Fundamental Concepts of Algebra

Number theory
Week 1
The Real Number System

We begin our journey with a look at the real number system. Real numbers should be very
familiar to us as these are the numbers we encounter in our everyday lives. They are used to
describe quantities like speed, weight, age, and so on. Examples of real numbers are:
750 , 1 , 25 , , 2 , 25 . 0 ,
2
5
, 0 , 12 , 6
3
and t

The simplest real numbers are the natural numbers, which are just the counting numbers

1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6.
.
The numbers . -3, -2, -1, 0, 1, 2, 3. are called integers. As you can see, the integers are made
up of the negative whole numbers, 0, and the positive whole numbers. Notice that the natural
numbers are the positive integers.

A real number is called rational if it can be written in the form
q
p
where p and q are integers,
with q= 0. For example,
11
45
,
5
2
,
2
1
are rational numbers. The decimal representation of a
rational number either terminates (as in
2
1
= 0.5) or repeats in a regular pattern (as in
11
45
=
4.090909.). Real numbers that are not rational are called irrational. For instance, 2 andt
are irrational numbers. The decimal representation of irrational numbers neither terminates
nor repeats in a regular pattern. For example, 2 =1.4142136 and t = 3.1415926..
The rational numbers together with the irrational numbers make up the real numbers.

ACTIVITY 1
Try to write the decimal representation of an irrational number.
Discuss your answer in your contact session.

The following symbols are used to identify the different classes of numbers that were discussed
so far:
N denotes the set of natural number
Z (From the German Zahlen) denotes the set of integers
Q denotes the set of rational numbers
I denotes the set of irrational numbers
R denotes the set of real numbers
Fundamental Concepts of Algebra
Number theory
Week 1

The following figure captures the relationship among the different sets of numbers that were
discussed so far.




Using a Symbol to Represent a Number
In algebra it is normal to translate from worded statement to algebraic statement using
symbols. Usually these symbols come from the English or Greek alphabets and are used to
represent a quantity, unless otherwise stated. For example: Two numbers can be x and y, such
that x>y. Therefore the four basic operations can be seen represented below.
The sum of the two numbers =x + y.
The difference of the two numbers = x y.
The product of the two numbers = x y =xy.
The quotient of the two numbers = x y =
y
x
, if the quotient is greater than 1.
Or the quotient of the two numbers = y x =
x
y
, if the quotient is less than 1.
Translating Verbal Phrases in to Algebraic Expressions
Terminologies Signs/Meanings
Equals, is, adds up to =
Times, product, of, multiplied
by
X
Divided by, quotient, per, out
Fundamental Concepts of Algebra
Number theory
Week 1
of
Plus, added to, sum, and,
total, combined
+
Minus, less than, subtracted
from, difference between,
less than
-

For example











More examples
i. Five times a number x = 5x
= 5 x
ii. Seven times a number x, plus a second number y = 7 x + y
= 7x +y
iii. Six times a number x minus a second number y = 6 x y
= 6x y
Fundamental Concepts of Algebra
Number theory
Week 1
iv. Half times the product of x and y =
2
1
x y
=
2
1
xy
=
2
xy

Exercise 1
Translate each of the following word phrases into algebraic expressions using the symbols
given.
1. Nines a second number x.
2. Twelve times a number x, plus a second number y.
3. Eleven times a number x, minus a second number y.
4. Three-quarters the product of two numbers x and y.
5. Three times a number x, minus four times a second number y, divided by seven times a third
number z.
6. The square of the sum of two number x and y.
7. Half the product of two numbers a and b, added to thrice a third number c.
8. The cube of double a number a, take away thrice a second number b.

Translate each of the following algebraic expression into word phrases:
9. y x+ 9
10. ( )
2
y x
11.
c
b a
4
3 2 +

12. c
ab
3
2
+
Fundamental Concepts of Algebra
Number theory
Week 1
13. ( )
2
3 4 b a
14. ( )
3
4 3 b a
Polynomials

Polynomials are sums of these "variables and exponents" expressions. Each piece of the
polynomial, each part that is being added, is called a "term". Polynomial terms have variables
which are raised to whole-number exponents (or else the terms are just plain numbers); there
are no square roots of variables, no fractional powers, and no variables in the denominator of
any fractions. Here are some examples:
6x
2

This is NOT
a polynomial term...
...because the variable
has a negative
exponent.
1
/
x
2
This is NOT
a polynomial term...
...because the variable
is in the denominator.
sqrt(x)
This is NOT
a polynomial term...
...because the variable
is inside a radical.
4x
2

This IS a polynomial
term...
...because it obeys all
the rules.
Here is a typical polynomial:

Notice the exponents on the terms. The first term has an exponent of 2; the second term has an
"understood" exponent of 1; and the last term doesn't have any variable at all. Polynomials are
usually written this way, with the terms written in "decreasing" order; that is, with the largest
exponent first, the next highest next, and so forth, until you get down to the plain old number.
Fundamental Concepts of Algebra
Number theory
Week 1
Any term that doesn't have a variable in it is called a "constant" term because, no matter what
value you may put in for the variable x, that constant term will never change. In the picture
above, no matter what x might be, 7 will always be just 7.
The first term in the polynomial, when it is written in decreasing order, is also the term with the
biggest exponent, and is called the "leading term".
The exponent on a term tells you the "degree" of the term. For instance, the leading term in the
above polynomial is a "second-degree term" or "a term of degree two". The second term is a
"first degree" term. The degree of the leading term tells you the degree of the whole
polynomial; the polynomial above is a "second-degree polynomial". Here are a couple more
examples:
- Give the degree of the following polynomial: 2x
5
5x
3
10x + 9
This polynomial has four terms, including a fifth-degree term, a third-degree term, a
first-degree term, and a constant term.
This is a fifth-degree polynomial.
- Give the degree of the following polynomial: 7x
4
+ 6x
2
+ x
This polynomial has three terms, including a fourth-degree term, a second-degree term,
and a first-degree term. There is no constant term.
This is a fourth-degree polynomial
Probably the most common thing you will be doing with polynomials is "combining like terms".
This is the process of adding together whatever terms you can, but not overdoing it by trying to
add together terms that can't actually be combined. Terms can be combined ONLY IF they have
the exact same variable part. Here is a rundown of what's what:
4x and 3 NOT like terms The second term has no variable
4x and 3y NOT like terms
The second term now has a
variable,
but it doesn't match the variable of
the first term
4x and 3x
2
NOT like terms The second term now has the
Fundamental Concepts of Algebra
Number theory
Week 1
same variable, but the degree is
different
4x and 3x LIKE TERMS
Now the variables match and the
degrees match
Once you have determined that two terms are indeed "like" terms and can indeed therefore be
combined. When you were first learning to add, you would do "five apples and six apples is
eleven apples". You have since learned that, as they say, "you can't add apples and oranges".
That is, "five apples and six oranges" is just a big pile of fruit; it isn't something like "eleven
applanges". Combining like terms works much the same way.
- Simplify 3x + 4x
These are like terms since they have the same variable part, so combining the terms: three
x's and four x's makes seven x's: Copyright Elizabeth Stapel 2000-2011 All Rights Reserved
3x + 4x = 7x
- Simplify 2x
2
+ 3x 4 x
2
+ x + 9
It is often best to group like terms together first, and then simplify:
2x
2
+ 3x 4 x
2
+ x + 9
= (2x
2
x
2
) + (3x + x) + (4 + 9)
= x
2
+ 4x + 5
In the second line, many students find it helpful to write in the understood coefficient of 1 in
front of variable expressions with no written coefficient, as is shown in red below:
(2x
2
x
2
) + (3x + x) + (4 + 9)
= (2x
2
1x
2
) + (3x + 1x) + (4 + 9)
= 1x
2
+ 4x + 5
= x
2
+ 4x + 5
It is not required that the understood 1 be written in when simplifying expressions like this, but
many students find this technique to be very helpful. Whatever method helps you consistently
complete the simplification is the method you should use.
- Simplify 10x
3
14x
2
+ 3x 4x
3
+ 4x 6
Fundamental Concepts of Algebra
Number theory
Week 1
10x
3
14x
2
+ 3x 4x
3
+ 4x 6
= (10x
3
4x
3
) + (14x
2
) + (3x + 4x) 6
= 6x
3
14x
2
+ 7x 6
Warning: When moving the terms around, remember that the terms' signs move with them.
Don't mess yourself up by leaving orphaned "plus" and "minus" signs behind.
- Simplify 25 (x + 3 x
2
)
The first thing I need to do is take the negative through the parentheses:
25 (x + 3 x
2
)
= 25 x 3 + x
2


= x
2
x + 25 3
= x
2
x + 22
If it helps you to keep track of the negative sign, put the understood 1 in front of the
parentheses:
25 (x + 3 x
2
)
= 25 1(x + 3 x
2
)
= 25 1x 3 + 1x
2


= 1x
2
1x + 25 3
= 1x
2
1x + 22
= x
2
1x + 22
While the first format (without the 1's being written in) is the more "standard" format, either
format should be acceptable (but check with your instructor). You should use the format that
works most successfully for you.
- Simplify x + 2(x [3x 8] + 3)
Warning: This is the kind of problem that us math teachers love to put on tests (yes, we're cruel
people), so you should expect to need to be able to do this.
This is just an order of operations problem with a variable in it. If I work carefully from
the inside out, paying careful attention to my "minus" signs, then I should be fine:
x + 2(x [3x 8] + 3)
= x + 2(x 1[3x 8] + 3)
Fundamental Concepts of Algebra
Number theory
Week 1
= x + 2(x 3x + 8 + 3)
= x + 2(2x + 11)
= x 4x + 22
= 3x + 22
- Simplify [(6x 8) 2x] [(12x 7) (4x 5)]
I'll work from the inside out:
[(6x 8) 2x] [(12x 7) (4x 5)]
= [6x 8 2x] [12x 7 4x + 5]
= [4x 8] [8x 2]
= 4x 8 8x + 2
= 4x 6
- Simplify 4y [3x + (3y 2x + {2y 7} ) 4x + 5]
4y [3x + (3y 2x + {2y 7} ) - 4x + 5]
= 4y [3x + (3y 2x + 2y 7) - 4x + 5]
= 4y [3x + (2x + 5y 7) 4x + 5]
= 4y [3x 2x + 5y 7 4x + 5]
= 4y [3x 2x 4x + 5y 7 + 5]
= 4y [3x + 5y 2]
= 4y + 3x 5y + 2
= 3x 4y 5y + 2
= 3x 9y + 2

Warning: Don't get careless and confuse multiplication and addition. This may sound like a silly
thing to say, but it is the most commonly-made mistake (after messing up the order of
operations):
(x)(x) = x
2
(multiplication)
x + x = 2x (addition)
" x
2
" DOES NOT EQUAL " 2x "
Fundamental Concepts of Algebra
Number theory
Week 1
So if you have something like x
3
+ x
2
, DO NOT try to say that this somehow equals something
like x
5
or 5x. If you have something like 2x + x, DO NOT say that this somehow equals something
like 2x
2
.

Factorization

Factoring is the reverse of multiplication
BY Common Factor
1. Problem: Factor out of a common factor of
4y
2
- 8.

Solution: 4 is a common factor of both terms, so pull it out and write each term as a product
of factors.

4y
2
- (4)2

Rewrite using the distributive law of multiplication, which says that

a(b + c) = ab + ac.

4(y
2
- 2)

BY Grouping

Trinomials and binomials are the most common polynomials, but you will sometimes see
polynomials with more than three terms. Sometimes, when you are dealing with polynomials
with four or more terms, you can group the terms in such a way that common factors can be
found. Example:

2. Problem: Factor 4x
2
- 3x + 20x - 15.

Fundamental Concepts of Algebra
Number theory
Week 1
Solution: Rearrange the terms so common factors can be more easily found.

4x
2
+ 20x - 3x - 15

The first two terms have a common factor in 4x. The last two terms have a common factor in 3.
Factor those terms out

4x(x + 5) - 3(x + 5)
Now you have a binomial. Each term has a factor of (x + 5). Factor that out for the final
answer.

(x + 5)(4x - 3)


Difference of Two Squares

Sometimes, you will come across a special situation where both terms of a binomial are squares
of another number, such as (x
2
+ 9). (x
2
is the square of x and 9 is the square of 3.)

There is a special formula for this situation, so you don't have to factor the binomial. The
difference of squares formula is listed below.

A
2
- B
2
= (A + B)(A - B)

Example:
3. Problem: Factor y
2
- 4.
Solution: Since y
2
is the square of y, and 4 is the square of 2, his binomial fits the difference
of squares formula.

y
2
- 4 = (y + 2)(y - 2)

Sum and differences of cubes
When you have a binomial where each term is the cube of something, such as x
3
- 27, there are
formulas that you can apply to the binomial so you don't have to factor them. The two formulas
are listed below.

1. Sum of Cubes
Fundamental Concepts of Algebra
Number theory
Week 1
A
3
+ B
3
= (A + B)(A
2
- AB + B
2
)

2. Difference of Cubes
A
3
- B
3
= (A - B)(A
2
+ AB + B
2
)

Use the formulas whenever you can! Example:
1. Problem: Factor 125x
3
+ y
3
.

Solution: Write the sum of the cube roots.

(5x + y)( )

Take 5x + y to get the next factor.

Think of the Sum of Cubes formula

(A + B)(A
2
- AB + B
2
)

5x would be A and y would be B

(5x + y)(25x
2
- 5xy + y
2
)
















Fundamental Concepts of Algebra
Number theory
Week 1

Exercise 2
Factorize each of the following algebraic expressions:
Using common Factor
1.
3 2
10 15 xy y x
2.
5 4 3 2 2 3
15 5 10 y x y x y x +
3.
14 21 7
4 3 2 2 3
m p m p m p
+
4.
5 4
2
2 3
3
3 2
4
25
6
10
9
5
3
n p
m
n p
m
n p
m
+
5. 9 12
2
+ x
6.
2
8 10 x x
7. x x 25 15
2


Using grouping
1. 20 4 2 10 + y xy x
2. mq lq mp lp +
3. ) 1 5 ( ) 1 5 ( + + x pq x mn
4. 21 35 12 20
2
+ x x x
5. 3 3
2
+ x x x
6.
2
21 15 14 10 x x x +
7. 35 40 63 72
2
+ x x x
Difference of Square
1. 36
2
x
2. 1
2
a
3. 25 9
2
x
4.
2 2
49 36 q p
5.
4
4
2
2
y
x
6.
9 4
2 2
y x

7. 1
25
4
2

x

8. 36 ) 5 2 (
2
m
9. 16 16
2 3
+ x x x
Fundamental Concepts of Algebra
Number theory
Week 1
10. 9 2
2 2
+ n mm m

Sum of two cubes and difference of two cubes
1. 1 8
3
x
2. 64
3
+ y
3. 27 125
3
+ c
4.
3 3
216 v u
5. 1000
3
x
6. 27 8
3
y
7. 1 64
3
+ t
8. 1 125
3
+ r
9. 27 ) 2 3 (
3
x
10.
6 6
K h +
(Hint: Factor as a sum of cubes.)