ALIMENTOS VINEGAR Vinegar is a versatile liquid that is created from the fermentation of ethanol.

The key ingredient is acetic acid, which gives it an acidic taste, although there may be additions of other kinds of acid like tartaric and citric. The typical pH of vinegar ranges anywhere from 2 to 3.5, although the storebought kind usually measures 2.4. In food preparation procedures, it is a multipurpose product as an ingredient and condiment. Outside of cooking, vinegar has medicinal, household cleaning, and agricultural applications. The name comes from the Old French vin aigre, which translates into "sour wine." Vinegar is made from the oxidation of ethanol in an alcohol-containing liquid, such as wine, fermented fruit juice, or beer. There are two processes of fermentation that differ by speed of production. While the fast fermentation process takes only hours to days, it requires the use of machinery to promote the oxygenation. The slow fermentation process takes weeks to months and occurs naturally. At the same time, a nontoxic slime called mother of vinegar accumulates in the liquid. Composed of acetic acid bacteria and cellulose, mother is also available in stores and consumed by some despite its unappetizing appearance. Another part of the fermenting vinegar may include the non-parasitic nematodes called vinegar eels, which are free-living creatures that feed on the mother. While they are shown to be harmless to humans, manufacturers still filter them out of the product before bottling it. There are many different types of vinegar, depending on what liquid the ethanol has been fermented in. For example, what is commonly known as white vinegar is brewed through oxidizing a distilled alcohol. Apple cider vinegar is made from apple must, which is the freshly pressed apple with its various solid components (pulp, skin, stem, etc.), and sold unfiltered. Similarly, the aromatic balsamic vinegar is made from the must of white grapes. Traditionally brewed in Italy, authentically aged balsamic is very expensive; the inexpensive store-bought varieties that are more common are made with a strong vinegar combined with natural flavors and sugars. In other parts of the world, vinegar derived from raisins, cane, coconut, rice, dates, and even honey are popular as well. Vinegar is used in the pickling process, especially for dill pickles and peppers. It is also an essential component of marinades, salad dressings, sauces, and condiments. As a condiment, it is used to flavor potato chips or the British-style fish and chips. It makes a good substitute for lemon juice in dishes and can be used to flavor an assortment of meat marinades and sauces for pork and lamb. Often tossed with herbs, spices, and oils, vinegar can also be sprinkled directly on vegetables and fruit for a delicious, fragrant salad.

GEOLOGA MINAS Igneous rocks Igneous rocks are formed by the solidification of magma, a silicate liquid generated by partial melting of the upper mantle or the lower crust. Different environments of formation, and the cooling rates associated with these, create very different textures and define the two major groupings within igneous rocks: Volcanic rocks Volcanic rocks form when magma rises to the surface and erupts, either as lava or pyroclastic material. The rate of cooling of the magma is rapid, and crystal growth is inhibited. Volcanic rocks are characteristically fine-grained. Volcanic rocks often exhibit structures caused by their eruption, e.g. flow banding (formed by shearing of the lava as it flows), and vesicles (open cavities that represent escaped gasses). Plutonic rocks Plutonic rocks form when magma cools within the Earth's crust. The rate of cooling of the magma is slow, allowing large crystals to grow. Plutonic rocks are characteristically coarse-grained. Textures of igneous rocks The environment of formation produces characteristic textures in igneous rocks which aid in their identification. These textures are: Phaneritic - This texture describes a rock with large, easily visible, interlocking crystals of several minerals. The crystals are randomly distributed and not aligned in any consistent direction. A phaneritic texture is developed by the slow cooling and crystallisation of magma trapped within the Earth's crust and is characteristic of plutonic rocks. Porphyritic - This texture describes a rock that has well-formed crystals visible to the naked eye, called phenocrysts, set in a very fine grained or glassy matrix, called the groundmass. A porphyritic texture is developed when magma that has been slowly cooling and crystallising within the Earth's crust is suddenly erupted at the surface, causing the remaining uncrystallised magma to cool rapidly. This texture is characteristic of most volcanic rocks. Aphanitic - This texture describes very fine grained rock where individual crystals can be seen only with the aid of a microscope, i.e. the rock is mostly groundmass. An aphanitic texture is developed when magma is erupted at the Earth's surface and cools too quickly for large crystals to grow. This texture is exhibited by some volcanic rocks. Eutaxitic (applies only to welded ignimbrites) - This texture describes a rock with a planar fabric in which flattened pumice clasts are surrounded by a fine grained groundmass of sintered ash. The flattened pumice clasts are lenticular (lens-shaped) in cross-section and are called fiamme (Italian for flame). An eutaxitic texture is developed when hot, pumice-rich material is erupted explosively and is then compressed by overlying material while still in a hot, plastic state. Other features The chemical composition of the magma determines which minerals will form and in what proportions they will occur. Therefore, identification of the minerals present in the rock is an important step in being able to correctly identify the rock. Magmas that are relatively low in silica (SiO2) crystallise olivine, pyroxene (augite) and calcium-rich plagioclase, while magmas that are high in SiO2 crystallise quartz, sodium-rich plagioclase, orthoclase, biotite and hornblende. As with minerals, igneous rocks can be broadly divided into mafic and felsic types. Mafic rocks are generally darker, and have higher abundances of mafic minerals. Felsic rocks are generally lighter in colour, having a higher concentration of felsic minerals.

QUMICA CONVENIO An acid (from the Latin acidus/acre meaning sour) is a substance which reacts with a base. Commonly, acids can be identified as tasting sour, reacting with metals such as calcium, and bases like sodium carbonate. Aqueous acids have a pH under 7, with acidity increasing the lower the pH. Chemicals or substances having the property of an acid are said to be acidic. Common examples of acids include acetic acid (in vinegar), sulfuric acid (used in car batteries), and tartaric acid (used in baking). As these three examples show, acids can be solutions, liquids, or solids. Gases such as hydrogen chloride can be acids as well. Strong acids and some concentrated weak acids are corrosive, but there are exceptions such as carboranes and boric acid. There are three common definitions for acids: the Arrhenius definition, the Brnsted-Lowry definition, and the Lewis definition. The Arrhenius definition states that acids are substances which increase the concentration of hydronium ions (H3O+) in solution. The Brnsted-Lowry definition is an expansion: an acid is a substance which can act as a proton donor. Most acids encountered in everyday life are aqueous solutions, or can be dissolved in water, and these two definitions are most relevant. The reason why pHs of acids are less than 7 is that the concentration of hydronium ions is greater than 107 moles per liter. Since pH is defined as the negative logarithm of the concentration of hydronium ions, acids thus have pHs of less than 7. By the Brnsted-Lowry definition, any compound which can easily be deprotonated can be considered an acid. Examples include alcohols and amines which contain O-H or N-H fragments. In chemistry, the Lewis definition of acidity is frequently encountered. Lewis acids are electron-pair acceptors. Examples of Lewis acids include all metal cations, and electron-deficient molecules such as boron trifluoride and aluminium trichloride. Hydronium ions are acids according to all three definitions. Interestingly, although alcohols and amines can be Brnsted-Lowry acids as mentioned above, they can also function as Lewis bases due to the lone pairs of electrons on their oxygen and nitrogen atoms. Arrhenius acids The Swedish chemist Svante Arrhenius attributed the properties of acidity to hydrogen in 1884. An Arrhenius acid is a substance that increases the concentration of the hydronium ion, H3O+, when dissolved in water. This definition stems from the equilibrium dissociation of water into hydronium and hydroxide (OH) ions:[2] H2O(l) + H2O(l) H3O+(aq) + OH(aq) In pure water the majority of molecules exist as H 2O, but a small number of molecules are constantly dissociating and re-associating. Pure water is neutral with respect to acidity or basicity because the concentration of hydroxide ions is always equal to the concentration of hydronium ions. An Arrhenius base is a molecule which increases the concentration of the hydroxide ion when dissolved in water. Note that chemists often write H+(aq) and refer to the hydrogen ion when describing acidbase reactions but the free hydrogen nucleus, a proton, does not exist alone in water, it exists as the hydronium ion, H3O+ . Brnsted-Lowry acids While the Arrhenius concept is useful for describing many reactions, it is also quite limited in its scope. In 1923 chemists Johannes Nicolaus Brnsted and Thomas Martin Lowry independently recognized that acid-base reactions involve the transfer of a proton. A Brnsted-Lowry acid (or simply Brnsted acid) is a species that donates a proton to a Brnsted-Lowry base.

INDUSTRIAL Product Design There are various product design processes and they are all focused on different aspects. The process shown below is "The Seven Universal Stages of Creative Problem-Solving," outlined by Don Koberg and Jim Bagnell. It helps designers formulate their product from ideas. This process is usually completed by a group of people, designers or field experts in the product they are creating, or specialists for a specific component of the product, such as engineers. The process focuses on figuring out what is required, brainstorming possible ideas, creating mock prototypes, and then generating the product. However, that is not the end of the process. At this point, product designers would still need to execute the idea, making it into an actual product and then evaluate its success by seeing if any improvements are necessary. The design process follows a guideline involving three main sections: Analysis Concept Synthesis The latter two sections are often revisited, depending on how often the design needs touch-ups, to improve or to better fit the criteria. This is a continuous loop, where feedback is the main component. To break it down even more, the seven stages specify how the process works. Analysis consists of two stages, concept is only one stage, and synthesis encompasses the other four. Analysis Accept Situation: Here, the designers decide on committing to the project and finding a solution to the problem. They pool their resources into figuring out how to solve the task most efficiently. Analyze:" In this stage, everyone in the team begins research. They gather general and specific materials which will help to figure out how their problem might be solved. This can range from statistics, questionnaires, and articles, among many other sources. Concept Define: This is where the key issue of the matter is defined. The conditions of the problem become objectives, and restraints on the situation become the parameters within which the new design must be constructed. Synthesis Ideate: The designers here brainstorm different ideas, solutions for their design problem. The ideal brainstorming session does not involve any bias or judgment, but instead builds on original ideas. Select: By now, the designers have narrowed down their ideas to a select few, which can be guaranteed successes and from there they can outline their plan to make the product. Implement: This is where the prototypes are built, the plan outlined in the previous step is realized and the product starts to become an actual object Evaluate: In the last stage, the product is tested, and from there, improvements are made. Although this is the last stage, it does not mean that the process is over. The finished prototype may not work as well as hoped so new ideas need to be brainstormed Demand-pull innovation and invention-push innovation Most product designs fall under one of two categories: demand-pull innovation or invention-push innovation. Demand-pull happens when there is an opportunity in the market to be explored by the design of a product. This product design attempts to solve a design problem. The design solution may be the development of a new product or developing a product that's already on the market, such as developing an existing invention for another purpose. Invention-push innovation happens when there is an advancement in intelligence. This can occur through research or it can occur when the product designer comes up with a new product design idea.

INFORMATICA Computer-aided design (CAD), also known as computer-aided design and drafting (CADD), is the use of computer systems to assist in the creation, modification, analysis, or optimization of a design Computer-aided drafting describes the process of creating a technical drawing with the use of computer software. CAD software is used to increase the productivity of the designer, improve the quality of design, improve communications through documentation, and to create a database for manufacturing. CAD output is often in the form of electronic files for print or machining operations. CAD software uses either vector based graphics to depict the objects of traditional drafting, or may also produce raster graphics showing the overall appearance of designed objects. CAD often involves more than just shapes. As in the manual drafting of technical and engineering drawings, the output of CAD must convey information, such as materials, processes, dimensions, and tolerances, according to application-specific conventions. CAD may be used to design curves and figures in two-dimensional (2D) space; or curves, surfaces, and solids in three-dimensional (3D) space. CAD is an important industrial art extensively used in many applications, including automotive, shipbuilding, and aerospace industries, industrial and architectural design, prosthetics, and many more. CAD is also widely used to produce computer animation for special effects in movies, advertising and technical manuals. The modern ubiquity and power of computers means that even perfume bottles and shampoo dispensers are designed using techniques unheard of by engineers of the 1960s. Because of its enormous economic importance, CAD has been a major driving force for research in computational geometry, computer graphics (both hardware and software), and discrete differential geometry. The design of geometric models for object shapes, in particular, is occasionally called computeraided geometric design (CAGD). While the goal of automated CAD systems is to increase efficiency, they are not necessarily the best way to allow newcomers to understand the geometrical principles of Solid Modeling. For this, scripting languages such as PLaSM (Programming Language of Solid Modeling) are more suitable. Originally software for Computer-Aided Design systems was developed with computer languages such as Fortran, but with the advancement of object-oriented programming methods this has radically changed. Typical modern parametric feature based modeler and freeform surface systems are built around a number of key C modules with their own APIs. A CAD system can be seen as built up from the interaction of a graphical user interface (GUI) with NURBS geometry and/or boundary representation (B-rep) data via a geometric modeling kernel. A geometry constraint engine may also be employed to manage the associative relationships between geometry, such as wireframe geometry in a sketch or components in an assembly.