Chapter 4

Generator excitation control using local model networks

M.D. Brown, D. Flynn and G. W. Irwin

4.1

Introduction

The increasing complexity of electric power systems, coupled with the demands of economic and operational requirements, drives the need for continuing improvements in power plant performance and control. Accurate plant modelling and subsequent controller design is paramount to attaining the required performance and to seeking future improvements in design and operating procedures. Conventional fixed parameter control technology is unable to provide the most effective plant and system control over the full non-linear power plant operating range (Kanniah et al., 1984). Moreover, the tuning and integration of the large number of control loops typically found in a power station can prove to be a costly and time-consuming business. Research studies have suggested a number of strategies, such as adaptive control, that attempt to improve overall control of turbo-generator systems, extending their operational stability margins (Wu and Hogg, 1991). The main difficulty, however, with adaptive control strategies lies in the robustness of the parameter estimation stage. So, if a self-tuning controller is to be a practical prospect, it must incorporate a reliable jacketing scheme. One solution to these problems is to obtain an accurate non-linear model of the plant, and use this in an appropriate control scheme. However, these methods tend to be very complex and, as such, have had limited success in industry (Unbehauen, 1996). Recently, neural networks have generated considerable interest as an alternative nonlinear modelling tool (Hunt et al., 1992). Utilising the ability of the neural network to approximate arbitrarily non-linear vector functions and combining this with dynamic elements such as integrators, filters or delays, yields a powerful, yet relatively easily applied modelling technique. In power systems, neural networks have been applied to load forecasting, alarm processing and system diagnostics. However, the application

102

Thermal power plant simulation and control

of neural networks for modelling and control does have some fundamental limitations. Firstly, the non-transparent, black-box approach makes it difficult to incorporate a priori system information, and secondly, neural network modelling fails to exploit the significant theoretical results available in the conventional modelling and control domain, making it very difficult to analyse their behaviour and to prove stability. An alternative approach that facilitates the use of conventional control techniques within a non-linear context is the local model network (LMN). This chapter investigates the use of LM control for generator excitation control, and compares its performance with both a conventional fixed gain controller and a more sophisticated model-based self-tuning regulator, when used to control a laboratory-based microalternator system. The chapter begins with a description of the LM technique and explains how the technique is used to both model the generator system and to form a transparent and simple non-linear controller. The micromachine test facility is then described and all three controllers are compared against a series of typical disturbance rejection and set-point-following scenarios.

4.2

Local model networks

Local model networks are a recent development in the neural network field (MurraySmith and Johansen, 1997). The architecture can be considered as a generalisation of a radial basis function neural network and is similar in form to a Takagi-Sugeno fuzzy inference system, Figure 4.1. The output, ~, of the LMN is given by:

M
= F(~k, p) = Z fi()Pi(CP).

i=1
The M individual local models fi (~) are functions of the measurement vector ~, and are multiplied by a basis or interpolation function Pi (P). Pis a function of the current

~--

controller

Inputs

controller Model/ controller

Output

Interpolation~)-----------~[ controller Model/ regions

Figure 4.1 Local model network structure

Generator excitation control using local model networks

103

operating region vector, and can be generated from a subset of the measurement data available, rather than using the full model input vector, ~t. The basis functions Pi (~0) are commonly chosen to be normalised Gaussian functions: exp (-II~0 - cill2/2a 2)

Pi(~O) =

EM_I exp (--lifo -

cill2/2~ 2)

where ci and ai represent the centre and width of each multidimensional Gaussian function. The interpolation function can be viewed as a model validity function, such that Pi (~0) --~ 1 in regions of ~0 where the local f / 0 are such that F(,) is a good approximation to ~, while Pi (~0) ~ 0 when the local f / 0 are such that F(,) is not a good approximation to ~. In order to take advantage of established linear techniques at the control design stage it is customary to use linear local models such as ARX (AutoRegressive model with eXogenous input), ARMAX (AutoRegressive Moving Average model with eXogenous input), state space, etc. Hence, if the local models are of the linear ARX form, and y(k) and u(k) are the plant input and output at time k,then the LM network represents the non-linear ARX model ~(k + 1) = otly(k) + ct2y(k - 1) + ..- + Ctn~+ly(k - nc~) + ~ou(k) + ~lu(k - 1) + . . . + f l n u ( k - n~) where n,, n~ > 0, and if aij and bij are the parameters of the local linear ARX models, then the parameters ~j and flj are dependent on the operating point, ~o(k), such that
M M

aJ = Z
i=l

PJ (p(k)) aij,

flJ = E
i=l

PJ (~o(k)) bij.

It is worth noting that in comparison with, for example, adaptive control schemes, where the equivalent f f j and fljare time varying to represent non-linearities in plant behaviour, here they depend on the operating point (Brown et al., 1997). 4.2.1 Plant modelling

A major advantage that the local model network structure offers, over other nonlinear modelling techniques, is that a priori knowledge of the process can be utilised in model structure selection, e.g. the number and initial position of the interpolation functions, the form of the local models, and the operating point vector. For the present application of an automatic voltage regulator (AVR), a linear single-input single-output (SISO) ARX model of the generator-exciter system (Wu and Hogg, 1988) can be formed as: a ( z - l ) y ( k ) = B ( z - l ) u ( k - kd) + ~(k) (4.1)

where the system output, y(k), is represented by the terminal voltage, VT, of the synchronous machine, and the system input, u(k), by the exciter voltage, VR. kd is

104

Thermal power plant simulation and control

the time delay in an integer number of samples, ~(k) is a zero mean white noise sequence disturbing the system, at sample time k, and z -1 is the backward shift operator. Here the polynomials A ( z - 1) and B ( z - 1) are deft ned as: A(z -1) -- 1 + a l z -1 + a 2 z -2 + . . . +anaz -ha
B(z - l ) = bo + b l z -1 + b2z -2 q- "" q- bnb z-nb

where na and nb are the orders of the respective polynomials. Previous work by the authors and others, based on both simulation and practical studies, has suggested that second-order ARX models are sufficient to capture the main dynamics of the AVR loop, and hence suitable selections are na = 2, n b = 1 (Brown and Irwin, 1999). The operating point of an alternator, synchronised to an infinite busbar system, is normally defined in terms of its real power output, Pr, and reactive power output, QT. For the local model network it is, therefore, convenient and intuitive to select the operating point ~o(k), as the vector [Pr(k) QT(k)]. Each local linear model can then be identified for small perturbations about different values of PT and QT. In an attempt to determine M, the number of local models required to adequately cover the operating space for the application, response time and gain characteristics were examined, Figures 4.2 and 4.3. These were obtained by performing open-loop step tests in simulation across a wide range of operating points. The response time is determined as the time to reach approximately 63 per cent of the final, steady-state

vt/vr res ~onsetime

...

4020-

~
~ ~

105 2 0.8 0.5 Reactive power (p u ) 0 02 ~e~\~

Figure 4.2

Synchronous machine response time characteristic

Generator excitation control using local model networks

vt/vr gain

105

4000

000
2000 ""' "....... . ..................... ~ 1000-

i.......

200 0.5

....

......... .......

i
~e~\9

io.
Reactive power(p.u.) 0 02

Figure 4.3

Synchronous machine gain characteristic

value, while the gain equates the variation in terminal voltage to that of the exciter input. It is clear that the turbo-generator system is highly non-linear, particularly when operating at leading power factors where QT < 0. It is also interesting to remember that a synchronous machine is open-loop unstable when PT is high and QT sufficiently negative. By inspection, seven local models were considered sufficient to provide an accurate representation, with the majority of these models being centred in the leading power factor region where the variation in non-linearity is changing most rapidly. In order to create a more parsimonious representation, a hybrid optimisation strategy was implemented, whereby a least squares cost function was minimised using non-linear optimisation for the centres and widths (ci and o-i ) of the interpolation functions, followed by linear optimisation of the local linear models (aij and bij) (Brown et al., 1997). The cost function was formed as the predictive errors of the LMN against an extended training data set. However, if Figure 4.2 is re-examined it indicates that the minimum plant response time is around 1.6 s which would suggest a steady-state sampling interval of approximately 300 ms, while an AVR requires a sample period of 10-20 ms to enable boost/buck excitation transient response post fault. This requirement potentially conflicts with the actual response time of the turbogenerator itself and could lead to ill-conditioning of the linear optimisation due to oversampling effects. Consequently, training of the LMN was performed using training data sampled at 300 ms, in order to establish the interpolation region parameters, given that the operating point changes comparatively slowly. Subsequently, with the interpolation region parameters fixed, the local linear models were identified using a linear optimisation method with a sampling period of 20 ms. Such an arrangement

106 Thermal power plant simulation and control

Interpolation on model 1

0.5 0.4 0.3 0.2 0.1 0 0.6

Reactive power

4).2

Interpolation on model 2

0.5 0.4
, . '

....~

0.3

...i . . . . . . . ':

. ,

0.2
o.1
07 0.6

...i ....... i
...i ....... ! "
: 0.4

i .....

i .....

'

1 0 ~ . ~ _ ~ ~ 4).2 0 0.4 Real power

b Reactive power

Figure 4.4

LMN interpolation regions

reduces the amount of training data required, and it, furthermore, speeds up the optimisation process. The training data itself was obtained on a laboratory micromachine by superimposing a pseudo-random binary sequence (PRB S) on the exciter input with a 20 ms sample period, while driving the plant across different regions of the operating space. This type of perturbation is permissible on real plant, and would be largely undetectable

Generator excitation control using local model networks

107

Interpolation on model 3

0.5

i....... :

0.30.4 0.2 ...... ~

~ ~ ' . . !

'

"1

....... :.

,:. <.

0.4 d
Figure 4.4

1 ~).2 0 0.2 Real power

Reactive power

LMN interpolation regions (Continued)

as the operating point of the machine changes during scheduled load-following or two-shifting operations. The data was then decimated to create the LMN model with a sample period of 300 ms. The result of the optimisation process was that the original figure of seven local models was reduced to five. The normalised interpolation regions for the models are shown in Figure 4.4.

108

Thermal power plant simulation and control

Interpolation on model 5

0.4 0.3 0.2 0.1 0 0.6 "1 .... .

~l 2

Real p o w e r

Figure 4.4

LMN interpolation regions (Continued)

4.3

Controller design

Having developed a non-linear model of the turbo-generator system it now remains to design controllers for each of the individual local models. For comparison between the individual schemes, self-tuning and fixed gain controllers are also described. The fixed gain controller is intended to be representative of existing commercial implementations, while prototype self-tuning schemes have performed acceptably in power stations (Malik et al., 1992), with commercial power system control manufacturers beginning to apply such strategies to their own automatic voltage regulators.

4.3.1

Local model network control

The local model network has been formed from second-order linear models, which makes it relatively straightforward to design appropriate linear controllers for each model. Since these local controllers are interpolated to form a composite control output, in the same manner as the local models, the designer can shape the response of each controller to ensure uniform control performance across the entire operating range. In this way, conventional linear control theory can be exploited within a nonlinear control framework. The transparency of the LM structure permits any suitable linear design method, e.g. PID, generalised predictive control or pole placement, to be used. However, examination of the individual linear models reveals that some of them are both unstable and non-minimum phase; this is not surprising given that individual models were deliberately placed in the leading power factor region. Consequently, for this study

Generator excitation control using local model networks

109

the generalised minimum variance (GMV) algorithm (Wellstead and Zarrop, 1991) has been selected. Form the plant pseudo-output y (k) as y(k + kd) = S ( z - 1 ) y ( k + kd) + W ( z - l ) u ( k ) - R ( z - l ) r ( k ) where r(k) is the set-point, kd the time delay in an integer number of samples, y(k) the system output and u(k) the system input at sample time k, and R(z -1) = ro + rlz -1 + r2z -2 -1- ... -k- rnr z-nr
S(Z -1) = 1 + slz - l + s2z -2 + "'" + SnsZ-ns
W ( Z - 1 ) = / / 3 0 -~-//)lZ - 1 --[- w2Z - 2 -~- . . . -~- WnwZ -nw"

G(z -1) is introduced as

S(z -1) ----A(z -1) -I- z-kdG(z -1) where G(z -1) = go + glz -l + g2z -2 + . . . + gngZ -ng. Since, in this case na 2 and if it is assumed that kd = 1 and nw = 0, it follows that G(z -1) = go + glz -1 = (sl - al) + (s2 - a2)z -1
~--

whereupon, the GMV controller equation is defined as

(B(z -1) + wo) u(k) = - G ( z - l ) y ( k ) R(z-t)r(k).

(4.2)

For a regulator application r(k) = 0, and since nb = 1, the controller equation reduces to
u(k) -- - [-(go + g l z - 1 ) y ( k ) - b l z - l u ( k ) ] bo + wo
1

Controller design is completed by selecting the polynomial S(z -1) = 1 + SlZ - l S2z -2, and the scalar term wo. A convenient approach for choosing S(z - l ) is to assume that it is a discrete, stable, second-order filter. Hence, using the discrete equivalent pole positions to an ideal continuous second-order filter, ~<1: ~ > 1: si = - 2 exp (-~ognTs) cos (o)nTs 1 ~ - ' ~~ - 2) ~2~-~-1)]

Sl------exp(-~oJnTs)[exp(-wnTs ~ 2 ~ - 1 ) + e x p ( w n T s s2 = exp (-2~wnTs)

where ~ is the damping ratio, Wn the natural frequency, and Ts the sampling period.

110 Thermal power plant simulation and control The weighting factor, w0, where w0 > 0, permits detuning of the control signals and becomes necessary when dealing with non-minimum phase systems. The selection of w0 trades closeness of desired output reference following against control effort. Since there are five local models, suitable S(z -l) and W(z -1) polynomials can be selected for each of the five controllers, tailored to the particular operating region. These five controllers are operated in parallel and all receive the same input from the plant. The output of each controller is then multiplied by the respective interpolation function, and the resulting weighted signals are summed to form the full control signal, which is then subsequently applied to the plant.

4.3.1.1 Power system stabilisation For practical implementation, the plant output y(k) can be gainfully modified as follows

y(k)=VT(k)+~.w(k)

-1 <,k<0

(4.3)

where VT(k) is the terminal voltage, ~o(k) the rotor shaft speed, while ~ is a factor that determines how much weight is placed on the speed signal. Under some circumstances, the voltage regulator can introduce negative damping into a power system, with almost all the negative damping for a regulated machine originating in the AVR. The inclusion of an auxiliary signal w(k) in y(k) introduces a power system stabilisation (PSS) function to enhance system damping (Kanniah et al., 1984), by introducing a damping torque through regulating the field flux linkage, in phase with variations in shaft speed (Bayne et al., 1975). For large steam turbine generators, turbine shafts cannot be regarded as infinitely stiff, and speed detectors have to be restricted to points along the turbine shaft corresponding to nodes of oscillation. Any vibrations can lead to operational difficulties of power system stabilisers. Consequently, the auxiliary signal may be conveniently derived from electrical output power, although the potential for excessive terminal voltage excursions during mechanical power changes, etc. requires the stabilising signal to be limited. For the micromachine arrangement, excessive vibrations are not considered an issue and speed is adopted as an auxiliary signal.

4.3.2

Self-tuning control

Self-tuning control relies on the principle of separating estimation of unknown process parameters from the controller design (Isermann and Lachmann, 1985). Hence, the scheme can be thought of as consisting of two loops - an outer loop incorporating the process and feedback regulator, and an inner loop containing a recursive parameter estimator and design calculation.

Generator excitation control using local model networks

111

An important aspect of adaptive control is the need for an estimated model of the plant. The SISO ARX model of equation (4.1) is again appropriate:
A ( z - 1 ) y ( k ) = B ( z - 1 ) u ( k - kd) + ~(k)

and recursive least squares (RLS) identification can then be employed to identify the parameters of the A(z -1) and B(z -1) polynomials on-line (Wellstead and Zarrop, 1991). As before the plant input u(k) is the exciter voltage and the plant output y(k) is formed, as equation (4.3), as
y(k) = V T ( k ) + L o g ( k ) - 1 < X < O.

The parameters of the plant model are allowed to adapt with time, and in this way the non-linearities of the system can effectively be captured. This arrangement contrasts with the LM architecture where the local model parameters are fixed, and the relative contribution of the individual models is determined based on the current operating point. If it is, subsequently, assumed that the estimated parameters represent the true parameters then a selection of methods becomes available to design the self-tuning controller itself. For convenience, and ease of comparison, the identified model is used to design a generalised minimum variance controller, equation (4.2), as (B(z -1) + wo)u(k) = - G ( z - 1 ) y ( k ) + R ( z - 1 ) r ( k ) and the polynomial S(z -1) and the scalar term w0 can again be suitably selected by the user. The task here is slightly more challenging than before since two fixed polynomials are required for the entire operating region, rather than individual polynomials for each local controller.

4.3.2.1 Supervision schemes The non-linear nature of power systems implies that the model of equation (4.1) is only valid for a small region about a given operating point. So, given that a power system is frequently subjected to various disturbances such as transformer tap-changing, line switching and occasional major disturbances such as short-circuits or lightning surges, a self-tuning controller must incorporate a reliable and robust supervision scheme if it is to work safely in practice (Astrom and Wittenmark, 1989). A number of methods have been developed in the literature to ensure satisfactory operation of self-tuning controllers. These usually take the form of protection algorithms for the parameter estimator, and are commonly referred to as jacketing software. Four such methods are now briefly outlined. For the process of identification it is essential that the dynamics of the process are persistently exciting to eliminate ambiguity in the relationship between plant input and output signals. However, under normal circumstances, the excitation present on a system is not sufficiently rich in frequency, and artificial input signals must be introduced. A PRBS is often selected, simulating a white noise process. To ensure

112 Thermal power plant simulation and control

that the estimator inputs are persistently exciting the energy (variance) of the control signal can be monitored. It is important that the parameter estimator should be able to track slowly varying process conditions, while at the same time not discarding important information too rapidly. This leads to a scheme involving a variable forgetting factor (Isermann and Lachmann, 1985). However, for a generator system there may be long periods at constant operating conditions, which may cause the estimator to discard old information, and uncertainties in the parameters will rise, leading eventually to estimator wind-up. This problem can be counteracted by monitoring the Kalman gain vector of the estimator, so that should this measure exceed a preset level then the forgetting factor is reset (Brown et al., 1995). Transient disturbances on a power system may give rise to abrupt changes in the estimated parameters, which are not due to a change in the process dynamics. Individual moving boundaries are therefore introduced to protect each of the parameters against such disturbances (Wu and Hogg, 1988). The permissible positive and negative deviations for each parameter are determined as a weighted fraction, r/, of the mean value of the estimated parameter. By adjusting r/and the time period over which the mean is calculated the adaptability of the parameters can therefore be controlled. Finally, perhaps the most important feature of the supervision scheme is deciding when the estimator should be used. During a transient condition, the synchronous machine outputs may vary to an excessive degree, leading to ill-conditioning of the estimator and a model that does not represent the process behaviour. Since the purpose of the control scheme is to regulate the terminal voltage, the deviation of this signal from its set-point has been selected as an estimator deactivation indicator. Consequently, if the terminal voltage deviation exceeds a preset limit the estimator will be switched off, and will only be switched on again once the terminal voltage returns to its preset level, remaining there for a fixed time. This ensures that the estimator will remain deactivated during severe oscillations and generator hunting.

4.3.3

Fixed gain automatic voltage regulator

For industrial applications, an automatic voltage regulator is traditionally implemented as a proportional filter with a transfer function of the form

(1 + Tls) (1 + T3s) (1 q- Z2s) (1 -k- T4s)"

The controller is typically tuned from open-circuit step response tests, and as the controller does not incorporate integral action, a steady-state control error may be anticipated. Being intended for industrial use, the software will also contain provision to restrict the AVR output under field forcing conditions to avoid overheating the rotor, VAr limiting under leading power factor operation, overflux protection during generator synchronisation, etc.

Generator excitation control using local model networks

Terminal voltage, VT

113

VTref

5/
-k

Exciter voltage, VR

G(I + Tls ) ( | + T2s )

Speed deviation, A~o

Figure 4.5

Fixed gain AVR implementation

Experience shows that the above arrangement is not able to match the steady-state regulation or transient damping capabilities of the previously outlined schemes (Flynn et al., 1996). Consequently, an alternative fixed gain control scheme is proposed consisting of an AVR coupled with a PSS, Figure 4.5. The controller parameters were obtained using eigenvalue analysis with a linearised tenth-order state variable turbo-generator model (Ahson and Hogg, 1979). Fault studies and long-term operation tests, through simulation and on a microaltemator, have proved the acceptable performance of this controller over a wide range of operating conditions and environments. It should be noted though that the derivation of the fixed gain controller gains is based on an analytical model of the generator system. While this is readily available for a laboratory machine, such models are difficult to obtain in practice, and consequently the selection of individual gains is not a trivial exercise.

4.4

Micromachine test facility

The local model network controller was initially developed and tested using a simulation of a single-machine infinite-busbar system, driven by a boiler/turbine system, with associated step-up transformer and double transmission line (Hogg, 1981). However, a simulation environment has difficulty in representing effects such as non-ideal transducer characteristics leading to limited resolution and noise, computational delays, variations in busbar voltage and frequency, saturation, hysteresis, and other non-linearities present on a real machine. A laboratory micromachine provides a practical test-bed for both measurement and control algorithms under an industrial environment. A full-scale generator will have up to six or more rotating masses, while a micromachine system typically constitutes a two-rotating mass system. It is unrealistic, therefore, to expect results comparable to a full-scale power station. However, it does provide a means of verifying simulations as well as permitting control systems to be tested under real-time conditions.

114

Thermalpower plant simulation and control

Field voltage ]_ amplifier ]- Field excitation

d.c.
motor

~ , , . , , , ~
Generator Transmission line system

Turbine simulation 9 Valve demand

Figure 4.6 4.4.1

Micromachine system

Micromachine system

The micromachine system, Figure 4.6, consists of a specially designed synchronous generator, with an associated turbine simulator, tied to the busbar through a transformer and artificial transmission lines (Flynn etal., 1997). The synchronous machine is a 3 kVA, 220 V, 50 Hz, four-pole microalternator, whose parameters have been selected to match those of a full-size machine. The alternator is driven by a separately excited d.c. motor, whose armature current is controlled by the analogue turbine simulation. A three-stage turbine with reheater and a fast electrohydraulic governor is emulated, with each turbine stage, reheater and governor being simulated by a single time constant. The weighted sum of signals from each stage is proportional to the turbine mechanical power. The alternator is directly connected to a delta-star transformer which has an onload tap-changing device on the secondary terminals, with tapping ratios from 65 to 116 per cent available in seven steps. This transformer is connected through a transmission line simulation to the laboratory busbar. The transmission system is simulated by lumped-parameter n-networks, representing a typical double line transmission system. Provision is made for the application of short-circuits at the secondary terminals of the transmission transformer or half-way through the line. It is also possible to switch out one of the transmission lines.

4.4.2

Hardware platform

The performance of any control system depends almost entirely on the quality of information received. In an electrically noisy power station environment, reliable and accurate measurements of generator terminal quantities are difficult to achieve. Harmonic interference and unbalanced generator operation inevitably lead to distortion and ripple, while any subsequent filtering may further degrade the information content, especially during transient conditions. Therefore, improved control can only truly be achieved if enhancements in measurement strategies are introduced. 4.4.2.1 Fourier measurement

algorithm

Signals from a synchronous machine are contaminated by harmonics and noise. If a three-phase system is perfectly balanced, the harmonic content in the signals will

Generator excitation control using local model networks

115

cancel out, permitting existing RMS techniques to be applied. However, physical systems are rarely perfectly balanced, so that any unsymmetrical behaviour will invalidate the measurements obtained. Consequently, during transients the RMS measurement may cause violent fluctuations in the controller signal due to the highly oscillatory nature of the estimated feedback signals, and that often means that more advanced control algorithms work no better than their simpler counterparts. An advanced algorithm based on a finite Fourier series has instead been adopted. The Fourier algorithm effectively acts as a band-pass filter, centred around the main power frequency of 50 Hz. High-frequency noise, d.c. offsets, and low frequencies are completely rejected. The harmonic content will also have no effect on the final calculation of the terminal quantities. During even severe transients the Fourier algorithm supplies continuous feedback signals, permitting smooth control. The applied Fourier analysis algorithm is based on an N sample point, moving window approximation to the general Fourier series for a periodic waveform (Brown et al., 1995). As a compromise between accuracy and computational burden, N is selected to be 12. Any periodic waveform, F(t), can be expressed by its Fourier series as
Oo

F(t) = -~ + ~_~(an Cos(nt) + bn sin(nt)).

n=l Through approximating the series as a0

ao

F(t) = -~- + al cos t .. + a6 cos 6t + bl sin t + b2 sin 2t + + b5 sin 5t

(4.4)
an expression for F(t) with 12 unknown coefficients is obtained. So, applying equation (4.4) for the sampled point U0, a0

Uo = F(to) =-~ +al cost0 + azcos2t0 + . . . + a6cos6t0

+ bl sin to + be sin 2t0 + .. + b5 sin 5t0. Repeating for the remaining sample points, a system of 12 equations in the 12 unknown coefficients [a0 . . . . . bs] is created. The fundamental components, al and bl, are then obtained as an algebraic sum of past samples as follows,

al = l [ ( U o - U6) q- 4 ( U I

- U5 - U7 =[- UII) Jr" I(U2 - U4 - U8 -1= UIO)] (4.5)

bl = l [ ( u 3 - U9) -[- 4 ( U 2 q- U4 - U8 - UlO) Jr- 1(UI "4- U5 - U7 - U11)].

116 Thermalpowerplant simulationand control

The time series filter equations (4.5) and (4.6) are executed at every sample interval to provide a moving average of the fundamental components of the periodic waveform, assuming 12 samples per a.c. cycle. If al and bl are the fundamental components of a phase voltage, and Cl and dl of the equivalent phase current then the electrical terminal quantities of voltage (VT), current (IT), real (PT) and reactive power (QT) can be calculated as 1 PT =~(alCl + bldl)

VT=

+ 2b 2

IT=

+d2 2

QT=~(aldl-blCl).

An average value can be taken for each quantity by repeating this process across all three phases. Equivalent expressions may be formed in terms of the fundamental components of the line voltages, since the neutral point of a synchronous machine is generally inaccessible: ~/3(alCl
-

VT:V/~+b26

+bldl)+(aldl - blCl)
4~/3

IT=

?+4
2

~/3(aldl Q~ -

-blCl)-(alCl + b l d l )
4,v/~

4.4.2.2 Measurement of machine speed and rotor angle Measurement of machine speed and rotor angle is achieved here by attaching an aluminium disc, with four slots cut at approximately 90 intervals, Figure 4.7, to the non-drive end of the alternator rotor by a flexible coupling. The disc rotates through Lamps&

_ L _ _ _

\ \" ~ ~.

,M. c,ock ~

Mlcrocontroller

.,

Squared phase voltage

q

Slotteddisc

Machine speed

I l

Rotor angle

Figure4.7 Speedand rotorangle measurement

Generator excitation control using local model networks

117

a fixed head that contains an optical transducer consisting of three lamps, and associated light detectors and circuitry. Each time a slot passes through the fixed head a pulse is generated, triggering the reading of a l MHz counter. A moving average of the last four counts is calculated, corresponding to a complete revolution of the disc, every l0 ms (for a four-pole machine), as a measure of the machine speed. The machine rotor angle is determined in a similar manner to that for speed. A line voltage signal is squared and similarly triggers a further read of the 1 MHz counter. The angle measured is that between the terminal voltage and the generated EME rather than the true transmission angle between the infinite busbar and the generated EMF of the machine. In a power station, the infinite busbar voltage is difficult to measure and so the terminal voltage of the machine would be used instead. This policy has been adopted for measurement of the rotor angle on the micromachine, although the mains signal is available in the laboratory environment.

4.4.2.3

VME hardware system

The measurement and control algorithms have been implemented on a standard VMEbus based system. This structurally open-ended environment is already being used by power system control manufacturers (White et al., 1994), and is well established in many industries. Indeed, the control system has been integrated with and tested on existing industrial implementations (Flynn et al., 1996). The three-phase voltages and currents are sampled using installed instrumentation on the micromachine. The waveforms from the voltage and current transformers are directed through signal conditioning circuits and anti-aliasing low-pass filters, before reaching an analogue I/O board. An Intel 8751 programmable microcontroller generates an interrupt signal at 12 times the system frequency, which triggers the master Motorola 68020 board to read in samples of the filtered electrical waveforms from the analogue I/O board, and to record measurements of machine speed and rotor angle. On completion of a read sequence, the raw values are passed to shared direct memory access (DMA) memory for retrieval by an IMS BO11 T800 transputer. The Fourier measurement algorithm is then performed on the transputer, to produce the four electrical terminal quantities. They are then transmitted along with speed and rotor angle, through a hardware link, to a program running on a TMB04 transputer board. The multitasking parallel implementation of the measurement and control algorithms is facilitated by the use of transputers. The VME transputer can be linked to an external network containing any number of processors. This creates a system with vastly increased computing power, and potentially provides the control systems designer with the opportunity to implement virtually any advanced control strategy.

4.5

Results

Having outlined the development of a local model network controller, the algorithm was subsequently implemented on the VME system using a single transputer module, for testing on the micromachine system. Previously, comprehensive tests

118 Thermal power plant simulation and control were conducted in simulation to ensure both the short-term transient and long-term dynamic stability of the turbo-generator system, following both severe and minor disturbances. During these tests, comparison is made with self-tuning (STR) and fixed gain controller (FGC) schemes. It should be noted that the self-tuning controller is tuned at each operating point, by applying a PRBS input as part of the on-line estimation process, prior to commencing each test. The performance of the controllers is illustrated under the following test conditions: Three-phase-earth short circuit, duration 180 ms, after 2 s, at the sending end of the transmission line system, at an operating point of P'r = 0.8 pu and QT = 0.2 pu. Voltage set-point change of A VTref --0.05 pu after 4 s, and subsequent set-point recovery after 9 s, at an operating point of Pr = 0.6 pu and QT = 0.2 pu. Transformer tap change from position 5 to 6 after 4 s, and from position 6 to 5 after 9 s, at an operating point of PT = 0.5 and QT = 0.1 pu.
-'-

Figures 4.8 and 4.9 illustrate the terminal voltage and rotor angle responses for the three controllers following the three-phase short-circuit at the sending end of the transmission line. While at first sight the main purpose of an automatic voltage regulator should be to minimise deviations of the terminal voltage, its main role is actually to maintain machine rotor angle, and, therefore, to assist in preserving steady-state stability (Hirayama et al., 1993). Paradoxically, reducing the rotor angle oscillations is more important than minimising voltage deviations after a fault condition. From the responses, it is clear that the LMN and self-tuning controllers provide significantly better damping than the fixed gain controller (despite the explicit inclusion of a PSS), with large improvements in the second rotor angle swing and subsequent oscillations. For all controllers the terminal voltage rapidly recovers, following the clearing of the short-circuit. Figure 4.10 shows the FGC, STR and composite LMN controller inputs. The responses are somewhat similar in shape, although the STR is significantly more vigorous - this is partly due to the injection of a PRBS, during the first few seconds, to aid estimation model convergence. Figure 4.11 shows the output of the LMN local controllers, which are subsequently multiplied by the weightings of Figure 4.12, and then combined to form the composite response of Figure 4.10. Prior to the fault, the contribution from controllers 1 and 2 is insignificant, which can be understood by examining the interpolation functions of Figure 4.4a and b. It can be seen in Figure 4.11 that the controller responses vary significantly, confirming the fact that they have been tuned for different nominal operating points. During the fault, the operating point changes rapidly causing highly non-linear behaviour, and the relative contributions of the individual controllers changes significantly, with individual local controllers being phased in and out at various stages of the event. By contrast, the protection software for the self-tuning controller will ensure that the estimator is deactivated during the voltage transients, which effectively freezes the identified model parameters.

Generator excitation control using local model networks

1.3 1.2 1.1

119

o 0.9
>

~ 0.8
0.7 0.6
0.5 i i i i i i

3 Time (s)

Figure 4.8

Three-phase short-circuit- terminal voltage

85 8O 75 70 65 60
. . . . . . . . . .

55 50 45 0
i i L i i h

Time (s)

Figure 4.9

Three-phase short-circuit - rotor angle

120

Thermal power plant simulation and control

5: i

,~.

O >

-2 -3 -4 0 1 2 3
Time (s)

2
1

0 -1 -2 -3 -4 -5
[ I I I I I

Time (s)

Figure 4.10

Three-phase short-circuit- controller outputs

Figures 4.13 and 4.14 illustrate the terminal voltage and rotor angle responses following successive voltage set-point changes. Here, the LMN responses are well damped with a short settling time. The steady-state voltage regulation for all the controllers is acceptable, although the STR response is now more clearly overdamped and, as seen from Figure 4.15, the controller remains vigorous in operation. Figure 4.16

Generator excitation control using local model networks

121

0
o

-2 -3 -4 -5 c Figure 4.10
i t I i i t

Time (s) Three-phase short-circuit - controller outputs (Continued)

[-- lmn controller outputs

2 & ~-o
a<

1 0

-2 -3 -4 -5
L i

11
I

Time (s)

Figure 4. I 1

Three-phase short-circuit - L M N local controller outputs

122

Thermal power plant simulation and control

0,7 0,6 0.5
3
i i ,

[-- lmn controller weights [

0.4 0.3 0.2

ol

._=

e~

2
0~ , 7~
gN i i i

3 Time (s)

Figure 4.12

Three-phase short-circuit - LMN interpolation weightings

1.15
1.14

1.13 "~ 1.12

g 1.11
> 1.1 .3 ~ 1.09
El .08 1.07
i o

5 Time (s) Figure 4.13

10

15

Voltage set-point changes - terminal voltage

Generator excitation control using local model networks

123

54 52 50 48 46
*6 44

42 ~ 40 38
I

..'.

5 Time (s)

10

15

Figure 4.14

Voltage set-point changes - rotor angle

displays the relative contributions of the five local controllers. It is interesting to note that the contribution from controllers 2 and 4 is increased at the higher operating point, i.e. the rotor angle is increased, while that from controllers 3 and 5 is decreased. Finally, the tap change between positions 5 and 6 corresponds to an 8 per cent variation in the output of the delta-star transformer. Figures 4.17 and 4.18 illustrate the voltage and rotor angle responses, with the LMN and STR controllers again providing excellent damping with a very fast transient response. The LMN controller proves slightly better at minimising the rotor swings, with the STR response marginally over-damped. The presence of a PRBS during the first 3-4 seconds can again be seen on the STR responses. Figure 4.19 shows the relative weightings of the LMN local controllers. In a similar manner to the voltage set-point test, the majority of the control signal is formed from models 2, 3 and 5 at the original operating point, while during the transient phase the contribution from controller 2 is significantly reduced, leaving controllers 3 and 5 to each provide approximately 40 per cent of the excitation signal. As a final point, it can be seen that controller 1 does not play a significant role either in steady-state or during transients for any of the test scenarios presented. By examining Figure 4.4a it can be seen that the associated model is centred at an operating point of approximately PT = 0.1 pu and QT = 0.1 pu. This model is required to ensure that the LMN controller is capable of maintaining performance over the entire operating region, however, it is unlikely in practice that the generator will be required to operate at such low output levels.

124

Thermal power plant simulation and control

.6
~o e~ o

l
0

u~

2 -3 -4 -5
i i

5
a

10
Time (s)

15

I--Imnl

~.

Q >

-2 -3 -4

-5 5 b Time (s)

10

15

Figure 4.15

Voltage set-point changes - controller outputs

4.6

Conclusions

Industrial AVR implementations are typically based on proportional filters, and offer relatively crude performance with a steady-state control error and poor regulatory capabilities. Even the fixed gain scheme presented here would provide much improved performance, but requires the availability of an analytical model of the synchronous

Generator excitation control using local model networks

125

~. eo
Q

~,.~

.a,~,~,,~,....~.a~,_~, ,~

.~ -| -2 -3
-4 -5 0
C

' 5 Time (s)

' 10

15

Figure 4.15

Voltage set-point changes - controller outputs (Continued)

0.4 0.35 0.3

3 5

I -- lmn controller weights [

0.25
e~o ..~

0.2 0.15 0.1 0.05 0 0

/~. ,,/N~ f

Time (s)

10

15

Figure 4.16

Voltage set-point changes - L M N interpolation weightings

126

Thermal power plant simulation and control

1.15

1.1

1.05
0

.=. E-

0.95

0.9 0 2 4

6 Time (s)

10

12

14

Figure 4.17

Transformer tap changing - terminal voltage

55

50

45

40
o

35

30

25

6 Time (s)

10

12

14

Figure 4.18

Transformer tap changing - rotor angle

Generator excitation control using local model networks

0.45 - _
r 1 r

127

I-

lmn controller

weights I

0.4 0.35 0.3

.=.
taO

1~ ~

3 2

0.25 0.2 0.15 0.1 0.05 0 0 ~ 2 4 6 8 Time (s)

10

12

14

Figure 4.19

Transformer tap changing - LMN interpolation weightings

machine to determine the control gains. Consequently, a local model network controller has been developed for the excitation loop of a synchronous machine. Using information from plant tests and previous simulation studies, estimates were obtained for the non-linear interpolation regions and the structure of the local linear models. Subsequently, a hybrid optimisation algorithm was applied to provide a parsimonious representation to capture the non-linear dynamics of the system. Generalised minimum variance controllers were then designed for each of the local models. Using a laboratory micromachine setup, the performance of the LMN controller was compared with a GMV self-tuning controller and a fixed gain arrangement comprising an AVR and PSS. A range of tests was performed and the LMN controller provided excellent disturbance rejection and set-point-following capabilities. The performance of the self-tuning controller was comparable with the LMN scheme, but requires significant protection software to safeguard the on-line model estimation. By contrast, the interpolation regions and GMV parameters for the LMN controller were selected off-line, leading to a much more robust implementation, while maintaining performance over the entire operating regime. The LMN approach to improved excitation control is therefore seen as a low-risk option compared with self-tuning control and more complex non-linear techniques such as neural networks.

4.7

References

AHSON, S. I. and HOGG, B. W.: 'Application of multivariable frequency methods to control of turbogenerators', Int. J. Control, 1979, 30, (4), pp. 533-548

128 Thermal power plant simulation and control ASTROM, K. J. and WITTENMARK, B.: 'Adaptive control' (Addison-Wesley, 1989) BAYNE, J. P., KUNDUR, P. and WATSON, W.: 'Static exciter control to improve transient stability', IEEE Trans. Power Apparatus and Systems, 1975, 94, pp. 1141-1146 BROWN, M. D. and IRWIN, G. W.: 'Non-linear identification and control of turbogenerators using local model networks'. 1999 American Control Conference, San Diego, 1999, pp. 4213-4217 BROWN, M. D., LIGHTBODY, G. and IRWIN, G. W.: 'Non-linear internal model control using local model networks', lEE Proceedings Part. D, 1997, 144, (6), pp. 505-514 BROWN, M. D., SWIDENBANK, E. and HOGG, B. W.: 'Transputer implementation of adaptive control for a turbogenerator system', Int. Journal of Electric Power & Energy Systems, 1995, 17, (1), pp. 21-38 FLYNN, D., HOGG, B. W., SWIDENBANK, E. and ZACHARIAH, K. J.: 'A self-tuning automatic voltage regulator designed for an industrial environment', IEEE Transactions on Energy Conversion, 1996, 11, (2), pp. 429-434 FLYNN, D., MCLOONE, S., BROWN, M. D., SWIDENBANK, E., IRWIN, G. W. and HOGG, B. W.: 'Neural control of turbogenerator systems', Automatica, 1997, 33, (11), pp. 1961-1973 HIRAYAMA, H., TONE, Y., TAKAGI, K., MURAKAMI, H., SHIBATA, M., NAGAMURA, H. and TAKAGI, Y.: 'Digital AVR application to power plants', IEEE Transactions on Energy Conversion, 1993, 8, (4), pp. 602-609 HOGG, B. W.: 'Representation and control of turbogenerators in electric power systems', in NICHOLSON, H. (Ed.): 'Modelling of dynamic systems' (P. Peregrinus, London and New York, 1981) pp. 112-149 HUNT, K. J., SBARBARO, D., ZBILOWSKI, R. and GAWTHROP, P. J.: 'Neural networks for control systems - a survey', Automatica, 1992, 28, (6), pp. 108-112 ISERMANN, R. and LACHMANN, K. H.: 'Parameter adaptive control with configuration aids and supervision functions', Automatica, 1985, 21, (6), pp 625-638 KANNIAH, J., MALIK, O. P. and HOPE, G. S.: 'Excitation control of synchronous generators using adaptive regulators', IEEE Trans. Power Apparatus and Systems, 1984, 103, (5), pp. 897-910 MALIK, O. P., MAO, C. X., PRAKASH, K., HOPE, G. and HANCOCK, G.: 'Tests with a microcomputer based adaptive synchronous machine stabilizer on a 400 MW thermal unit', IEEE Transactions on Energy Conversion, 1992, 8, (1), pp. 6-12 MURRAY-SMITH, R. and JOHANSEN, T. A.: 'Multiple model approaches to modelling and control' (Taylor and Francis, London, 1997) UNBEHAUEN, H.: 'Modelling of nonlinear systems'. EURACO Workshop on 'Control of nonlinear systems: theory and applications', Portugal, 1996, pp. 201-218 WELLSTEAD, P. E. and ZARROP, M. B.: 'Self-tuning systems - control and signal processing' (John Wiley, 1991)

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129

WHITE, B. J., ZACHARIAH, K. J. and HINGSTON, R. S.: 'Commissioning of a power system stabilizer using a dynamic signal analyzer'. IEE Control '94, Coventry, 1994, pp. 356-361 WU, Q. H. and HOGG, B. W.: 'Robust self-tuning regulator for a synchronous generator', IEE Proceedings Part. D, 1988, 135, (6), pp 463--473 WU, Q. H. and HOGG, B. W.: 'Laboratory evaluation of adaptive controllers for synchronous generators', Automatica, 1991, 27, (5), pp. 845-852 ZACHARIAH K. J., FINCH, J. W. and FARSI, M.: 'Application of digital selftuning techniques for turbine generator AVRs'. Proc UPEC, Aberdeen, 1990, pp. 623-626