CHAPTER 1

MICROCONTROLLER

INTRODUCTION :

The microcontroller 89C51 is manufactured by Atmel, MC, USA. This is

the advanced version of 8031. This Micro controller have inbuilt 4K bytes of flash
ROM, 256 bytes of RAM, 32 I/O lines (4 bit ports) and 6 vectored interrupts.
CMOS technology is used in this micro controller.

FEATURES :

• Extensive Boolean processing (Single - bit Logic) Capabilities.

• 8 Bit CPU optimized for control applications.
• On - Chip Flash Program Memory.
• On - Chip Data RAM.
• Bi-directional and Individually Addressable I/O Lines.
• Multiple 16-Bit Timer/Counters.
• Full Duplex UART.
• On - Chip Oscillator and Clock circuitry.
• On - Chip EEPROM.

PIN DIAGRAM:
INPUT/ OUTPUT PORTS:

There are four I/O ports available in AT89C51. They are port 0, port 1, port
2, and port 3. All these ports are eight bit ports. All these ports can be controlled
as eight-bit port or it can be controlled individually. One of the main feature of this
micro controller is it can control the port pins individually. In 89C51 port 1 is
available for user, Port 3 is combined with interrupts. This can be used as
interrupts (or) I/O ports, ports 2 & port 0 is combined with address bus & data
bus.
All these port lines are available with internal pull-ups except port 0. If we
want to use port 0 as I/O port we have to use pull up resistors.
This Micro controller is working at a maximum speed of 24MHz. This micro
controller is available with inbuilt oscillator; just crystal has to be connected to its
terminal.

MEMORY ORGANIZATION:
 All Atmel Flash micro controllers have separate address spaces for
program and data memory. The logical separation of program and data memory
allows the data memory to be accessed by 8 bit addresses.
Program memory can only be read. There can be up to 64K bytes of
directly addressable program memory. The read strobe for external program
memory is the Program Store Enable Signal (PSEN). Data memory occupies a
separate address space from program memory. Up to 64K bytes of external
memory can be directly addressed in the external data memory space.
The CPU generates read and write signals, RD and WR, during external
data memory accesses. External program memory and external data memory
can be combined by applying the RD and PSEN signal to the inputs of AND gate
and using the output of the fate as the read strobe to the external program/data
memory.

PROGRAM MEMORY:

After reset, the CPU begins execution from location 0000h. Each interrupt
is assigned a fixed location in program memory. The interrupt causes the CPU to
jump to that location, where it executes the service routine. If external Interrupt 0
is used, its service routine must begin at location 0003h. If the interrupt is not
used its service location is available as general-purpose program memory.
The interrupt service locations are spaced at 8 byte intervals 0003h for
External interrupt 0, 000Bh for Timer 0, 0013h for External interrupt 1,001Bh for
Timer1, and so on. If an Interrupt service routine is short enough it can reside
entirely within that 8-byte interval. Longer service routines can use a jump
instruction to skip over subsequent interrupt locations. The lowest addresses of
program memory can be either in the on-chip Flash or in an external memory. To
make this selection, strap the External Access (EA) pin to either Vcc or GND.

DATA MEMORY:
 The Internal Data memory is divided into three blocks namely,
 The lower 128 Bytes of Internal RAM.
 The Upper 128 Bytes of Internal RAM.
 Special Function Register.
Internal Data memory Addresses are always 1 byte wide, which implies an
address space of only 256 bytes. However, the addressing modes for internal
RAM can accommodate 384 bytes. Direct addresses higher than 7Fh access one
memory space and indirect addresses higher than 7Fh access a different
Memory Space.
The lowest 32 bytes are grouped into 4 banks of 8 registers. Program
instructions call out these registers as R0 through R7. Two bits in the Program
Status Word (PSW) select which register bank is in use. This architecture allows
more efficient use of code space, since register instructions are shorter than
instructions that use direct addressing.
The next 16-bytes above the register banks form a block of bit
addressable memory space. The micro controller instruction set includes a wide
selection of single - bit instructions and this instruction can directly address the
128 bytes in this area. These bit addresses are 00h through 7Fh
The Special Function Register includes Port latches, timers, peripheral
controls etc., direct addressing can only access these register. In general, all
Atmel micro controllers have the same SFRs at the same addresses. However,
upgrades to the AT89C51 have additional SFRs. Sixteen addresses in SFR
space are both byte and bit Addressable. The bit Addressable SFRs are those
whose address ends in 000B. The bit addresses in this area are 80h through
FFh.

OSCILLATOR AND CLOCK CIRCUIT:

 XTAL1 and XTAL2 are the input and output respectively of an inverting
amplifier which is used as a crystal oscillator in the frequency range of 1.2 Mhz to
12 Mhz. XTAL2 is also used as the input to the internal clock generator.
To drive the chip with an internal oscillator XTAL1 and XTAL2 are
grounded. Since the input to the clock generator is divided by two flip flop there
are no requirements on the duty cycle of the external oscillator signal. However,
minimum high and low times must be observed.
The clock generator divides the oscillator frequency by 2 and provides a
two phase clock signal to the chip. The phase 1 signal is active during the first
half of each clock period and the phase 2 signals are active during the second
half of each clock period.

CPU TIMING:

A machine cycle consists of 6 states. Each state is divided into a phase /

half, during which the phase 1 clock is active and phase 2 half. Arithmetic and
Logical operations take place during phase1 and internal register to register
transfer take place during phase 2.

FLASH ROM:

4-kilo byte ROM is available in the Micro controller. It can be erased and
reprogrammed. If the available memory is not enough for program, it can be
interfaced with external ROM .It has 16 address lines, so maximum of (2^16) i.e.
64 bytes of ROM can be interfaced with this Micro controller. Both internal and
external ROM cannot be used simultaneously.
For external accessing of ROM, a pin is provided in Micro controller itself
i.e. pin no.31 EA. It should be high to use internal ROM, low to use external ROM

RAM:
 Internal 256 bytes of RAM are available for user. These 256 bytes of RAM
can be used along with the external RAM. Externally 64-kilo bytes of RAM can be
connected with micro controller. In internal RAM first 128 bytes of RAM is
available for user and the remaining 128 bytes are used as special function
registers (SFR). These SFR’s are used as control registers for timer, serial port
etc.

PROGRAMS:
To program microcontrollers, the trend is to use the C language, due to its
efficiency and ease of use relative to the Assembly language makes most things
possible using the least amount of memory (code and date) and time, and offers
increased productivity.
Typically, a software developer can write more codes to do more things
using C than when using Assembly. This is important because at least half the
cost of developing an MCU application is in paying people to develop the
software.
Since C source code is standardized and portable, many people know
hoe to program in C. it can be written anywhere and then complied for the target
processor of choice. Writing microcontroller software often requires knowledge of
bits, registers, etc. C is considered to be a good language for real-time control
applications, as it has more or less compactness and speed features of the high-
level language features of portability. Also flow control is more flexible and easy
to use.
A micro controller unit (MCU) uses the microprocessor as its central
processing unit (CPU) and incorporates memory, timing reference, I/O
peripherals, etc on the same chip. Limited computational capabilities and
enhanced I/O are special features.
The micro controller is the most essential IC for continuous process-
based applications in industries like chemical, refinery, pharmaceutical
automobile, steel, and electrical, employing programmable logic systems (DCS).
PLC and DCS thrive on the programmability of an MCU.
 There are many MCU manufacturers. To understand and apply general
concepts, it is necessary to study one type in detail. This specific knowledge can
be used to understand similar features of other MCU.

INTERFACING OF 89C51 TO 74HC541

CHAPTER 2
TRANSMITTER UNIT
INTRODUCTION:
 Radio frequency (RF) transmitters are widely used in radio frequency
communications systems. With the increasing availability of efficient, low cost
electronic modules, mobile communication systems are becoming more and
more widespread.

A terminal apparatus used in the radio communications system receives a

radio frequency signal transmitted from a base station, by an antenna, inputs the
signal to a receiving radio-frequency unit via an antenna duplexer, high frequency
amplifies the signal, removes unnecessary waves outside the receiving band
from the signal, converts the signal to an intermediate frequency signal,
demodulates the intermediate frequency signal by a demodulator, and converts
the signal into a baseband signal.

Generally, a radio transmitter is used for performing a radio transmission

operation, whereby a high frequency signal outputted from a modulator is
transmitted to an antenna of the radio transmitter and is transmitted there from to
a remote radio transmitter thereby a signal is transmitted.

The transmitting baseband signal is subjected to a predetermined signal

process, input to a modulator, which modulates a carrier wave signal. The
modulated carrier wave signal is converted into a radio frequency by a
transmitting radio-frequency circuit and amplified to a predetermined transmitting
power, and transmitted to the base station from the antenna via the duplexer.
Communication systems are known to support wireless and wire lined
communications between wireless and/or wire lined communication devices.

The function of a radio frequency (RF) transmitter is to modulate,

upconvert, and amplify signals for transmission into free space. An RF transmitter
generally includes a modulator that modulates an input signal and a radio
frequency power amplifier that is coupled to the modulator to amplify the
modulated input signal. The radio frequency power amplifier is coupled to an
antenna that transmits the amplified modulated input signal. Power amplifiers are
required in radio telecommunication systems to amplify signals before
transmitting, because a radio signal attenuates on the radio path.

CIRCUIT OF TRANSMITTER UNIT

For efficiency, the amplifier is often a non-linear amplifier operated near its
peak capacity. To avoid distortion of the transmitted signals due to the non-
linearity, the signals are pre-distorted by a predistorter before they are
transmitted. The predistortion is required to prevent transmitter from transmitting
signals on channel bands other than the band assigned to the transmitter. The
predistortion values are chosen such that the product values entering the power
amplifier will be distorted by the power amplifier to return to a substantially linear
amplification of the modulated signals.

A direct conversion transmitter system to produce a transmission signal is

generally comprised of a low oscillator (LO), a phase locked loop (PLL), a
quadrature generator, a modulator, a power amplifier (PA), and one or more
filters. The low oscillator, coupled to the PLL, produces a signal with a frequency
that is substantially equal to the frequency of a desired RF transmission signal.
The quadrature generator is coupled to the low oscillator and the modulator.

The PA is coupled to the quadrature generator, and receives the

transmission signal and amplifies it. The amplified signal may go through a filter
to reduce noise or spurious outputs outside of the transmission band. High
quality RF transmitters typically include bandpass filters, such as surface
acoustic wave (SAW) filters provide excellent performance.

A typical system may employ a bandpass filter following the power

amplifier to reduce undesired noise present at the antenna in different portion of
RF spectrum to meet various standards' regulations and specifications.

TRANSMITTER MODULE TXC1:

The TXC1 is an ASK transmitter module .The result is excellent
performance in a simple-to-use .The TXC1 is designed specifically for remote-
control , wireless mouse and car alarm system operating at 315/433.92 MHz in
the USA under FCC Part 15 regulation. These are pre-built 433MHz wireless
transmitter / receiver modules. They feature ASK encoding, and perform very
well. They are ideal for devices using short data bursts such as remote controls,
trigger pulses etc.

SPECIFICATIONS:
• Output power: 3dBm.
• Supply voltage: 3V.
• Supply current: 10mA max.
• Data rate: 300bps to 10kbps.
• PCB measures: 18.5(H) x 14.5(W) mm (excluding pins).
• Transmitter Module: ZW-3100
• Receiver Module: ZW-3102
• Ideal for 315/433.92MHz remote keyless-entry transmitter
• By SAW resonator
• ASK modulation
• 315/433.92MHz

PIN ASSIGNMENT:

pin Connections
1 GND
2 DATA
3 VCC
4 ANT
ABSOLUTE MAXIMUM RATINGS

PARAMETER VALUE UNITS

Power supply 3 V
Operating temperature -20 to +60 °c

RECEIVER CHARACTERISTICS:

PARAMETER SYMBOL CONDITION VALUE UNIT

min typ max
Output power - Vcc=30V, 315 2 3 6 dBm
TA-27°c , MHz
50Ωload
434 1 3 6 dBm
MHz
Supply current Icc - 9 10 19 mA

Supply voltage Vcc - - 3 - V

range

Data rate - - 300 1K 10K bps

TYPICAL TEST CIRCUIT

TYPICAL TRANSMITTER APPLICATION

 REMARK:
Antenna Length:
22.6cm for 315 MHz
17.2 cm for 434 MHz

APPLICATIONS:
Specifically for remote-control, wireless mouse and car alarm system
operating at 315/433.92MHz in the USA under FCC Part 15 regulation

CHAPTER 3
RECEIVER UNIT

INTRODUCTION:

Receivers for communication systems generally are designed such that

they are tuned to receive one of a multiplicity of signals having widely varying
bandwidths and which may fall within a particular frequency range.

The RF receiver receives an RF signal, converts the RF signal to an IF

signal, and then converts the IF signal to a base band signal, which it then
provides to the base band processor. As is also known, RF transceivers typically
include sensitive components susceptible to noise and interference with one
another and with external sources.

The RF receiver is coupled to the antenna and includes a low noise

amplifier, one or more intermediate frequency stages, a filtering stage, and a data
recovery stage. The low noise amplifier receives an inbound RF signal via the
antenna and amplifies it.
 The one or more intermediate frequency stages mix the amplified RF signal
with one or more local oscillations to convert the amplified RF signal into a base
band signal or an intermediate frequency (IF) signal.

CIRCUIT DIAGRAM OF RECEIVER UNIT:

RECEIVER MODULE RXB1:

The receiver module used in our project is ASK Super Heterodyne

Receiver Module, belongs to the category ST-RXB1. The ST- RX04-ASK is an
Ask Super Heterodyne Receiver Module with PLL Synthesizer and Crystal
Oscillator. The circuit shape is PLL.

ST- RX04

PIN DIAGRAM

SPECIFICATIONS:

• Frequency Range : 315/434 MHz

• Operation Voltage: 5V
 • IF Frequency: 500k
• Typical sensitivity: -105dBm
• Supply Current: 2.3Ma

FEATURES:
• Low power consumption.
• Easy for application.
• On-chip VCO with integrated PLL using crystal oscillator reference.
• Integrated IF and data filters.
• Operation temperature range : -40 °c to +80 °c

MECHANICAL DIMENSIONS:

ELECTRICAL CHARACTERISTICS:
CHARACTERISTIC MIN TYP MAX UNIT

VCC Supply voltage - 5 - VDC

Is Supply Current - 2.3 3 mA

Fr Receiver - 315/434 - MHz

Frequency
RF Sensitivity - -105 - dBm

Max Data Rate 0.3 1 3 Kbit/s

Voh High Level 0.7Vcc - - VDC

Output
Vol Low Level - - 0.3Vcc VDC
Output
Turn On Time 25 30 - ms

Top Operating -40 - 80 °c

Temperature Range
Output Duty 40 - 60 %

TYPICAL APPLICATION:
REMARK:
Antenna length about:
• 23cm for 315 MHz
• 17 cm for 434 MHz

APPLICATIONS:

• Car security system

• Wireless security systems
• Sensor reporting
• Automation system
• Remote Keyless entry

CHAPTER 4
 ENCODER

INTRODUCTION:
An encoder can be a device used to change a signal (such as a bitstream)
or data into a code. The code serves any of a number of purposes such as
compressing information for transmission or storage, encrypting or adding
redundancies to the input code, or translating from one code to another.
This is usually done by means of a programmed algorithm, especially if
any part is digital, while most analog encoding is done with analog circuitry.
ENCODER HT12E:

The HT12E encoder is a CMOS IC built especially for remote control

system applications. It is capable of encoding 8 bits of address (A0-A7) and 4
bits of data (AD8-AD11) information. Each address/data input can be set to one
of the two logic states, 0 or 1.

Grounding the pins is taken as a 0 while a high can be given by giving +5V
or leaving the pins open (no connection). Upon reception of transmit enable
(TE-active low), the programmed address/data are transmitted together with the
header bits via an RF medium.

PIN DIAGRAM:
PIN DESCRIPTION:
Pin Name I/O Internal Connection Description
A0-A7 I NMOS Input pins for address A0-A7
TRANSMISSION setting. They can be externally
GATE set to VDD or VSS.
AD8-AD11 I NMOS Input pins for data AD8-AD11
TRANSMISSION setting. They can be externally
set to VDD or VSS.
DOUT O CMOS OUT Encoder data serial transmission
output
TE I CMOS IN pull-high Transmission Enable, active low
OSC 1 I OSCILLATOR 1 Oscillator input pin
OSC2 O OSCILLATOR 2 Oscillator output pin
VSS I - Negative power supply(GND)
VDD I - Positive power supply
CIRCUIT DIAGRAM OF ENCODER HT12E:
FEATURES OF HT12E:

• 2.4-12V Operation
• Low power, high noise immunity CMOS technology
• Low standby current of < 1μA at 5V supply
• Built-in oscillator with only a 5% resister
• Minimal external components

ELECTRICAL CHARACTERISTICS ENCODER:

ENCODER OPERATION:

The encoder starts a 4 word transmission cycle upon reception of a

transmit enable (TE active low). This cycle repeats itself as long as TE is held
low. Once the TE goes high,the encoder completes its final cycle and stops as
shown in Fig below.

ENCODER CYCLE TIMING:

As soon as a transmit enable occurs, the encoder scans and transmits the status
of the 12 bits of address/data serially in the order A0 to AD11.

ENCODER OPERATION FLOWCHART:

 Encoder operation can be represented by a flowchart as shown
in Fig .As an illustration of the way the data is sent serially, if all the 8 address
lines were left open (no connection) and all 4 data lines were grounded, then the
serial output would look like all open circuit address lines will be read as logic
high and all 4 data bits will be read as 0 since they were grounded.

ENCODER OSCILLATION FREQUENCY:

 Since the encoder comes with a built in RC oscillator, its oscillation
frequency can be set by connecting a resistor between OSC1 (pin 16) and OSC2
(pin15). The oscillation frequency depends on the resistor value as well as the
supply voltage, as shown in Fig.

ENCODER OSCILLATION GRAPH:

CHAPTER 5

DECODER
INTRODUCTION:
A decoder is a device which does the reverse of an encoder, undoing the
encoding so that the original information can be retrieved. The same method
used to encode is usually just reversed in order to decode.
In digital electronics this would mean that a decoder is a multiple-input,
multiple-output logic circuit that converts coded inputs into coded outputs.
Enable inputs must be on for the decoder to function, otherwise its outputs
assume a single "disabled" output code word. Decoding is necessary in
applications such as data multiplexing, 7 segment display and memory address
decoding.

HT12D:

The HT12D is a decoder IC made especially to pair with the HT12E

encoder.it is a CMOS IC made for remote control system application. The
decoder is capable of decoding 8 bits of address (A0-A7) and 4 bits of data
(AD8-AD11) information. For proper operation, a pair of encoder/decoder with the
same number of addresses and data format should be chosen.
The decoders receive serial addresses and data from a programmed
encoders that are transmitted by a carrier using an RF or an IR transmission
medium. They compare the serial input data three times continuously with their
local addresses. If no error or unmatched codes are found, the input data codes
are decoded and then transferred to the output pins. The VT pin also goes high
to indicate a valid transmission.
The decoders are capable of decoding information that consists of N bits
of address and 12_N bits of data. Of this series, the HT12D is arranged to
provide 8 address bits and 4 data bits, and HT12F is used to decode 12 bits of
address information.
PIN DESCRIPTION:
Pin Name I/O Internal Connection Description
A0-A11 I NMOS Input pins for address A0-A7
TRANSMISSION setting. They can be externally
GATE set to VSS or left open.
D8-D11 O CMOS OUT Output data pins, power on-state
is low.
DIN I CMOS IN Serial data input pin.
VT O CMOS OUT Valid Transmission, active high
OSC 1 I OSCILLATOR 1 Oscillator input pin
OSC2 O OSCILLATOR 2 Oscillator output pin
VSS I - Negative power supply(GND)
VDD I - Positive power supply

ELECTRICAL CHARACTERISTICS:
DECODER OPERATION:

HT12D receives digital serial data from its DIN(pin14). A signal in the DIN
activates the oscillator which then decodes the incoming address and data.

Decoder Timing

After decoding, it checks the serial input data three times continuously with its
local addresses. If no error or unmatched codes are found, the input data codes
are decoded and then transferred to the data output pins.This pin remains high
for 214=16384 decoder clocks after the encoder’s DOUT pin goes low. Since the
decoder operates at 150KHz, it takes 150000*16384=0.1 seconds for the VT pin
to go low. This pin also goes low if the address code is incorrect or no signal is
received.
The 4 data pins are latched to their respective pins, meaning that the
previous data remains on the pins unless a new data arrives to replace the
existing one.

FEATURES:
• Operating voltage: 2.4V~12V
• Low power and high noise immunity CMOS Technology
• Low standby current
• Capable of decoding 12 bits of information
• Binary address setting
• Received codes are checked 3 times
• Address/Data number combination
HT12D: 8 address bits and 4 data bits
HT12F: 12 address bits only
• Built-in oscillator needs only 5% resistor
• Valid transmission indicator
• Easy interface with an RF or an infrared transmission medium
• Minimal external components

FLOWCHART:

The oscillator is disabled in the standby state and activated when a logic
highsignal applies to the DIN pin. That is to say, the DIN should be kept low if
there is no signal input.
 The decoder operation can be represented by a flowchart as shown
above.

DECODER OSCILLATION FREQUENCY:

The decoder has a built in oscillator hence its clock can be set by
connecting a resistor between OSC1 (pin 16) and OSC2 (pin 15). The oscillation
frequency depends on the resistor value as well as the power supply as shown
below. This project uses a 5V supply and it is recommended by the Holtek that
oscillator frequency of decoder = 50*oscillator frequency of encoder. Since the
HT12E encoder works at 3KHz, the decoder frequency has to be 150KHz. This
requires a 51k resistor.
 Fosc vs supply voltage

APPLICATIONS:

• Burglar alarm system

• Smoke and fire alarm system
• Garage door controllers
• Car door controllers
• Car alarm system
• Security system
• Cordless telephones
• Other remote control systems

CHAPTER 6

LCD DISPLAY
INTRODUCTION:

A liquid crystal display (LCD) is an electronically-modulated optical

device shaped into a thin, flat panel made up of any number of color or
monochrome pixels filled with liquid crystals and arrayed in front of a light source
(backlight) or reflector. It is often utilized in battery-powered electronic devices
because it uses very small amounts of electric power.

LCD has material, which continues the properties of both liquids and
crystals. Rather than having a melting point, they have a temperature range
within which the molecules are almost as mobile as they would be in a liquid, but
are grouped together in an ordered from similar to a crystal.

LCD consists of two glass panels, with the liquid crystal materials
sandwiched in between them. The inner surface of the glass plates is coated
with transparent electrodes which define in between the electrodes and the
crystal, which makes the liquid crystal molecules to maintain a defined orientation
angle.

When a potential is applied across the cell, charge carriers flowing

through the liquid will disrupt the molecular alignment and produce turbulence.
When the liquid is not activated, it is transparent. When the liquid is activated the
molecular turbulence causes light to be scattered in all directions and the cell
appears to be bright.Thus the required message is displayed.

When the LCD is in the off state, the two polarizer’s and the liquid
crystal rotate the light rays, such that they come out of the LCD without any
orientation, and hence the LCD appears transparent. When sufficient voltage is
applied to the electrodes the liquid crystal molecules would be aligned in a
specific direction. The light rays passing through the LCD would be rotated by
the polarizer, which would result in activating/highlighting the desired characters.
 The power supply should be of +5v, with maximum allowable transients
of 10mv. To achieve a better/suitable contrast for the display the voltage (VL) at
pin 3 should be adjusted properly. A module should not be removed from a live
circuit. The ground terminal of the power supply must be isolated properly so
that voltage is induced in it. The module should be isolated properly so that stray
voltages are not induced, which could cause a flicking display.

LCD is lightweight with only a few, millimeters thickness since the LCD
consumes less power, they are compatible with low power electronic circuits, and
can be powered for long durations. LCD does not generate light and so light is
needed to read the display. By using backlighting, reading is possible in the
dark. LCDs have long life and a wide operating temperature range. Before LCD
is used for displaying proper initialization should be done.
LCDs with a small number of segments, such as those used in digital
watches and pocket calculators, have individual electrical contacts for each
segment. An external dedicated circuit supplies an electric charge to control each
segment. This display structure is unwieldy for more than a few display elements.
Small monochrome displays such as those found in personal organizers,
or older laptop screens have a passive-matrix structure employing super-twisted
nematic (STN) or double-layer STN (DSTN) technology—the latter of which
addresses a color-shifting problem with the former—and color-STN (CSTN)—
wherein color is added by using an internal filter. Each row or column of the
display has a single electrical circuit. The pixels are addressed one at a time by
row and column addresses. This type of display is called passive-matrix
addressed because the pixel must retain its state between refreshes without the
benefit of a steady electrical charge. As the number of pixels (and,
correspondingly, columns and rows) increases, this type of display becomes less
feasible. Very slow response times and poor contrast are typical of passive-
matrix addressed LCDs.
High-resolution color displays such as modern LCD computer monitors
and televisions use an active matrix structure. A matrix of thin-film transistors
(TFTs) is added to the polarizing and color filters. Each pixel has its own
dedicated transistor, allowing each column line to access one pixel. When a row
line is activated, all of the column lines are connected to a row of pixels and the
correct voltage is driven onto all of the column lines. The row line is then
deactivated and the next row line is activated. All of the row lines are activated in
sequence during a refresh operation. Active-matrix addressed displays look
"brighter" and "sharper" than passive-matrix addressed displays of the same
size, and generally have quicker response times, producing much better images.

A general purpose alphanumeric LCD, with two lines of 16 characters. So

the type of LCD used in this project is16 characters * 2 lines with 5*7 dots with
cursor, built in controller, +5v power supply, 1/16 duty cycle.

In this project LCD is used to display the following messages:

i) Device (1,2,3,4) is located.
ii) Ready to detect.

Fig. LCD

PIN DESCRIPTION FOR LCD:

Pin Symbol i/o Description

1 VSS -- Ground
2 VCC -- +5v Power Supply
 3 VEE -- Power Supply To Control
Contrast

4 RS I RS=0 to select command

register,
RS=1 to select data register

5 R/W I R/W=0 for Write, R/W=1 for

Read

6 E I/O Enable
7 DB0 I/O The 8-bit data bus
8 DB1 I/O The 8-bit data bus
9 DB2 I/O The 8-bit data bus
10 DB3 I/O The 8-bit data bus
11 DB4 I/O The 8-bit data bus
12 DB5 I/O The 8-bit data bus
13 DB6 I/O The 8-bit data bus
14 DB7 I/O The 8-bit data bus

LCD PIN DESCRIPTIONS:

The function of each pins of LCD is described below
VCC, VSS and VEE
While v and v provide +5v and ground, respectively, v is used for
controlling LCD contrast.
RS, register select
There are two very important registers inside the LCD. The RS pin is used
for their selection as follows. If RS=0, the instruction code register is selected,
allowing the user to send a command such as clear display, cursor at home,etc.if
RS=1 the data register is selected, allowing the user to send data to be displayed
on the LCD.
R/W, read/write
R/W input allows the user to write information to the LCD or read
information from it. R/W=1 when reading; R/W=0 when writing.
E, enable
 The enable pin is used by the LCD to latch information presented on its
data pins. when data is supplied to data pins, a high to low pulse must be applied
to this pin in order for the LCD to latch in the data present at the data pins.
D0 - D7
The 8-bit data pins, D0 – D7, are used to send information to the LCD or
read contents of the LCD’S internal registers.
There are also instruction codes that can be sent to the LCD to clear the
display or force the cursor to the home position or blink the cursor.
RS=0 is used to check the busy flag bit to see if the LCD is ready to
receive information. The busy flag is D7 and can be read when R/W=1 and
RS=0, as follows: if R/W=1,RS=0.when D7=1,the LCD is busy taking care of
internal operation and will not accept any new information, when D7=0, the LCD
is ready to receive new information.

LCD CONNECTION:

LCD COMMAND CODES:

Code Command to LCD Instruction

1 Clear Display Screen
2 Return Home
4 Decrement cursor
6 Increment cursor
5 Shift display right
7 Shift display left
 8 Display off, cursor off
A Display off, cursor on
C Display on, cursor off
E Display on, cursor blinking
F Display on, cursor blinking
10 Shift cursor position to left
14 Shift cursor position to right
18 Shift the entire display to left
1C Shift the entire display to right
80 Force cursor to beginning of first
line
C0 Force cursor to beginning of second
line
38 2 lines and 5x7 matrix

CHAPTER 7
POWER SUPPLY
INTRODUCTION:
Power supply is a reference to a source of electrical power. A device or
system that supplies electrical or other types of energy to an output load or
group of loads is called a power supply unit or PSU.
Fig Block diagram of a basic power supply
The first section is the TRANSFORMER. The transformer steps up or
steps down the input line voltage and isolates the power supply from the power
line. The RECTIFIER section converts the alternating current input signal to a
pulsating direct current. A FILTER section is used to convert pulsating dc to a
purer, more desirable form of dc voltage. The final section is the REGULATOR.
It maintains the output of the power supply at a constant level.
 In fig 3, an input signal of 115 volts ac is applied to the primary of the
transformer. The transformer is a step-up transformer with a turns ratio of 1:3.
The output for this transformer can be found by multiplying the input voltage
by the ratio of turns in the primary to the ratio of turns in the secondary;
therefore, 115 volts ac 3 = 345 volts ac (peak-to- peak) at the output.
Because each diode in the rectifier section conducts for 180 degrees of the
360-degree input, the output of the rectifier will be one-half, or approximately
173 volts of pulsating dc.
The filter section, a network of resistors, capacitors, or inductors,
controls the rise and fall time of the varying signal; consequently, the signal
remains at a more constant dc level. The output of the filter is a signal of 110
volts dc, with ac ripple riding on the dc.

TYPES OF POWER SUPPLY:

There are many types of power supply. Most are designed to convert
high voltage AC mains electricity to a suitable low voltage supply for electronics
circuits and other devices. A power supply can be broken down into a series of
blocks, each of which performs a particular function.
For example a 5V regulated supply:

Block diagram of regulated power supply

Each of the blocks are described below:
• Transformer - steps down high voltage AC mains to low voltage AC.
• Rectifier - converts AC to DC, but the DC output is varying.
• Smoothing - smoothes the DC from varying greatly to a small ripple.
• Regulator - eliminates ripple by setting DC output to a fixed voltage.
 Power supplies made from these blocks are described below with a circuit
diagram and a graph of their output:
• Transformer only
• Transformer + Rectifier
• Transformer + Rectifier + Smoothing
• Transformer + Rectifier + Smoothing + Regulator

Transformer only
The low voltage AC output is suitable for lamps, heaters and special AC
motors. It is not suitable for electronic circuits unless they include a rectifier
and a smoothing capacitor.

Transformer
Transformer + Rectifier
The varying DC output is suitable for lamps, heaters and standard
motors. It is not suitable for electronic circuits unless they include a
smoothing capacitor.

Transformer + rectifier
Transformer + Rectifier + Smoothing
Transformer + rectifier + smoothing
The smooth DC output has a small ripple. It is suitable for most electronic
circuits.
Transformer + Rectifier + Smoothing + Regulator
The regulated DC output is very smooth with no ripple. It is suitable for all
electronic circuits.

Transformer + rectifier + smoothing + regulator

Dual Supplies

Some electronic circuits require a power supply with positive and

negative outputs as well as zero volts (0V). This is called a 'dual supply'
because it is like two ordinary supplies connected together as shown in the
diagram.

Dual supplies have three outputs, for example a ±9V supply has +9V,
0V and -9V outputs.

Dual supplies

Simple 5V power supply for

digital circuits

Summary of circuit features

• Brief description of operation: Gives out well regulated +5V output,

output current capability of 100 mA
• Circuit protection: Built-in overheating protection shuts down output
when regulator IC gets too hot

• Circuit complexity: Very simple and easy to build

• Circuit performance: Very stable +5V output voltage, reliable operation

• Design testing: Based on datasheet example circuit, I have used this

circuit successfully as part of many electronics projects
• Applications: Part of electronics devices, small laboratory power supply
• Power supply voltage: Unregulated DC 8-18V power supply
• Power supply current: Needed output current + 5 mA

Circuit description

This circuit is a small +5V power supply, which is useful when

experimenting with digital electronics. This circuit can give +5V output at
about 150 mA current, but it can be increased to 1 A when good cooling is
added to 7805 regulator chip. The circuit has overload and terminal
protection.

Circuit diagram of 5V power supply

The capacitors must have enough high voltage rating to safely handle
the input voltage feed to circuit.
Component list

• 7805 regulator IC

• 100 uF electrolytic capacitor, at least 25V voltage rating

• 10 uF electrolytic capacitor, at least 6V voltage rating

• 100 nF ceramic or polyester capacitor

 CHAPTER 8
PRINTED CIRCUIT BOARD

INTRODUCTION:

A printed circuit board, or PCB, is used to mechanically support and

electrically connect electronic components using conductive pathways, or
traces, etched from copper sheets laminated onto a non-conductive substrate.
Alternative names are printed wiring board (PWB),and etched wiring board. A
PCB populated with electronic components is a printed circuit assembly (PCA),
also known as a printed circuit board assembly (PCBA).

Printed circuit board

PCBs are rugged, inexpensive, and can be highly reliable. They require
much more layout effort and higher initial cost than either wire-wrapped or
point-to-point constructed circuits, but are much cheaper and faster for high-
volume production.

MANUFACTURING

MATERIALS
Conducting layers are typically made of thin copper foil. Insulating
materials have a wider scale: phenolic paper, glass fibre and different plastics
are commonly used. Other widely used materials are polyimide, teflon and
some ceramics. The PCB board is double sided, with through-hole plating,
green solder resist, and white silkscreen printing. Both surface mount and
through-hole components have been used.

PATTERNING (ETCHING)
The majority of printed circuit boards are made by bonding a layer of
copper over the entire substrate, then removing unwanted copper after
applying a temporary mask (eg. by etching), leaving only the desired copper
traces.
Photoengraving uses a photomask and chemical etching to remove the
copper foil from the substrate.
LAMINATION
 Some PCBs have trace layers inside the PCB and are called multi-layer
PCBs. These are formed by bonding together separately etched thin boards.

DRILLING
Holes are typically drilled with tiny drill bits made of solid tungsten
carbide. The drilling is performed by automated drilling machines with
placement controlled by a drill tape or drill file.The drill file describes the
location and size of each drilled hole.

EXPOSED CONDUCTOR PLATING AND COATING

The places to which components will be mounted are typically plated,
because bare copper oxidizes quickly, and therefore is not readily solderable.
Exposed copper was plated with solder by hot air solder levelling and this
solder is a tin-lead alloy.
Edge connectors, placed along one edge of some boards, are often gold
plated.

SOLDER RESIST
Areas that should not be soldered to may be covered with a polymer
solder resist (solder mask) coating. The solder resist prevents solder from
bridging between conductors and thereby creating short circuits. Solder resist
also provides some protection from the environment.

SCREEN PRINTING
Line art and text may be printed onto the outer surfaces of a PCB by
screen printing. When space permits, the screen print text can indicate
component designators, switch setting requirements, test points, and other
features helpful in assembling, testing, and servicing the circuit board. Screen
print is also known as the silk screen, or, in one sided PCBs, the red print.

TEST
Unpopulated boards may be subjected to a bare-board test where each
circuit connection (as defined in a netlist) is verified as correct on the finished
board. A computer will instruct the electrical test unit to send a small amount of
current through each contact point.
 After the printed circuit board (PCB) is completed, electronic
components must be attached to form a functional printed circuit assembly, or
PCA.

CHAPTER 9
BUFFER
INTRODUCTION:

The 74HC/HCT541 are high-speed Si-gate CMOS devices and are pin
compatible with low power Schottky TTL (LSTTL). They are specified in
compliance with JEDEC standard no. 7A. The 74HC/HCT541 are octal non-
inverting buffer/line drivers with 3-state outputs. The 3-state outputs are
controlled by the output enable inputs OE1 and OE2. A HIGH on OEn causes
the outputs to assume a high impedance OFF-state. The “541” is identical to
the “540” but has non-inverting outputs.

GENERAL DESCRIPTION:

TYPICAL
SYMBOL PARAMETER CONDITIONS UNIT
HC HCT
t
PHL/ propagation delay An to Yn CL = 15 pF; VCC 10 12 ns
t
CI PLH input capacitance =5V 3.5 3.5 pF
CPD power dissipation capacitance notes 1 and 2 37 39 pF
per buffer
REMARK:

1. CPD is used to determine the

dynamic power dissipation (PD in
W)
2. CL = output load capacitance in pF
3. VCC = supply voltage in V
 4. For HC the condition is
VI = GND to VCC
5. For HCT the condition
is VI = GND to VCC
1.5 V

FEATURES:

• Non-inverting outputs
• Output capability: bus driver
• ICC category: MSI

PIN DIAGRAM;:

PIN DESCRIPTION:

PIN NO. SYMBOL NAME AND FUNCTION

 1, 19 OE1, OE2 output enable input (active LOW)
2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9 A0to A7 data inputs
10 GND ground (0 V)
18, 17, 16, 15, 14, 13, 12, 11 Y0toY7 bus outputs
20 positive supply voltage
VCC

CHAPTER 10
BUZZER
INTRODUCTION:
A buzzer or beeper is a signaling electronic device typically used in
automobiles, household appliances such as a microwave oven, or game shows.
It commonly consists of a number of switches or sensors connected to a control
unit that determines if and which button was pushed or a preset time has lapsed.
It illuminates a light on the appropriate button or control panel, and sounds a
warning in the form of a continuous or intermittent buzzing or beeping sound.

This device is based on an electromechanical system which is identical to

an electric bell without the metal gong which makes the ringing noise. these units
are anchored to a wall or ceiling and used the ceiling or wall as a sounding
board.
Another implementation with some AC-connected devices is to implement
a circuit to make the AC current into a noise loud enough to drive a loudspeaker.
ceramic-based piezoelectric sounder is a very popular buzzer which makes a
high-pitched tone. The buzzers are hooked up to "driver" circuits which varied the
pitch of the sound or pulsed the sound on and off.
The word "buzzer" comes from the rasping noise that buzzers made when
they were electromechanical devices, operated from stepped-down AC line
voltage at 50 or 60 cycles. Other sounds commonly used to indicate that a button
has been pressed are a ring or a beep.

The buzzer circuit uses a couple of resistors, a capacitor and 555 timer IC.
The 555 is setup as an astable multivibrator operating at a frequency of about
1kHz that produces a shrill noise when switched on. The frequency can be
changed by varying the 10K resistor.

This novel buzzer circuit uses a relay in series with a small audio transformer and
speaker. When the switch is pressed, the relay will operate via the transformer
primary and closed relay contact. As soon as the relay operates the normally
closed contact will open, removing power from the relay, the contacts close and
the sequence repeats, all very quickly...so fast that the pulse of current causes
fluctuations in the transformer primary, and hence secondary. The speakers tone
is thus proportional to relay operating frequency. The capacitor C can be used to
"tune" the note. The nominal value is 0.001uF, increasing capacitance lowers the
buzzers tone.

PROGRAM OF MICROCONTROLLER AT89C51

bzled1 equ 90h
bzled2 equ 91h Assigning address for led and buzzer.
bzled3 equ 92h
bzled4 equ 93h

prs equ 0a0h

prw equ 0a1h Assigning address for pins (registerselect,

pen equ 0a2h read/write,enable)

lcdd4 equ 0a4h

lcdd5 equ 0a5h
lcdd6 equ 0a6h Assigning address for lcd,data,andcommand.
lcdd7 equ 0a7h
data equ 70h
digit1 equ 51h
digit0 equ 50h

org 0000h Program initiallisation

mov p0,#0ffh
mov p1,#00h
mov p2,#00h
mov p3,#0ffh

mov a,#2ch
acall command
mov a,#0ch
acall command
mov a,#06h
acall command Lcd commands.
mov a,#01h
 acall command
mov a,#80h
acall command
mov dptr,#wel
acall cont

mainloop:

mov a,p3
swap a
anl a,#0fh Main program.
mov 50h,a
cjne a,#01h,ed1
mov dptr,#device1
acall cont
setb bzled1
acall delay
sjmp mainloop

ed1: cjne a,#02h,ed2 Program subroutines including buzzer

mov dptr,#device2 and led commands.
acall cont
setb bzled2
acall delay
sjmp mainloop

ed2: cjne a,#04h,ed3

mov dptr,#device3
acall cont
setb bzled3
acall delay
sjmp mainloop
ed3: cjne a,#08h,ed4
mov dptr,#device4
acall cont
setb bzled4
acall delay
sjmp mainloop

ed4: mov dptr,#devicen

acall cont
mov p1,#00h
sjmp mainloop

cont:

mov a,#00h
movc a,@a+dptr
inc dptr
cjne a,#80h,d1
acall command
sjmp cont

d1 cjne a,#0c0h,d2
acall command
sjmp cont

d2 cjne a,#0ffh,d3
ret

d3 acall display
sjmp cont
command

acall ready
clr prs Lcd commands.
clr prw
acall succes
ret

display

acall ready
clr prw
setb prs
acall succes
ret

ready:
mov 75h,#00h
go: djnz 75h,go
ret

succes
clr prw
mov data,a
mov a,data
swap a

mov c,acc.0
mov lcdd4,c
mov c,acc.1
 mov lcdd5,c
mov c,acc.2
mov lcdd6,c
mov c,acc.3
mov lcdd7,c
setb pen
clr pen

mov a,data
mov c,acc.0
mov lcdd4,c
mov c,acc.1
mov lcdd5,c
mov c,acc.2
mov lcdd6,c
mov c,acc.3
mov lcdd7,c
setb pen
clr pen
ret

delay Process delay commands.

mov r1,#10h
loop3 mov r2,#00h
loop2 mov r3,#00h
loop1 djnz r3,loop1
djnz r2,loop2
djnz r1,loop3
ret
txdelay:
mov r2,#03h
tldy3: mov r3,#00h Transmitter delay commands.
tldy2: mov r4,#00h
tldy1: djnz r4,tldy1
djnz r3,tldy2
djnz r2,tldy3
ret

sdelay:
mov r2,#01h
dly3: mov r3,#0fh
dly2: mov r4,#10h
dly1: djnz r4,dly1
djnz r3,dly2
djnz r2,dly3
ret

wel

db 80h," Device Locator ",0ffh

device1:
db 0c0h,"Device 1 Located",0ffh Assgning address for
characters to display in lcd.
device2:
db 0c0h,"Device 2 Located",0ffh

device3:
db 0c0h,"Device 3 Located",0ffh
device4:
db 0c0h,"Device 4 Located",0ffh

devicen:
db 0c0h,"Ready to detect ",0ffh