LITERATURE REVIEW

2.1 GENERAL The literature review is divided in three parts. In the first part, work done by various researchers on permeability of different soils, various method used for measurements were stupid. Second part of literature review, infiltration characteristics of soil and its measurement techniques, empirical models given by various researchers was reviewed. In third part, soil moisture related works by previous investigators is recorded. 2.2 PERMEABILITY Carmen. (1939) showed that the permeability of a water-saturated sand or fine powder can be calculated with considerable accuracy if the porosity and the specific surface are known. In particular, the Kozeny theories he has discussed lead to a very useful relationship between permeability and porosity. Campbell (1974) described a method, which can be used to obtain the unsaturated conductivity function directly. Results from this method agree with measurements as well as to results using other methods. A functional relationship between water content and conductivity is obtained which can be used directly in equations describing unsaturated water flow in soil. D Appolonia (1980) presented empirical data relating engineering properties of cutoff walls to the materials employed in their construction. These data will be helpful to designers of slurry trench cutoff, for purposes of determining and specifying appropriate slurry trench construction materials, construction methods and for determining the investigations and tests that should be performed as a part of the design study. Samarsinge et al . (1982) studied the relationship between permeability and void ratio. This relationship is then used for deriving the governing differential equation of consolidation of normally consolidated soils, where void versus logarithm of effective stress can be approximated by a straight line. The derivation shows that the coefficient of consolidation can be related directly to the applied effective stress. Tavenas et al.(1983) {1} studied methods of measuring permeability of clays in the laboratory. He concluded as :- Darcys law is valid in natural soft clays for gradients ranging from 0.1 to 5.0. Constant head tests in triaxial are best suited for testing large samples under field stress conditions provided the cell is modified to eliminate leakage. The indirect methods of evaluating K or e vs k relationships from consolidation tests of all kinds should be disqualified due to important errors produced by the abusive assumptions in the methods of interpreting the test results on the basis of Terzaghis consolidation theory. The falling head test in the odometer appears as the best practical method of determining the permeability characteristics of natural clays.

Tavenas et al. (1983){2} have investigated intact soft clays from Canada and concluded that none of the existing relations between permeability and void ratio is generally valid, irrespective of the type of clay, the initial void ratio, or the range of void ratio change. The permeability change index (Ck) is simply correlated to the initial void ratio (eo), Ck=0.5 e0. Daniel (1984) has presented data from four projects in which rates of leakage from ponds lined with clay significantly exceeded the rates that would have been predicted on the basis of laboratory permeability tests. The actual hydraulic conductivities of clay liners were generally found to be 10 to 1000 times larger than values obtained from laboratory tests on either undisturbed or recompacted samples of clay liners. He concluded that field permeability tests seem to produce much better results than laboratory tests. Boynton and Deniel (1985) have performed permeability tests in the laboratory on compacted clay to study the effects of type of permeameter, hydraulic anisotropy, diameter of test specimens, storage time and desiccation cracking. Essentially identical hydraulic conductivities were measured with compaction mold, consolidation cell, and flexible wall permeameters. There was no tendency of increase in hydraulic conductivity with increasing storage time. Desiccation cracks in compacted clay close only partially when the clay is moistened and permeated, unless substantial effective stresses are applied in closing the cracks. Forman and Daniel (1986) in vestigated the hydraulic conductivities of three compacted clays permeated with water, methanol, and heptanes in rigid wall and flexible wall permeameters. The rigid wall permeameter generally yielded much higher hydraulic conductivities than flexible-wall cells when the soil were permeated with organic compounds. Permeation of water saturated clay with heptanes caused the hydraulic conductivity to drop to practically zero because of surface tension effects at the water-heptane interface. The results showed order of magnitude differences in hydraulic conductivity depending on testing apparatus and procedures. Abeele (1986) concluded that the coefficient of consolidation for bentonite and sandy silt ratios of 0.04 to 0.14 is inversely proportional with the square of that ratio, whereas the compression index, the swelling index, and the permeability change index increases with increasing bentonite ratio. A strong relationship also exists between the void ratio and the logarithm of the applied stress for any given bentonite ratio. This enables in limiting the evaluation of permeability at any void ratio to the measurements of the initial and the permeability at any void ratio to the measurements of the initial and the desired void ratio, the initial permeability and the permeability change index. This permits to calculate required hydraulic conductivity for a given bentonite ratio and void ratio. This is crucial in the choice of materials of mixtures to be used in a system where an established differentiation in hydraulic conductivity is desirable. The conductivities obtained using the constant head method on uncompacted tuff (OK pa) with low bentonite ratio (0-0.04) are in general agreement with the results obtained using the consolidation method for higher bentonite ratio ( 0.04-0.14). For varying consolidation pressures a close relationship exists between R ( bentonite and tuff ratio) as independent variable and K as dependent variable. This trend is displayed linearly on a log-log plot , with k decreasing with increasing clay fraction. Further demonstrates that hydraulic conductivity is not only a function of particle size

distribution of varying bentonite ratio. But also of void ratio or applied stress. The conductivity of a porous material obviously decreases with void ratio, e, and e, in turn decreases with increasing compaction pressure or stress. Benson and Daniel (1990) have studied the hydraulic conductivity of a highly plastic, compacted clay soil. They studied the influence of size of clods used in preparing the soil for compaction on hydraulic conductivity. Large differences are seen in hydraulic conductivity of soils compacted with standard versus modified proctor procedures. The conclusion reached is that fate of clods and inter clods during soil processing and compaction controlled the hydraulic conductivity of the compacted soil. To achieve low hydraulic conductivity, it is necessary to destroy the clods and to eliminate large inter clods pores either by wetting soil to a high water content or using a large compactive efforts. Daniel and Benson (1990) have represented data to show that the water content density criteria for compacted soil liners can be formulated in a manner that is different with current approach used by many engineers. The recommended approach is based on defining water content-density requirements for a broad, but representative range of compactive energy and relating those requirements to hydraulic conductivity and other relevant factors. A case history illustrates the recommended procedure and its implementation. As a result of implementing the recommended procedure, construction operations were significantly accelerated. Two extensive data sets were documented by Benson and Daniel (1989) and by Boutwell and Hedges (1989) . The acceptable zones were drawn with percentage P of the maximum dry unit weight equal to 90% and 95% for modified and standard proctor respectively and a range in water content of 04%. Boutwell and Hedges (1989) plotted contours of hydraulic conductivity and shear strength. The compaction curves for type a soil from the east borrow area. The corresponding hydraulic conductivities. Type a soil could be compacted to a hydraulic conductivity < 1x10-7 cm/sec but over different range of molding water content for different compactive energies. Yanful et al. (1990) have examined the impact of leachate on the hydraulic conductivity of a glacial till used in the construction of liner for landfill. Low gradient triaxial permeability testing of the water molded till over 7 month period with six pore volumes of test leach ate at a hydraulic gradient of approximately 100 have given hydraulic conductivity of 3x 10-9 cm/s compared with 6x10-9 cm/s, for the water permeated at the same gradient. The k was also evaluated at gradient of 10 to 50 during water permeation and found to be 8x10-9cm/s and 6.8x10-9 cm/s respectively. It was concluded that the leachate did not have any detrimental impact on the fill and that the hydraulic conductivity of the 0.3m thick liner underlying the landfill may not be expected to increase as a result of interaction with leachate. Chapuis (1990) studied soil bentonite mixes to be used as a liners to certain waste or waste water. To design a soil bentonite liner, it is necessary to select a soil and a bentonite and then to perform permeability tests to find the bentonite content yielding the appropriate degree of imperviousness. Each permeability test taken a long time, because of the time the bentonite powder tends to become fully hydrated in this study, numerous laboratory test results, a method has been

proposed to predict the hydraulic conductivity of soil bentonite mix based on several parameters such as grain size distribution, compaction proctor curve, bentonite content, porosity and degree of saturation. After this a step by step method to predict the in situ performance of the mix from laboratory test result and the variability of parameters under field condition. The study shows that the hydraulic conductivity is poorly correlated to porosity alone bentonite content alone, or total fines content alone. The hydraulic conductivity, is however shown correlated to efficient porosity, which corresponds to the pore space available for seepage of the fast moving water. When this value of porosity is negative, it means that all water seeps through hydrated bentonite. Brandl (1992) describes numerous reactions involved in long-term behavior of mineral based sealing i.e. low-perrmeability soil liners. In view of the many possible reactions between soils and chemicals it is recommended that multilayered soil liners should be constructed with different clay mixtures. Materials with a sand-gravel matrix were found to be specifically suitable after mixing with pulverized clay. Haug and wong (1992) have studied the relationship between molding water content and hydraulic conductivity of a compacted sand bentonite mixture by various laboratory test programmes. Triaxial permeability tests were conducted on specimens of 8% bentonite and Ottawa sand, compacted using hydraulic gradients ranging from 19 to 40. The specimens were conducted using continuous backpressure saturation. Each test was run for a minimum of 40,000 min( approximately 28 days) to enable fee water flow in and out of the specimen to come to equilibrium. They concluded that all the sand bentonite specimens had hydraulic conductivity values 10-8 cm/s. The low hydraulic conductivity values and minimal variation in hydraulic conductivity suggest that molding water content is not a critical factor in the design in construction of a low permeability sand bentonite liner. They also concludes that sand bentonite liner specifications involving designated water content rather than one tied to optimum water content, would be more appropriate molding water contents should help to reduce the cost of the liners. As wet sand-compaction process also increased water content and decrease bearing capacity of the mix. Thus, molding water content somewhat below optimum can be used to construct low permeability sand bentonite liners. The average final hydraulic conductivities and initial compacted dry densities for all the test specimens. The hydraulic conductivity decreased from a high of 6.5 x 10-9 cm/s for a molding water content of 5.87% to a low of 1.15 x 10-9 cm/s at 14.73% molding water content. The change in dry density and water content from the time specimens were compacted to the end of the triaxial permeability test. Kenney et al. (1992) have examined the hydraulic conductivity behavior of compacted bentonite sand mixtures. The results of laboratory investigations are presented to show the influence of bentonite sand content, compaction water content, system chemistry and change of system chemistry. They have shown that an estimate of the minimum value of hydraulic conductivity of compacted mixtures can be made using simple model in which sand and saturated bentonite form a homogeneous, two component mixture. This is called an ideal mixture. The assumption made is that all water is associated with the bentonite, the sand is dry and there is no free water. The mixture consists of continuous matrix of

saturated bentonite and sand particles act simply as impervious inclusions in this matrix and the fabric of the bentonite is unaffected by presence of sand particles. Hydraulic conductivity of bentonite is dependent on its void ratio and fabric. Void ratio of bentonite in an ideal saturated bentonite sand mixture is dependent on the amount of bentonite in the mixtures and volume of space between sand particles where hydrated bentonite is confined. There is an upper limit for void ratio that corresponds to the free swell void ratio of the bentonite at the time of mixing and compaction. They compared the hydraulic conductivity values calculated using values of dry density and voids ratio of bentonite and the curves shown are truncated at values of bentonite void ratio equal to the free swell void rations of bentonite. The results obtained by this method were compared with laboratory results. They agree quite well with the calculated relations supporting the model for saturated mixtures in which bentonite is uniformly distributed. They conclude that bentonite sand mixtures, containing up to 20% bentonite, perform as twocompontent materials in which sand from the load-supporting framework that gives the mixtures dimensional stability at the macro level. Hydrated bentontite occupies the spaces between sand particles and acts as a seepage barrier. Hydraulic conductivity depends on the properties of the bentonite and on the continuity of the bentonite matrix within the mixtures. Water content at the time of mixture should be equal to, but preferably greater than optimum water content to achieve adequate bentonite distribution and good compaction density. Hydraulic conductivity of mixtures containing highswell bentonite, when permeated with a strong saline solution, increased by only a small amount, indication that the fabric of bentonite enclosed within the framework was little influenced by this change of system chemistry. The result on permeability tests on bentonite are presented. They indicate that at equal values of void ratio saltwater bentonite is several orders of magnitude more permeable than freshwater bentonite, and these finding was expected on the basis of fabric and on the basis of experimental work by others Mesri and Olson, ( 1971); Mitchell (1976) Benson et al. (1994) have described a database containing laboratory measured hydraulic conductivities and associated index measurements evaluated during construction of compacted soil liners. The graphical and regression analysis showed that geometric mean hydraulic conductivity is correlated to the Atterbergs limits, the percentage of fines and clay, activity, compaction conditions and methods. A multivariate regression equation is also developed that can be used in estimating the geometric mean hydraulic conductivity as a function of soil compaction and compaction condition. Mollins et al. (1996) have performed one-dimensional swelling tests and hydraulic conductivity tests at vertical effective stress up to 450Kpa on sodium bentionite powder and compaceted sand and sodium bentionite improved soils for waste water containments. It was found that bentonite powder swells to reach a final state described by a single straight line on a plot of void ratio against the logarithm of vertical effective stress, regardless of preparation technique. Swelling of mixtures expressed in term of clay void ratio show a deviation from bentonite behavior data for bentonite and sand and bentonite mixtures indicate an approximately linear relationship between logarithm of hydraulic conductivity and logarithm of void ratio. They have concluded with a remark that a very low

bentonite content can lead to an uneven bentonite distribution within the mixture and this can result in a higher hydraulic conductivity than would be estimated for a uniform mixture. The data for 100,20 and 10% bentonite fall on a straight line indicating that these mixtures are behaving as the same soil type. The data for the hydraulic conductivity of the 5% bentonite mixture do not show the same trend as the other data. The probable explanation is that the very low content leads to an uneven distribution of bentonite within the sand matrix either due to the mixing method or an effect of compaction and this result in preferential flow-paths. Cowland and Leung (1991) reported in homogeneous mixture at 5% bentonite content and recommended a minimum bentonite content of 7% to avoid in homogeneity. Sivapullaiah et al. (1996) have studied the swelling behavior of mixtures of clay and non-swelling fractions of different sizes and shapes. This study leads to the conclusion that apart from mineralogical composition and clay content, the amount and size of the non-swelling fraction plays a significant role in governing the swelling behavior of soils. The total swell per gram of clay decreases with an increase in the size of the non-swelling fraction and with a decrease in the percentage of swelling clay. Suthaker and scott (1996) have used a special slurry consolidometer, with a clamping device to prevent seepage induced consolidation. This study was aimed to determine the hydraulic conductivity of the fine tails and of non-segregating fine tails sand slurries. It is observed that the hydraulic conductivity is also influenced by the hydraulic gradient and bitumen content. It is shown that a low hydraulic gradient, less than 0.2, is necessary to counteract the effect of bitumen and to represent tailings pond conditions. Kraus et al. (1997) have investigated hydraulic conductivity of three compacted paper mill sludges in various ways to access their viability for use in barrier layers in landfill final covers. Compaction tests showed that the sludges have compaction curves similar to those for clays. Hydraulic conductivity less than 1 x 10-9 m/s can be attained for these sludges at low effective stresses when compacted using standard proctor energy if the molding water content is 50-100 percentage points greater than optimum water content. Field tests conducted on barrier layers constructed with two of the sludges showed field hydraulic conductivities are in the same range as those measured on laboratory compacted specimens prepared at the same molding water content. Long term tests showed that hydraulic conductivity remains stable or decrease slowly if permeation is continued over an extended period of time. Leong and Rahardjo (1997) examined the three categories of permeability function for unsaturated soils; including empirical, macroscopic and statistical models. The theoretical background and performance of each category are examined against various experimental data. The statistical model demonstrates good performance and can be readily applied and can be further improved with the introduction of a correction factor. Huang et al. (1998) have reviewed the literature pertaining to the coefficient of permeability for a deformable saturated soil. A new coefficient of permeability function for a deformable unsaturated porous medium is then developed. A series or triaxial permeameter tests on unsaturated silty sand are

described and the results from the experimental program are analyzed using the general form of the newly developed permeability function. After interpretation it is found that the coefficient of permeability at saturation ks and the air entry pressure, have, are highly dependent on the void ratio, and the influence of the void ratio cannot be ignored. Santucci de Magistris et al. (1998) have examined compacted granular soils with small addition of bentonite to built geotechnical structures such as impervious liners and cores of zoned earth dam. This study presents a laboratory investigation showing how physical and mechanical characteristics of silty sand are reflected by an increase in the plasticity index, a reduction in maximum modified proctor density and a decrease in hydraulic conductivity. The most significant consequences on the mechanical properties are an increase of compressibility and secondary consolidation coefficients and a reduction in shear strength. Comparison of the mechanical paremeters with the existing literature database shows that the compression coefficients of the remolded mixtures are comparable to those of normally consolidated clayey soils of similar plasticity and those of the compacted mixtures are considerably lower. Specifically in case of torregaveta sand ( dune sand ) it was observed that the optimum dry unit weight of dune sand bentonite mixture increases till the bentonite percentage in the mixture is less than 10% and then it was reduces for higher percentage. The optimum water content for bentonite fraction up to 15% in dune sand showed variation in range of 6% during compaction tests. Demonstrates that in some cases a decrease of optimum dry unit weight with addition of bentonite is observed from the lowest percentage of BF ( bentonite fraction). However, in some other cases an increase of optimum dry unit weight content with BF is plotted for the same literature data reported. A comparison of the two plots show that the higher the dry unit weights, lower the optimum water content. The mean hydraulic conductivity coefficient k of the compacted mixture is plotted against the bentonite fraction BF . Each data point results from averaging a set of results obtained from rigid-wall permeameter tests carried out in the design stage of earth dam, baldovin et al. (1991). It is observed that the coefficient k is approximately constant (around 3 x 10-8 cm/s) up to a BF of 1% thereafter the permeability sharply decreases, by about one order of magnitude smaller ( k as low as 4 x 10-9 cm/s) at BF of 3% compares the permeability measurements with those found in literature. The relevant points pertain to some of the materials quoted and to experimental data collected by D Appolonia (1980) and chapuis (1990) after a considerable number of laboratory tests on different materials. Benson et al. (1999) have assembled a database consisting of 85 full-scale compacted clay liners to evaluate field hydraulic conductivity. Large scale field hydraulic conductivity tests were conducted on each liner. All of the clay liners were intended to achieve field hydraulic conductivity (kf)<1x10-7 cm/s, but only 74% succeeded in meeting the same. The findings indicate that compacted clay liners having kf<1x10-7 cm/s can be constructed with a broad variety of clayey soils. The primary emphasis should be on ensuring compaction of the liner is on the wet of optimum and less emphasis should be placed on other traditional measures such as percent compaction, index properties, and laboratory hydraulic conductivity. The liners, that are thicker or have a greater number of lifts, tend to have lower field hydraulic conductivity.

Komine and Ogata (1999) conducted various laboratory tests on the swelling pressure and swelling deformation of sand bentonite mixtures. The following conclusions were obtained after this study. (i) th swelling characteristics of sand bentonite mixtures is dependent on the dry density and bentonite content of mixtures. (ii) The volume of bentonite in the mixture increased by absorbing water, and the voids in the mixture are filled by this volume increase. (iii) if the total volume of mixture is restricted as in the swelling pressure tests, the bentonite show the e-log k relationship for various mixtures of bentonite with different coarse fractions. For all mixtures the slope of linear are between e and log k decreases with increase in the percentage of bentonite. Chu et al. (2002) investigated the consolidation and permeability characteristics of marine clay by laboratory and insitu tests. The coefficient of consolidation and the coefficient of permeability of soil at vertical and horizontal direction Cv and Ch and Kv and Kh respectively, were determined by various tests. Comparison of the results obtained by different methods indicate that the Ch value determined by CPTU ( piezocone ) is generally in good agreement with Rowe cell tests and the Ch value determined by self-boring pressure meter (SBPT) is often the highest among all the measurements. Abichou et al. (2004) developed a network model to predict the hydraulic conductivity of sand bentonite mixtures prepared with powdered and granular bentonite. The model is based on a packing of equal size spheres created using a three dimensional discrete element model. The hydraulic conductivity of the Swell and files the voids in the mixture without increasing the overall volume of the

mixture. After filling up the voids completely, the volume of bentonite cannot change in the mixture, and the pressure caused by the bentonite can be measured as the swelling pressure of the mixture. (iv) This study proposed the simplified evaluation of swelling characteristics of sand-bentonite mixtures using the parameter (Swelling volumetric strain of montmorillonite, which was proposed by the authors. This simplified evaluation can obtain the maximum swelling pressure and the maximum swelling strain of sand-bentonite contents. Sivapullaiah et al. (2000) measured the hydraulic conductivity of bentonite-sand mixture and developed methods to predict the hydraulic conductivity. They have shown that, at low bentonite contents the hydraulic conductivity of the liner varies depending on the size of the coarser fraction apart from clay content. At given clay content, the hydraulic conductivity increases with an increase in the size of coarse fraction. Hydraulic conductivity versus void ratio relationship for mixtures of silt 1 and bentonite Network is calculated by applying conservation of masse at each junction in the network. The relationship between hydraulic conductivity and bentonite content obtained from the grain coating model was similar to that measured on sand-powered bentonite mixture. A comparable relationship was also obtained for hydraulic conductivity predicted with the junction blocking model using a size based filling approach and hydraulic conductivities measured on sandgranular bentonite mixtures. Galvao et al. (2004) investigated the effect of hydrated lime on the permeability and compressibility of two Brazillian soils. The results show that the coefficient of permeability of

soil increased about fivefold when 2% lime was added and then decreased on further addition of lime. The resistance of the soil to compression improved substantially on the addition of 4% lime. Lime was also found to be effective in lower that their maximum dry densities. Ozgural and Vipulanandan (2005) investigated the influences of sand density, fines content, curing condition and time and grout dilution for permeability studies and mechanical properties of sand grouted sand specimens were cured in moist, submerged in water and dry condition for 3, 7 and 28 days and tested. The grout was diluted with water up to 50 % and its effect on grouted sand mechanical properties and permeability was studied. It was found that particle size distribution and fine content influenced the strength modules and stress-strain relationship but had minimal effect on the failure strain and permeability of grouted sand. Komine (2008), compacted bentonite and sand-bentonite mixture are sought as buffer and backfill materials for high-level radioactive waste disposal facilities because they have very low permeability. To establish specifications such as the dry density and sand-bentonite mass ratio for better and backfill material, we must quantitatively evaluate a materials hydraulic conductivities. This study presents theorytical new equation for evaluating the hydraulic conductivity of Hadmani and Perur (1971) conducted infiltration tests on different soil by using the double ring infiltrometer under variable head, followed by constant head after the intake rates was almost stabilized in the former. Various type of soil differing in texture and other conditions at surface were found to affect the infiltration rate markedly. Agarwal et al. (1974) studied infiltration characteristic of different layers in three soils, Jind, Hissar and saffidon in Haryana state. Correlation coefficients between final infiltration rates and soil physical properties were determined. They observed that, when sand content decreases and slit plus clay content increases, infiltration rate decreases and alit plus clay content increases, infiltration rate decreases. The effect of slit and clay is partially additive. 2.3.1.2 Effect of soil moisture Horton (1940) was first to define infiltration capacity at which a given soil in a given condition can absorb rain water. He further indicated that the infiltration rate decreases rapidly because of change in the surface soil structure caused by increase in soil moisture and then gradually approaches to somewhat stable minimum value. Sharma et al. (1983) determine correction and regression using data on infiltration rate, degree and length of slope, antecedent soil moisture indices, soil texture and sorptivity from 16 runoff plots having different slopes and slope lengths. They found that the infiltration is directly proportional to pore volume at field capacity, inversely proportional to antecedent moisture, and relative moisture content. A negative correlation was between infiltration rate and slit content.

2.3.1.3. Effect of land use Packer (1951) found that the percent of soil, covered by living plants or dead plant remains was closely related to runoff and therefore to infiltration. Fibrous-rooted vegetation, such as wheat grass, was found to be more effective in controlling runoff than tap-rooted annual weeds. Musgrave and Hortan (1964) investigated that vegetation is one of the most significant factor affecting infiltration of water. Vegetation protects the soil surface form rainfall impact. Massive plant root system, such as grass, keeps the soil unconsolidated and porous. The organic matter from crops promotes a crumb structure and improves permeability. Forest litter, crop residues and other humus material protect the soil surface. 2.3.1.4 Effect of drop size and rain intensity Hortan (1933) showed that f has an intal value fo at the beginning of rain,fc , the final constant infiltration capacity and that if rain is continued at an intensityI> F, final constant infiltarion capacity will decrease with rain duration in accordance with the equation f= fc +( (Fc - Fc) -Kf t e . It can however be derioved from the simple assumption that the process involved in the reduction of f in prolonged raining are of the exhaustion process nature. These processes include rain-packing, inwashing, breaking down of the crumb-structure of soil, swelling of colloids, and, in case where they occur the closing of sun-checks. Horton (1940) investigated the effect of drop size and rain intensity and concluded that in case of larger drop sizes, rain packing and related effects would take place more rapidly and the infiltration-capacity would drop off more rapidly at the start of the experiment. As to the effect of difference of rain intensity, assuming the drops to be the same size in both cases, the infiltration-capacity would drop off more capacity in case of higher intensity. For a soil surface in the same condition in both cases however, if the rain intensity is sufficient so that the soil surface is all or substantially covered with and absorbing water at its infiltrationcapacity. Linsley etal. (1949) have reported that rainfall intencity has little effect on the rate of infiltration when it exceeds the capacity rate. This agrees the findings of Schreiber and Kineaid (1967). 2.3.1.5. Effect of climate Trimble (1958) found that frozen ground affects infiltration. Some soil are fluffed up it frozen in dry condition and frost is dicontinous, as in the honeycomb ans stalactite types. A soil under this condition may be as permeable as, or even more permeable than, frost free soil. On the North east infiltration was zero on concrete frost in the open and forest area, but was not affected where soil was transverse by large holes in which water had not frozen. 2.3.2 Infiltration Mesurements and Estimation Techniques

Philips J.R. (1957 parts 1 and 2, provided a detailed analysis of infiltration. Part1 describes the development of the infiltration equation, provides numerical methods for its solution. Part 2, reports an investigation of the infiltration process when time proceeds without limit, together with certain general theorems about the moisture profile necessary for the investigation. Norum and gray (1970) used the curve matching technique to obtain the coefficient of infiltration equation y = Kta and y = St1/2 + at when rate of advance data for border dyke irrigation are available. The basic assumption is that the depth of flow on the surface is constant. If sufficient data are available the method can b extended to obtain the average depth of flow. Parlange J.Y. (1972) studied one dimensional movement of water in a porous medium, when the flux of water is imposed at the surface solved analytically. The result agrees with the direct numerical integration of the infiltration equation and with results based on similarity arguments in the case of absorptions. Joshi et al. (1982) studied infiltration at 14 different locations representing very deep sand, deep medium-textured and shallow soils underlain by rocks and precious concretionary strata. The infiltration rates decreased in the order: very deep sandy (18- 6cm/hr) >, deep medium textured 10.8 to 2.4cm/hr >, sallow soil (12 to 0.8 cm/hr) >. Higher content of coarse sand in soils of Mathania series (Balrava and Baori Khurd) and Dune series (Rampura) wre associated with high infiltration rate as listed in Table 2. Table 2.2 infiltrationdat for western Rajashthan Location Soil Series Soil Texture Infit Rate (cm/hr) 7.2 10.8 8.4 10.8 6.0 2.4 7.1 18.0 6.6 12.0 18.0 12.2 3.6 0.8

Baorikhurd Balarava Balarava Kankani Dajjar Kankani Agolai Rampura Khari-Bhavad Basani-laccha Basani-laccha Rampura Balarava Kankani

(a) Medium to moderately fine textured soils Mathania s Mathania s Borabas ls to scl Borabas sl to cl Borabas sl to cl Bhavi l to cl (b) Coarse to moderately coarse textured soils Chirai lfs to sl Dune fs to ls Dune fs tols Chirai ls Chirai ls Shallow soils Jajiwal sl Plateou Fs to ls Plateau sl to gl

(sl sandy loam, scl sandy clay loam, cl clay loam, ls loamy sand, fs fine sand, gl gravelly loam,lfs loamy fine sand). Murty and Chandrashekaran (1984) carried out 37 infiltration tests in a complex watershed of about 3051km2 in Luni Basin, Western Rajasthan. The data generated were expressed in the form of I= St1/2 +At (Philips equation), where S and parameters controlling the infiltration processes. The frequency Dostribution of S, A and I at a given time better approximated by lognormal than by normal and remarkable improvement in scaling was achived with the geometric means of S and A. Bhardwas and Singh (1992) have developed a low cost rainfall simulator in which a wide range of rainfall simulator infiltrometer consists of the components such as Drop-forming mechanism, water reservoir, Pressure head regulator, and windshield and stand and infiltration cylinder and runoff collector. This instrument weighs only 15 kg, so that it can be carried, set up and operated easily by one person. The field tests conducted have shown well-established results, which proves the instrument to be accurate and efficient. Singh R. et al. 1999 modified rainfall simulator infiltrometer and is performance is evaluated through field measurement of infiltration, runoff, and soil erosion. The modified instrument is calibrated for various rainfall intensities. Further to overcome the drawbacks associated with the traditional drop size determination methods, a relatively new approach, viz. computer vision technique, is used to find the raindrop size at 60mm/hr and 100mm/hr intensities. Field tests show that the rotating drop producing chamber results in better simulation of the natural rainfall condition for infiltration, runoff and soil erosion studies. Figure (2.16) presents the mean infiltration rates measured by Modified Rainfall simulator infiltrometer (RSI) with rotating and stationary drop producing chambers at 60 and 100mm/hr intensities. It is that the rotation of drop producing chamber influences the intensities. It is seen that the rotation of drop producing chamber influences the infiltration rate considerably.Infiltration rates measured with rotating and stationary drop producing chamber. Izadi B. et al. (1997) conducted infiltrometer tests to compare infiltration rates estimating the recalculating infiltrometer (RIF) and the newly developed portable infiltrometer (PIF). Comparison of PIF and RIF infiltration rate measurements indicated that PIF was more accurate in estimating steady infiltration rates. Considering ease of installation, accuracy in measuring steady infiltration rates, nad ability to collect data during irrigation, PIF is a promising device for use in surface irrigation management. Furman, A. et al. (2006) found solution to the Richards equation numerical to generate a database of one-dimensional infiltration values, with varying initial water content or pressure head and ponding depth for three contrasting soils. These solution are used to calibrate corresponding coefficient for modified Kotiakov models and by considering liner regressions, to obtain simple correlation factors. Results shows that the correction factor are not universally

valid and only the correction to Kostiakov k parameter shows statistically consistent applicability. However example demonstrate potentially significant improvement in the accuracy of irrigation models by correcting the Kostiakov equation to account for initial and boundary conditions. The Kostiakov (1932), the modified Kostiakov [also known as Kostiakov- Lewis or mezencev, Haverkamp et at. (1988)] and the branch infiltration function, Kostiakov (1932), Clemmens (1981) are the most commonly used infiltration function in surface irrigation application. The modified Kostiakov equation is given by: I = Kat + f0 t Where I = Cumulative infiltration, t = opportunity time (min) and k, a and F0 are empirical coefficients. Traditionally the modified Kostiakov infiltration function is calibrated for specific field conditions. Infiltration is dependent on both an event and the soil properties, hence, a calibrated Kostiakov model is in general, site and event specific. That is, application of the model is valid for the field to which it was calibrated, and for the same type of irrigation event. Indrawan et al. (2006) studied the infiltration characteristics of single layer soil and a two-layer soil were investigated in this study by conducting small-scale field infiltration tests and numerical analysis. The field infiltration tests were conducted using double-ring infiltrometer, where the water pressure head was maintained throughout the tests. Changes in pore-water pressure during the tests were measured using tensiometers installed at various depth in the soil. Simulations of the field infiltration tests were performed using a finite element program. The numerical simulation results and the field infiltration results were found to be in reasonably good agreement. Loaiciga H.A. et al. (2007) quantified infiltration using an extended Green and Ampt formulation in which the depth of ponded water influences the infiltration rate. The ponding of water over level terrain caused by storms of arbitrary temporal intensity is quantified by solving water-balance differential equations involving. Cumulative rainfall, infiltration, the depth of ponded water and evaporation of ponded water. A numerical algorithm for calculating the infiltration and ponding hydrograph is developed and applied in this work. Warrick A. W. ey al. (2007) studied infiltration from furrows or narrow channels. The approach was to develop two dimensional infiltration as a combination of the corresponding onedimensional infiltration per unit of adjusted wetting perimeter and the edge effect is the difference between the cumulative infiltration per unit of adjusted wetting perimeter and the edge effect is linearly related to time.

2.3.3 Empirical Models For Estimation of Infiltration The rate of infiltration is usually a required input parameter for simpler screening models that describe contaminant migration in the vaose Zone. There are numerous methods available for the measurement and estimation of infiltration rate. Empirical methods are usually in the form of simple equations. The parameters in this method are derived by means of curve fitting the equation of actual measurements of cumulative water infiltration. These equations only provide estimates of cumulative infiltration and infiltration rates and do not provide information regarding water content distribution. A few commonly used infiltration equation, are as listed below: (a) Green and Ampt (1911) : Earliest equation was proposed by green and Ampt (1911), in which the infiltration capacity is

i = ic + b/1 Where I and I are the infiltration rate and cumulative infiltration respectively ic is analogous to the saturated hydraulic conductivity (At Large times, I and i = Ic) b is an empirical parameter. Note that time does not explicitly appear in the Green-Ampt equation. The model can be re-formulated so that: Naturally, by re arranging the equation (b) Kostiakovs Equation Kostiakov (1932) proposed the equation for estimating infiltration as listed below: I (t) = t - Where I is the infiltration rate at time t, and ( > 0 ) and (0 < < 1) are empirical constants. Integration above equation from 0 to t, the expression for cumulative infiltration, I(t). The constants and can be determined by curve fitting above equation form experimental data foe cumulative infiltration, I (t). Horton Equation: Horton (1940) proposed the estimation of infiltration as below: I(t0 = if +(i0 if) e-yt) And

Where i0 and if the presumed initial and final infiltration rates and is an empirical constant. It is seen that i(t) is non zero as t approaches infinity. Unlike Kostiakovs equation. It does not however, adequately represent the rapid decrease of I from very high values at small t, Philips, (1957). (c) Philip (1957) : Using an analytical solution of Richardss equation for soil moisture redistribution: Where is the volumetric soil moisture, K is the hydraulic conductivity function and H is the total energy. Philip (1957) demonstrated that: Where i is the infiltration capacity, Ks is the saturated hudraulic conductivity, and Sp is the sorption coefficient. Note, for short times, t -1/2 is very large and sorption controls the infiltration capacity i.e., The cumulative infiltration capacity is given by : I = Kst + Sp t1/2 (e) Mezencevs Equation: In order to overcome the infiltration of Kostiakovs equation foe large time; Mezencev (phillip,1957) proposed infiltration estimation by: I(t) = if = t- And Where if is the final rate at steady state. (f) SCS Equation : The USDCA soil conservation service (1957) developed an equation for rainfall runoff relationship based on daily rainfall data as input. The proposed equation is: Where P is the daily rainfall, R is the runoff, and Fw is a statistically derived parameter. Infiltration is calculated on the excess of rainfall over runoff I = P- R (g) Holtans Equation:

Hooltan (1961) derived empirical infiltration equation which is explicitly dependent on soil water conditions in the form of available pore space for moisture storage: I(t) = if + ab(w 1)1.4 Where a is a constant related to the surface conditions varying between 0.25 to 0.8, b is a scaling factor, w is the initial moisture deficit or the pore space per unit area of cross section initially available for water storage (cm) and I is the cumulative infiltration (cm) at t. (h) Boughtons Equation: Boughton (1966) modified the rainfall runoff relationship of USDA_SCS (1957) as follows: 2.4 MOISTURE RETENTION STUDIES Infiltration in one of the most important processes responsible for modifying precipitation, converting it to runoff and addition to soil moisture storage. The Infiltration process and other hydrological processes are inter-related through a common dependence on soil moistures. Singh et al. (1975) tested the efficiency of bentonite clay in reducing deep percolation losses and increasing vegetable yields. Regarding moisture storage in the profile it is apparent that vegetable would utilize whatever quantity of moisture is saves from deep percolation due to the bentonite barrier. As such, outstanding differences in profile moisture content during crop growth may not be visible. Nevertheless, moisture content in bentonite treatments was higher than before as revealed from the soil moisture samples taken at different stages. These differences are reflected in higher yield from this treatment. Singh et al. (1978) showed that bentonite clay is an effective moisture barrier in reducing moisture losses due to deep percolation, resulting in significantly higher yield of round gourd. In most cases the moisture built up was higher in the root zone above the barrier line when bentonite was used as a subsurface moisture barrier. There was an increase of 30-40% in the capacity of the soil to store moisture. Gupta et al. (1979) studied through a 2year field trial application of pond sediment to loamy sand; which was found to have increased the moisture retention characteristics, available water capacity and wind stable aggregates and decreased the infiltration rate of the soil. Nitrogen and organic matter also increased with an increase in the quantity of pond sediments.
Gupta & Aggarwal (1980) concluded that the use of asphalt subsurface moisture barrier significantly improves the water retention and storage properties and thus productivity of a sand soil. Throughout the growing season the moisture status of barriered soil was higher than the normal soil. Some limitations of its uses were mentioned as profitable for highly cash crops. Use is limited to

the areas where good quality of water is available since saline water can lead to the accumulation of salts in the potential root zone. Excavation technique for playing the barrier is another limitation. Mertia et al. (1995) recommended placement of bentonite clay in planting pits to minimize water loss through deep percolation and lateral movements and to create a greater potential gradient for the upward movement of moisture in pit. The nursery suckers of date palm were transplanted in the field and irrigated at 30mm depth when there was 50% depletion of the available moisture. Placement of bentonite proved effective in retention of soil moisture as against control; 20% higher moisture is available than the soil moisture storage capacity. Increased moisture storage in the pit reduces its losses through leaching while increasing the nitrogen content most crucial in the early stage of establishment of fruit crops in sandy soils. Painuli and Yadav ( 1998) studied the number of technologies for management of highly permeable soils. Three different technologies such as compaction, addition of clay and a combination of the two are studied. In compaction technology, repeated passes of roller of sufficient weight drawn by animal or tractor at optimum moisture content to attain the desired level of compaction i.e. bulk density were made. Addition of clay, 2% in read sandy loam of Andhra Pradesh increased the crop yield by more than 10%. Continuous addition at the same rate is recommended for 2-3 years and the results are then consistent over years. This is possible due to formation of stable aggregates and increase in water and nutrient retention due to clay. Two percent clay addition plus compaction technology results in water and nutrient and yield sustainability have been phenomenal in desert soils. Most spectacular results under field conditions were observed in lateritic soils of west Bengal and coastal sandy soils of Tamil Nadu yield increase in the range of 20 to 45 percent were obtained for the first crop. Samjstrla and Harrison (1998) presented the utility of field tensiometer, which consists of a porous cup, connected through a rigid body to a vacuum gauge. The tensiometer is inserted into soil with ceramic cup firmly in contact with the soil so that water can move through it to equilibrate with soil water. A partial vacuum is created in the sealed tube, which can be read by the gauge fitted to the tube. Rapid and accurate tensoimeter response will occur only if air does not enter the water column. The range of operation of tensiometer is limited to 0 to 90 Kpa. Sreedeep (2002). Tadepalli and fredlund (1991) and childs ( 1969) has also discussed that tensoimeter is very simple and reliable instrument. Singh and Saxena (1998) investigated the management of limited water resources for crop production. Besides the precipitation variability, the efficiency of water use is limited by soil factors that affect runoff, infiltration, water distribution and retention in the soil, being coarse in texture have low water retention capacity. In normal and good rainfall years 30 to 40% of seasonal rainfall is lost due to deep percolation,. Thus there is need to conserve water against deep percolation losses. Application of bentonite, vermiculite clay, pond sediments and organic amendments with calotropis improved soil moisture by retaining for longer time and enhanced the yield of rainy season crops. Singh et al.(2002) have determined utility of a field tensiometer in measuring soil suction ( < 100 Kpa). Using the soil suction, the soil water characteristics curve (swcc) for soil has been developed.

Comparision of the obtained swcc with those predicted by using different pedo-transfer function. Ptfs available in the literature indicates an excellent matching. Sreedeep (2002) has extensively used a jib-P insertion tensiometer. This type of tensiometer has a ceramic end which can penetrate in the soil mass. This ceramic cone is connected to tensoimeter water column and moisture movement will be the pore pressure in the soil mass. At the end of the test, suction of the soil equals to tension in tensiometer. In this type of tensiometer output is in term of current which can be converted by using simple equation. 2.5 CRITICAL APPRAISAL OF THE REVIEWED LITERATURE. Many researchers like Carmen(1939) Campbell(1974) singh alam(1967) d applonia (1980) samarsinghe et al.(1982) tavenas et al.(1983) Daniel(9184) Boynton and Daniael (1985) foreman and Deaniel (1986) Benson & Daniel ( 1990) benson(1999)chuet al. (2002) galvao et al. (2004) ozgurel and vipulandan (2005) have studied the permeability tests and some of them by one dimensional consolidantion tests. This studies serves as a base for evaluation of permeability and its comparison with different paremeters . also the instrumentation and procedures for evaluation of permeability are given.

Abeele(1986), chapuis(1990) haug and wong (1992) Kenney et al. (1992) sivapullaiah et al.(1996) santucci de magistris( 1998) komine an ogata(1999) sivapullaiah et al. (2000) abichou et al.(2004) komine (2008) have studied the permeability or alternately called as hydraulic conductivity of sand in presence of bentonite. This is a basis for the current research work to study the permeability and infiltration characteristics of dune sand and bentonite mixture. The results presented in literature show that the presence of bentonite can help in improving the impermeable behavior of the soil, for the soil such as dune sand systematic studies for their behaviors with the naturally available soils are however not listed. It felt that there is a need of the detailed study on the naturally available soils with presence of bentonite for their permeability and infiltration varritaion in retention of soil moisture etc. singh et al. (2002) and sreedeep (2002) have given the utility of temsoimeter for field moisture monitoring. This inspired use of tensoimeter for the present study to monitor day to day moisture variation in dune sand its mixtures with bentonite.