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Laplace transform
L [f (t)] F (s) = Z
+
f (t)est dt. 1 . s
L [u(t)] U (s) = L e
at
f ( )d =
0
1 . = s+a
F (s ) . s
( s)
b
TF(s) =
F (s)
X ( s)
Z (s) =
(s) 1 . = Ts (s) Js + b
Zb = b;
TF(s) =
1 ZJ + Zb
2.004 Fall 07
2.004 Fall 07
d q ( t) i(t) := dt
2.004 Fall 07
Electrical resistance +
+
v ( t)
+
+
+ +
+
+
+
+
i(t)
Collisions between the mobile charges and the material fabric (ions, generally disordered) lead to energy dissipation (loss). As result, energy must be expended to generate current along the resistor; i.e., the current flow requires application of potential across the resistor
The quantity ZR=R is called the resistance (unit: Ohms, or ) The quantity GR=1/R is called the conductance (unit: Mhos or -1)
2.004 Fall 07 Lecture 04 Wednesday, Sept. 12
Capacitance +
+ + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + dielectric (insulator)
v ( t)
electrode (conductor) + +
i(t)
+ +
+ + +
E (t)
i(t)
+
electrode (conductor)
Since similar charges repel, the potential v is necessary to prevent the charges from flowing away from the electrodes (discharge) Each change in potential v(t+t)=v(t)+v results in change of the energy stored in the capacitor, in the form of charges moving to/away from the electrodes ( change in electric field)
2.004 Fall 07 Lecture 04 Wednesday, Sept. 12
Capacitance +
+ + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + dielectric (insulator)
v ( t)
electrode (conductor) + +
i(t)
+ +
+ + +
E (t)
i(t)
+
electrode (conductor)
dv (t) dq (t) i(t) = C Capacitance C: q (t) = Cv (t) dt dt V (s) 1 ZC (s) = in Laplace domain: I (s) = CsV (s) I (s) Cs
2.004 Fall 07 Lecture 04 Wednesday, Sept. 12
Inductance
v ( t)
+
B (t)
i(t)
Current flow i around a loop results in magnetic field B pointing normal to the loop plane. The magnetic field counteracts changes in current; therefore, to effect a change in current i(t+t)=i(t)+i a potential v must be applied (i.e., energy expended) Inductance L:
di(t) v ( t) = L dt
in Laplace domain:
2.004 Fall 07
Please see: Table 2.3 in Nise, Norman S. Control Systems Engineering. 4th ed. Hoboken, NJ: John Wiley, 2004.
v ( t) = 0 always
2.004 Fall 07
+ -
v ( t) V (s )
vC (t)
VC (s)
Network analysis relies on two physical principles Kirchhoff Current Law (KCL) charge conservation
i1
vk
ik
P
2.004 Fall 07
+
v1
ik (t) = 0
I k (s ) = 0
vk (t) = 0 Vk (s) = 0
Z1
+ V1 +
Z2
I2
Z1
I1
Z2
+ V2
V1
I2
V2
+
2.004 Fall 07
Vi
Z2
V2
Vi
Since the two impedances are in series, they combine to an equivalent impedance Z = Z1 + Z2 . The current owing through the combined impedance is I= Therefore, the voltage drop across Z2 is V2 = Z2 I = Z2 V2 Z2 V = . Z Vi Z1 + Z2 V . Z
Block diagram & Transfer Function
Vi
Z2 Z1 + Z2
V2
2.004 Fall 07
Vi
Z2 =
1 Cs
VC
Vi
1 1 + RCs
VC
We recognize the voltage divider conguration, with the voltage across the capacitor as output. The transfer function is obtained as TF(s) = 1/Cs 1 1 VC ( s ) = = = , Vi (s) R + 1/Cs 1 + RCs 1 + s
2.004 Fall 07
where RC . Further, we note the similarity to the transfer function of the rotational mechanical system consisting of a motor, inertia J and viscous friction coecient b that we saw in Lecture 3. [The transfer function was 1/b(1 + s), i.e. identical within a multiplicative constant, and the time constant was dened as J/b.] We can use the analogy to establish properties of the RC system without rederiving them: e.g., the response to a step input Vi = V0 u(t) (step response) is t/ u(t), where now = RC. V C ( t) = V 0 1 e
Lecture 04 Wednesday, Sept. 12
Vi
Z2 =
1 Cs
VC
+ + +
+ + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +
VC (t) = V0 1 e
t/
u(t),
= RC.
V0 = 1 Volt R = 2k
C = 1F
+ +
VC (t) [Volts]
Charging of a capacitor: becomes progressively more difficult as charges accumulate. Capacity (steady-state) is reached asymptotically (VCV0 as t)
t [msec]
2.004 Fall 07 Lecture 04 Wednesday, Sept. 12
VL (s)
VR (s)
Ls
C vC(t)
R
1 Cs
v(t)
+ -
V (s)
i (t)
VC (s)
Figure 2.3
V(s) s2 +
1 LC R 1 s + L LC
VC(s)
Figure 2.4
2.004 Fall 07
Please see: Fig. 2.6 and 2.7 in Nise, Norman S. Control Systems Engineering. 4th ed. Hoboken, NJ: John Wiley, 2004.
2.004 Fall 07
vo(t)
(b) When v2 is grounded, as is often the case in practice, then vo = Av1 . (Inverting amplier.) (c) Often, A is large enough that we can approximate A . Rather than connecting the input directly, the opamp should then instead be used in the feedback conguration of Fig. (c). We have: V1 = 0; Ia = 0
Vo(s)
Figure 2.10
2.004 Fall 07