of solution.
Prior to preparing a standard solution a primary standard must be selected. Not all
substances are suitable to be used as standards. NaOH is hygroscopic (absorbs water from
the surrounding air) and thus its weight may change. However, these may be later
standardised by reacting them with other known solutions.
Prepare a standard solution of sodium hydroxide in a volumetric flask.
Describe the method you used, below.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
Characteristics of a primary standard:
Pure and free of moisture.
Stable and unaffected by air during weighing.
Readily soluble in distilled water.
High molar weight to minimise weighing errors.
Should react instantly and go to completion.
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Some reagents which are used as primary standards in acid-base titration include benzoic
acid, oxalic acid-2-water, potassium hydrogen phthalate, sodium carbonate, sodium
hydrogen carbonate and borax.
Question Set 24
1. Why is NaOH not chosen as a primary standard?
2. Name three reagents which are used as primary standards in acid-base titrations.
3. When preparing our standard solution what is the correct procedure for each of the
following pieces of apparatus?
Pipette
.
.
Burette
.
.
Conical flask
.
.
4. Why are each of these procedures important?
.
HSC Chemistry
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Identifying End Points of Titrations

I can perform a first-hand investigation to determine the concentration of a
domestic acidic substance using computer-based technologies.
Acid - base reactions are usually colourless and this makes it difficult to locate the
equivalence point.
The equivalence point is the point during a titration when the quantities of the two reacting
species are just sufficient to allow a complete reaction with no excess of either species.
As a result we need some device to help us determine
the equivalence point. This may be use of an indicator,
pH meter or conductivity meter. In practice we will
generally use an indicator.
Selection of the correct indicator is important. It needs
to be matched to the specific type of neutralisation
reaction. Phenolphthalein and methyl orange are
commonly used. The colour change range of the
indicator must coincide with the range of rapid pH
change at the equivalence point.
Select one of the following websites for titration
simulations:
http://www.oup.com/uk/orc/bin/9780199277896/01stud
ent/activities/acidBaseLayoutf.swf
http://users.skynet.be/eddy/titratie.swf
Question Set 25
1. Draw the shapes of the pH change graphs for the following reactions:
a)
Strong acid - strong base.
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P a g e | 60
b)
Strong base weak acid
c)
Strong acid - weak base
HSC Chemistry
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Titrations Exploring Indicators

I can perform a first-hand investigation and solve problems using titrations and
including the preparation of standard solutions, and use available evidence to
qualitatively and quantitatively describe the reaction between selected acids and
bases.
Method:
1. Set up the burette in the burette clamp after first rinsing the
burette with the solution you intend to place in it (sodium
hydroxide in this case). Note: the sodium hydroxide is placed in
the burette in this experiment to highlight the colour changes. As a rule it is not wise
to regularly put this solution into the burette as it can damage the burette,
particularly the tap. Always rinse the burette out after use.)
2. Fill the burette with sodium hydroxide solution and bring the level to the zero mark.
Make sure that the tap allows the solution to flow freely.
3. Use a pipette to add 25mL of hydrochloric acid solution to a conical flask.
4. Add a few drops of phenolphthalein solution to the hydrochloric acid.
5. Sit the flask on a white tile, or piece of white paper.
6. Run the sodium hydroxide solution into the flask until the solution gains a
permanent pink tinge. Record the volume of sodium hydroxide used.
7. Repeat steps 2 to 6 using methyl red indicator instead of phenolphthalein solution.
8. Repeat steps 2 to 6 using universal indicator instead of phenolphthalein.
Results:
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
HSC Chemistry
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Titrations Finding the Concentration of an

Unknown Solution
Method:
Prepare a standard solution of sodium hydroxide as follows.
1. Weigh out 2.0 g of sodium hydroxide into a small, clean, dry
beaker.
2. Add some distilled water to dissolve the sodium hydroxide. Swirl the solution but
do not allow any to splash out of the beaker.
3. Transfer the liquid by decanting into a 250 mL volumetric flask.
4. Continue adding more distilled water to the beaker and transferring the contents to
the flask until all the sodium hydroxide has dissolved.
5. Use the wash bottle to rinse the contents of the beaker into the volumetric flask.
6. As the dissolution of sodium hydroxide is exothermic allow the solution to cool to
room temperature before filling the flask up to the mark with distilled water.
7. Swirl the flask, place on the stopper and invert the flask several times to ensure the
contents are thoroughly mixed.
Standardising the sodium hydroxide
8. Measure out 1.0 g of tartaric acid into a conical flask.
9. Add sufficient distilled water to ensure all the acid has dissolved.
10. Add 5 drops of phenolphthalein solution to the flask.
11. Set up the burette in the burette clamp after first rinsing the burette with the solution
you intend to place in it (sodium hydroxide in this case).
12. Fill the burette with sodium hydroxide solution and bring the level to the zero mark.
Make sure that the tap allows the solution to flow freely.
13. Sit the conical flask on a white tile, or piece of white paper.
15. Repeat the procedure twice.
16. Calculate the concentration of the standard sodium hydroxide solution.
Finding the acid concentration in vinegar
17. Use a pipette to transfer 5 mL of vinegar to a conical flask.
18. Add 5 drops of phenolphthalein solution to the flask.
19. Refill the burette with sodium hydroxide solution and bring the level to the zero
mark.
20. Sit the conical flask on a white tile, or piece of white paper.
HSC Chemistry
P a g e | 63
22. Repeat the procedure twice.

23. Calculate the concentration of the acid in vinegar.
Results:
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
HSC Chemistry
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Buffer Solutions
I can qualitatively describe the effect of buffers with reference to a specific
example in a natural system.
A buffer controls the level of acidity or basicity in a solution. If an acid or a base is added to
a buffer solution, there is hardly any change in pH. A buffer solution resists changes to its
pH.
A buffer solution is usually a mixture of a weak acid and its conjugate base, such as
hydrogen carbonate ions, HCO3-, and carbonate ions, CO32-.
If an acid is added to the buffer, the hydrogen ions are removed by
H+ + HCO3- H2CO3(aq)
If a base is added to the buffer, hydroxide ions are removed by
OH- + HCO3- H2O(l) + CO32The net effect is that the pH of the solution containing buffer changes only slightly.
Hydrogen carbonate ions are important in maintaining the pH of human blood at about 7.4.
There are a number of natural systems which use buffers solutions.
Identify one and explain how it works.
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Comparing Concentrations using Different Methods

I can perform a first-hand investigation to determine the concentration of a
domestic acidic substance using computer-based technologies.
Use a computer-based technology to find the concentration of the
vinegar (a domestic acidic substance) you used in an earlier titration.
Vinegar contains acetic acid which can be titrated against standardised
NaOH(aq) using a pH probe attached to a data logger. The data recorded
can be used to draw a graph. The endpoint is where the pH changes
most rapidly. Compare the two values and account for any differences.
Method:
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Results:
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Chemical Spills and Neutralisation

I can analyse information from secondary sources to assess the use of
neutralisation reactions as a safety measure or to minimise damage in accidents
or chemical spills.
There are a number of situations, both in a laboratory and various workplaces, where an
understanding of the proper use of neutralisation reactions is useful both as a safety
measure and to help minimise damage in accidents or chemical spills.
A substance containing an amphiprotic ion, such as the hydrogen carbonate ion in NaHCO3,
is quite suitable for neutralising chemical spills.
If the chemical spill contains an acid;
H+ + HCO3- H2O(l) + CO2(g)
If the spill contains a base;
HCO3- + OH- CO32- + H2O(l)
Thus, NaHCO3 is suitable for neutralising chemical spills of acids, bases and unknown
acidity or basicity.
Question Set 26
1. For the three scenarios below suggest a way in which you could use
your knowledge of neutralisation reactions to assist those involved.
a) A burette filled with HCl loses its tap and the contents flow out
over the bench and onto a student.
b) A tanker carrying concentrated sodium hydroxide overturns on a bridge and

spills its contents over the road and into the waterway below.
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c) A worker inadvertently places their arm in a small puddle of a colourless liquid

which is sitting on a bench. It irritates the skin but it is not known whether the
liquid was acidic or basic.
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Alkanols and Alkanoic Acids

I can describe the differences between the alkanol and alkanoic acid functional
groups in carbon compounds.
Recall that a functional group is a single atom or group of atoms that react in a characteristic
way in different carbon compounds.
The hydroxy functional group,-OH, in alkanols provides their characteristic properties, such
as high melting points and boiling points.
The carboxylic acid functional group, -COOH, in alkanoic acids can lose a hydrogen ion and
behave as a weak acid.
The diagram right shows a common way to illustrate the
characteristic structure of the members of a homologous series, in
this case, carboxylic (or alkanoic) acids. The R group represents a
carbon chain of unspecified length (for our purposes, between 0
and 7 carbons).
This is a skeletal formula as the carbon atom within the functional
group (COOH) is not labelled with a C. In this type of formula the
junction of bonds with no letter indicating the atom present is assumed to be a carbon and
hydrogens bonded directly to carbon atoms are not shown.
However, whilst you may see this short-hand version in different text books or web sites, it
is best in HSC Chemistry Exams to always draw full structural formulae.
Question Set 27
1. Draw the structural formula for ethanol and methanoic acid in the
space below. Circle the functional group for each compound.
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Esterification
I can identify esterification as the reaction between an acid and an alkanol and
describe, using equations, examples of esterification.
What is an ester?
An ester is an organic compound formed when an alkanol reacts with an alkanoic acid. The
product, an ester, has the IUPAC form alkyl alkanoate. This is a combination produced from
the reacting species.
The reaction of alcohols with carboxylic acids requires the presence of H2SO4(aq) catalyst to
produce an ester.
methanol + ethanoic acid methyl ethanoate + water
eg.
Hydrolysis of esters
Under the influence of bases eg. NaOH, esters are hydrolysed to alcohols and alkanoate
ions. The alkanoic acids may be obtained from the reaction by acidification with mineral
acids, e.g. HCl.
Acid catalysis
I can describe the purpose of using acid in esterification for catalysis.
Esterification is catalysed by the addition of a small amount of acid. Esterification is called a

condensation reaction because a water molecule condenses out (recall condensation
polymerisation).
Only a few drops of concentrated acid needs to be added to a mixture of alkanol and
alkanoic acid to catalyse the reaction.
If concentrated sulfuric acid is added in large amounts, say 5% to 10% of the reaction
volume, it can have a significant effect on the position of equilibrium. Concentrated sulfuric
acid is a dehydrating agent, that is, it has a strong affinity for water. If a significant amount
of sulfuric acid is present, it will shift the equilibrium position to the right by absorbing
water.
alcohol + acid ester + water
This will increases the yield of ester. However, using large amounts of sulfuric acid is
wasteful, uneconomic and complicates the separation of ester from the reaction mixture.
Question Set 28
1. Draw the structural formula for the product formed from the
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reaction between ethanol and methanoic acid. Name the product. Identify any
catalyst used.
I can identify the IUPAC nomenclature for describing the esters produced by
reactions of straight-chained alkanoic acids from C1 to C8 and straight-chained
alkanols from C1 to C8.
2. Complete the table showing the name for each of the following esterifications. On a
separate piece of paper, draw the structural formulae for 10 different esters.
Methanoic Ethanoic Propanoic Butanoic Pentanoic Hexanoic Heptanoic Octanoic
acid
acid
acid
acid
acid
acid
acid
acid
methanol
ethanol
1-propanol
1-butanol
1-pentanol
1-hexanol
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1-heptanol
1-octanol
3. Write a balanced equation for two different esterification reactions from the table
above. Name the products.
4. Why do we use concentrated sulfuric acid as our catalyst in this reaction?
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Physical properties of alkanols and alkanoic acids

I can explain the difference in melting point and boiling point caused by straightchained alkanoic acid and straight-chained primary alkanol structures.
The high melting points and boiling points in alkanols is due to hydrogen bonding between
the O in one molecule and the H of an-OH in a nearby molecule, as shown below.
The ability of the-COOH group to be involved in two hydrogen bonds gives an alkanoic
acid an even higher boiling point than that of a similar sized alkanol. Two hydrogen bonds
can occur between a pair of alkanoic acid molecules.
Size is also important as larger molecules require additional energy for motion. So we would
expect an increase in metling point and boiling point as we increase molecular weight (ie,
increase the length of the chain or number of carbons).
Question Set 29
1. Account for the difference in the melting and boiling points
between a straight-chained primary alcohol and the corresponding
straight-chained alkanoic acid, using a specific named example.
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Esterification using Reflux

I can identify data, plan, select equipment and perform a first-hand investigation
to prepare an ester using reflux.
Method:
Reactants chosen:
Quanitities used:
Catalyst:
Draw a diagram of your apparatus
Results:
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Refluxing
Esterification requires heat for the reaction to reach equilibrium quickly, ie
within an hour rather than after many days.
When the reaction mixture is heated, volatile components, such as the
reactant alcohol and the product ester, could escape. This problem is
overcome by refluxing the reaction mixture.
A condenser is placed on top of the reaction vessel so that any volatile
components pass into the condenser. The condenser can be water or aircooled and causes the volatile components to condense back to liquid and
fall back into the reaction mixture.
Refluxing also improves the safety of the operation, as the volatile
components are flammable.
Question Set 30
1. What does the technique of refluxing involve?
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2. Why is refluxing needed for esterification?
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Esters
I can outline some examples of the occurrence, production and uses of esters.
Esters occur naturally as flavouring agents and scents in plants and fruits. They are also
found in animal fats and plant oils.
Synthetic esters are used in the food industry as well as for the production of cosmetics.
They have a distinct aroma and some of the combinations of reactants produce esters whose
aroma mimics a smell with which we are familiar. This is of great benefit to the food and
cosmetic industries.
The production of esters involves either the extraction of the desired ester from its natural
sources, or manufacture of the ester in an industrial environment. Often synthetic
manufacture is less expensive than extraction.
Esters are used for:
Flavouring agents and scents in foods.
Solvents and thinners.
Medications.
Plasticisers.
Octyl ethanoate is an example of a common ester. Octyl ethanoate is associated with orange
flavour, as it is the main ester present in oranges. Once produced, octyl ethanoate is used as
a flavouring agent in foods, such as orange-flavoured confectionary.
Question Set 31
1. Write an equation to represent the synthetic production of octyl
ethanoate. Include any catalysts.
2. Draw the structural formula for octyl ethanoate.
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I can process information from secondary sources to identify and describe the
uses of esters as flavous and perfumes in processed foods and cosmetics.
3. Identify and describe two additional uses of esters as either
flavours or perfumes in processed foods and cosmetics. You should
include the name and structural formula of your chosen ester and
how they are obtained as well as their specific use.
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9.3 Acidic Environment Booklet

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9.3 Acidic Environment Booklet

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Unit 9.

The Acidic Environment

The Acidic Environment

Question Set 12 ............................................................................................................................... 27

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Identifying End Points of Titrations ................................................................................................ 60

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Universal indicator is a very useful indicator as it shows a range of

2. Name three places or situations where pH is an important factor.

3. Name 3 indicators with which you are familiar?

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Everyday uses of Indicators

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Classifying Household Substances

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Mapping the oxides on the Periodic Table

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So far we have considered reactions as proceeding to completion, however many products

2. What are the three important features of equilibrium systems?

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2. Explain what is happening to the equilibrium system shown below.

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Solubility of CO2 in Water

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De-carbonating Soft Drinks

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Nitrogen Dioxide Fact Sheet

What is nitrogen dioxide?

How does nitrogen dioxide affect your health?

The Acidic Environment

humans since the early 1990s.

2. Identify industrial sources of oxides of nitrogen.

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Sulfur Dioxide Fact Sheet

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2. Identify industrial sources of sulfur dioxide.

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SOx and NOx

What important property of SO2 and NO2 has environmental implications?

NO2 is usually the main NOx in air:

The Acidic Environment

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Changing Atmospheric Levels of SOx and NOx

Concentration and averaging period

0.12 ppm averaged over a one hour period

0.10 ppm of ozone measured over a one hour period

0.20 ppm averaged over a one hour period

0.5 g/m (micrograms per cubic metre) averaged over a one

50 g/m averaged over a 24-hour period

Advisory reporting standard: 25 g/m over a one day period; 8

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2. Is this pattern the same for different parts of the world?

3. Explain the patterns you have observed.

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Calculating Gas Volumes

3. Sulfur dioxide produced in a furnace reacts with atmospheric oxygen to produce

The Acidic Environment