CHAPTER 1 Kinetic Particle Theory

2013 Marshall Cavendish International (Singapore) Private Limited

Chapter 1 Kinetic Particle Theory

1.1 States of Matter 1.2 Kinetic Particle Theory 1.3 Changes in State of Matter and the Kinetic Particle Theory 1.4 Diffusion
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1.1

States of Matter

Learning Outcome
At the end of this section, you should be able to: describe the solid, liquid and gaseous state of matter.

1.1

States of Matter
Matter refers to a substance that has mass; occupies space.

Matter exists in 3 states.

Gas (water vapour)
Solid (ice)

Liquid (water)

1.1

States of Matter

Properties of Solids, Liquids and Gases

Property Solid Liquid Gas

Shape
Volume

Fixed
Fixed

Not fixed
Fixed

Not fixed
Not fixed

Compressibility Cannot be Cannot be Can be compressed compressed compressed

Chapter 1 Kinetic Particle Theory

1.1

States of Matter

1.2 Kinetic Particle Theory 1.3 Changes in State of Matter and the Kinetic Particle Theory 1.4 Diffusion
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1.2

Kinetic Particle Theory

Learning Outcomes

At the end of this section, you should be able to:

state the kinetic particle theory; describe the states of matter using the kinetic particle theory.

1.2

Kinetic Particle Theory

Are Particles in Constant Motion?
The dancing dust that you see in a beam of light is actually the result of air particles moving and bumping into dust! Air particles are too small to be seen by our eyes, therefore we can only see the dust moving. The explanations for the dancing dust are based on the kinetic particle theory.
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1.2

Kinetic Particle Theory

What is Kinetic Particle Theory?
The kinetic particle theory states that: All matter is made up of tiny particles.
Atoms, molecules, ions

Particles are in constant and random motion.

Constant = nonstop, continuous Random = unpredictable Speed of particles depend on the amount of kinetic energy
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1.2

Kinetic Particle Theory

Consider the following properties in the three states of matter:

Kinetic energy of particles

Forces of attraction between particles

Movement of particles

Arrangement of particles

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1.2

Kinetic Particle Theory

Solid
Arrangement of particles Movement of particles Forces of attraction between particles Kinetic energy of particles Closely packed in orderly manner Vibrate about fixed positions Very strong
Low

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1.2

Kinetic Particle Theory

Why Does a Solid Have a Fixed Shape?

The particles of a solid are held together by very strong forces of attraction; vibrate about fixed positions; cannot move about freely.

Why Does a Solid Have a Fixed Volume?

A solid cannot be compressed because its particles are already very close to one another.
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1.2

Kinetic Particle Theory

Liquid
Arrangement of particles Closely packed in disorderly, random manner. Slightly further apart than those of a solid. Sliding over each other

Movement of particles

Forces of attraction between particles Kinetic energy of particles

Strong but weaker than in solid

More kinetic energy than in a solid
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1.2

Kinetic Particle Theory

Why Does a Liquid Not Have a Fixed Shape?

The particles of a liquid: are arranged in a disorderly manner; have weaker forces of attraction; are not held in fixed positions; can move freely throughout the liquid.

Why Does a Liquid Have a Fixed Volume?

The particles of a liquid are still packed quite closely together.
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1.2

Kinetic Particle Theory

Gas
Arrangement of particles Very far apart

Movement of particles
Forces of attraction between particles Kinetic energy of particles

Randomly at high speeds in all directions Very weak

A lot of kinetic energy

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1.2

Kinetic Particle Theory

Why Does a Gas Not Have a Fixed Shape?

The particles of a gas: are spread far apart from one another; have the weakest forces of attraction; have a lot of kinetic energy and are not held in fixed positions; can move about rapidly in any direction.

Why Does a Gas Not Have a Fixed Volume?

Particles in gas are far apart from one another. There is space for the particles to be compressed.

pressure

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1.2

Kinetic Particle Theory

Summary
URL 1 URL 2

Characteristic Arrangement of particles

Solid Orderly Closely packed

Liquid Disorderly Less closely packed than in a solid Strong

Gas Disorderly Very far apart

Attractive forces Very strong between particles

Very weak

Kinetic energy of particles Motion of particles

Very low Vibrate and rotate about fixed positions

Low Move free throughout the liquid

High Move rapidly in any direction

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Chapter 1 Kinetic Particle Theory

1.1 States of Matter 1.2 Kinetic Particle Theory

1.3 Changes in State of Matter and the Kinetic Particle Theory 1.4 Diffusion

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1.3 Changes in State of Matter and the Kinetic Particle Theory

Learning Outcome
At the end of this section, you should be able to: explain the interconversion of matter in terms of the kinetic particle theory and energy changes.

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1.3 Changes in State of Matter and the Kinetic Particle Theory Matter can change from one state to another.
Melting: solid liquid Freezing: liquid solid Boiling: liquid gas (at boiling point)

Evaporation: liquid gas (at any temperature)

Condensation: gas liquid Sublimation: solid gas
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1.3 Changes in State of Matter and the Kinetic Particle Theory

Changes of State Changes in state are reversible.

gas

freezing

solid
melting

liquid
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1.3 Changes in State of Matter and the Kinetic Particle Theory

Melting
Melting is the process by which a substance changes from a solid to a liquid.
The temperature at which a solid melts is its melting point. When a solid is heated:
solid

liquid

1. Particles gain kinetic energy and vibrate faster.

2. Particles overcome attractive forces between them and break away from fixed positions.

3. Particles now slide over one another. Solid has melted to liquid.
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1.3 Changes in State of Matter and the Kinetic Particle Theory

Temperature Changes in the Melting Process (Heating Curve)
Temperature/oC

melting point
liquid + solid

liquid

solid

AB: As the solid is heated, particles in solid gain K.E., the temperature of the solid increases until it reaches point B, its melting point. At point B, the solid begins to melt.
Time/min
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1.3 Changes in State of Matter and the Kinetic Particle Theory

Temperature Changes in the Melting Process (Heating Curve)
Temperature/oC

melting point
liquid + solid

liquid

solid

BC: Melting occurs at fixed temperature. Energy from heating is used to overcome forces of attraction between the particles. A mixture of solid and liquid exists. Particles do not gain K.E.
Time/min
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1.3 Changes in State of Matter and the Kinetic Particle Theory

Temperature Changes in the Melting Process (Heating Curve)
Temperature/oC

melting point
liquid + solid

liquid

solid

CD: At point C, all the solid has melted. Temperature of the liquid rises as heating continues. Liquid particles gain K.E.
Time/min
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1.3 Changes in State of Matter and the Kinetic Particle Theory

Freezing
Freezing is the change from a liquid to a solid. The temperature at which a liquid freezes is its freezing point. When a liquid is cooled:
1. Particles lose kinetic energy and move more slowly.
3. All the particles settle into fixed positions. Liquid has frozen into solid. solid liquid

2. Some particles start to settle into fixed positions.

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1.3 Changes in State of Matter and the Kinetic Particle Theory

Temperature Changes in the Freezing Process (Cooling Curve)
Temperature/oC

liquid

PQ: Particles in liquid loses K.E. The temperature of the liquid drops to freezing point, Q. At Q, the liquid starts to freeze.

liquid + solid

solid

freezing point

Time/min

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1.3 Changes in State of Matter and the Kinetic Particle Theory

Temperature Changes in the Freezing Process (Cooling Curve)
Temperature/oC

liquid

QR: liquid freezes. A mixture of liquid and solid exists. Temperature remains constant even though cooling continues. Why?

liquid + solid

solid

freezing point

Time/min

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1.3 Changes in State of Matter and the Kinetic Particle Theory

Temperature Changes in the Freezing Process (Cooling Curve)
Temperature/oC

liquid

RS: Particles in solid lose K.E. At R, all the liquid has frozen. The temperature of the solid drops with further cooling.

liquid + solid

solid

freezing point

Time/min

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1.3 Changes in State of Matter and the Kinetic Particle Theory

Boiling
Boiling is the change from a liquid to a gas at the boiling temperature. The temperature at which a liquid boils is the boiling point.

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1.3 Changes in State of Matter and the Kinetic Particle Theory

Temperature Changes in the Boiling Process (Heating Curve)
Temperature/oC

gas boiling point liquid + gas liquid

WX: Particles in liquid gain K.E., temperature of liquid increases until its boiling point, X, is reached.
Time/min
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1.3 Changes in State of Matter and the Kinetic Particle Theory

Temperature Changes in the Boiling Process (Heating Curve)
Temperature/oC

gas boiling point liquid + gas liquid

XY: Liquid boils Mixture of liquid and gas exists. Temperature of liquid remains constant. Why? Temperature remains constant until all the liquid is boiled off.
Time/min
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1.3 Changes in State of Matter and the Kinetic Particle Theory

What change of state is taking place here?
Evaporation Clothes dry when water on wet clothes change into water vapour.

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1.3 Changes in State of Matter and the Kinetic Particle Theory

Evaporation is the change from a liquid to a gas below the boiling point.
Yippee! We have enough energy to escape!

Gas

Particles have enough energy to escape as a gas from the surface of the liquid. Volatile liquids evaporate quickly at room temperature. Eg. Perfume, petrol

Liquid
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1.3 Changes in State of Matter and the Kinetic Particle Theory

Differences Between Boiling and Evaporation
Comparison Temperature Site Evaporation Any temperature below boiling point Surface of liquid Boiling Only at boiling point Throughout the liquid

Speed

Slow

Fast

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1.3 Changes in State of Matter and the Kinetic Particle Theory

Condensation is the change from a gas to a liquid.
When temperature drops: Gas particles lose kinetic energy
Gas
It is cool to condense!

Liquid

Gas becomes liquid Increase in attractive forces

Move closer together

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1.3 Changes in State of Matter and the Kinetic Particle Theory

Sublimation
Sublimation is the change from a solid to a gas without melting. The forces of attraction between particles in liquid state are too weak to remain in this state.
Gas
A shortcut to becoming a gas!

URL

Solid

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Chapter 1 Kinetic Particle Theory

1.1 States of Matter 1.2 Kinetic Particle Theory 1.3 Changes in State of Matter and the Kinetic Particle Theory 1.4 Diffusion
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1.4

Diffusion

Learning Outcomes
At the end of this section, you should be able to: use diffusion to account for the movement of particles in liquids and gases; state examples of daily effects of diffusion; explain the effect of molecular mass and temperature on the rate of diffusion.
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1.4

Diffusion

Some Examples
When a bottle of perfume is left open for some time, the scent of the perfume soon spreads throughout the entire room. Similarly, if your mother is cooking curry in the kitchen, you will soon be able to detect the smell of spices in every room. The process by which particles move freely to fill up any available space is called diffusion. Diffusion is an evidence of the kinetic particle theory.
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1.4

Diffusion

How Do We Show Diffusion?

air

We can show diffusion in the laboratory by placing a gas jar of air over a gas jar containing bromine vapour.
A few minutes after the cover is removed, the gas in both gas jars looks the same.

bromine

air mixed with bromine

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1.4

Diffusion

Why Does Diffusion Occur?

Both air and bromine are made up of tiny particles moving at random. The bromine particles diffuse (spread out) into the spaces between the air particles, vice versa. When the gas looks the same in both gas jars, it means that the particles of both gases are evenly spread. We say that a homogeneous mixture of air and bromine is formed.

URL

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1.4

Diffusion

Why Does Diffusion Occur?

Diffusion is the movement of particles from a region of higher concentration to a region of lower concentration.

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1.4

Diffusion

Do All Gases Diffuse At the Same Rate?

The mass of a gas particle is called its relative molecular mass (Mr). Molecular masses of some gases
Gas Hydrogen (H2) Oxygen (O2) Mr 2 32

Carbon dioxide (CO2)

Hydrogen (H2)

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2
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1.4

Diffusion

Do All Gases Diffuse At the Same Rate?

The smaller the relative molecular mass of the gas, the lighter it is, and the faster it moves.
Gases with lower molecular masses diffuse faster than those with higher molecular masses.

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1.4

Diffusion

How Do We Show That the Rate of Diffusion is Affected By Molecular Mass?

We can do so using this set-up.
cotton wool soaked in concentrated ammonia solution

cotton wool soaked in concentrated hydrochloric acid

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1.4

Diffusion

The molecular mass of ammonia is 17. The molecular mass of hydrochloric acid is 36.5. Ammonia has a lower molecular mass than hydrogen chloride, and travels faster. Thus, ammonium chloride is formed further from the ammonia solution.
cotton wool soaked in concentrated ammonia solution cotton wool soaked in concentrated hydrochloric acid

white fumes of ammonium chloride formed closer to the hydrochloric acid

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1.4

Diffusion

Diffusion in Liquids

URL

Diffusion also takes place in liquids. A small crystal of potassium manganate(Vll) is introduced into a beaker of distilled water. A deep purple solution forms at the bottom of the beaker. Diffusion slowly takes place until the solution becomes uniformly purple.
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1.4

Diffusion

Effect of Temperature on the Rate of Diffusion

What would you observe if the experiment was repeated using boiling water? The solution would become uniformly purple within a much shorter time. When temperature increases, the rate of diffusion increases.

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Chapter 1 Kinetic Particle Theory

Concept Map

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Chapter 1 Kinetic Particle Theory

Concept Map

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Chapter 1 Kinetic Particle Theory

The URLs are valid as at 15 October 2012.

Acknowledgements
(slide 1) ice melting Stevemcsweeny | Dreamstime.com
(slide 4) melting ice cubes Mysid | Wikimedia Commons | Public Domain (slide 31) boiling Steven Coling | 123RF (slide 34) clothes drying Miflippo | Dreamstime.com (slides 4950) Marshall Cavendish International (Singapore)
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