Solar Final File

UTILIZATION OF NON CONVENTIONAL ENERGY SOURCE IN DRIVES LAB FOR INDOOR LIGHTINING
1. NON CONVENTIONAL ENERGY RESOURCES

Energy generated by using wind, tides, solar, geothermal heat, and biomass including farm and animal waste as well as human excreta is known as non -conventional energy. All these sources are renewable or inexhaustible and do not cause environmental pollution. More over they do not require heavy expenditure. 1.1. WIND ENERGY: Wind power is harnessed by setting up a windmill which is used for pumping water, grinding grain and generating electricity. The gross wind power potential of India is estimated to be about 20,000 MW, wind power projects of 970 MW capacities were installed till March. 1998. Areas with constantly high speed preferably above 20 km per hour are well-suited for harnessing wind energy.
1.2 TIDAL ENERGY:

Sea water keeps on rising and falling alternatively twice a day under the influence of gravitational pull of moon and sun. This phenomenon is known as tides. It is estimated that India possesses 8000-9000 MW of tidal energy potential. The Gulf of Kuchchh is best suited for tidal energy.
1.3 SOLAR ENERGY:

Sun is the source of all energy on the earth. It is most abundant, inexhaustible and universal source of energy. AH other sources of energy draw their strength from the sun. India is blessed with plenty of solar energy because most parts of the country receive bright sunshine throughout the year except a brief monsoon period. India has developed technology to use solar energy for cooking, water heating, water dissimilation, space heating, crop drying etc.
1.4 GEO-THERMAL ENERGY:

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Geo-thermal energy is the heat of the earth's interior. This energy is manifested in the hot springs. India is not very rich in this source,
1.5 ENERGY FROM BIOMASS:

Biomass refers to all plant material and animal excreta when considered as an energy source. Some important kinds of biomass are inferior wood, urban waste, bagasse, farm animal and human waste.
2.IMPORTANCE OF NON-CONVENTIONAL SOURCES OF ENERGY:

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1. The non-conventional sources of energy are abundant in nature. According to energy experts the non-conventional energy potential of India is estimated at about 95,000 MW. 2. These are renewable resources. The non-conventional sources of energy can be renewed with minimum effort and money. 3. Non-conventional sources of energy are pollution-free and eco-friendly 4. Solar energy, radiant light and heat from the sun, has been harnessed by humans since ancient times using a range of ever-evolving technologies. Solar energy technologies include solar heating, solar photovoltaics, solar thermal electricity, solar architecture and artificial photosynthesis, which can make considerable contributions to solving some of the most urgent energy problems the world now faces. 5. Solar technologies are broadly characterized as either passive solar or active solar depending on the way they capture, convert and distribute solar energy. Active solar techniques include the use of photovoltaic panels and solar thermal collectors to harness the energy. Passive solar techniques include orienting a building to the Sun, selecting materials with favorable thermal mass or light dispersing properties, and designing spaces that naturally circulate air.
3.SOLAR ENERGY
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In 2011, the International Energy Agency said that "the development of affordable, inexhaustible and clean solar energy technologies will have huge longer-term benefits. It will increase countries energy security through reliance on an indigenous, inexhaustible and mostly import-independent resource, enhance sustainability, reduce pollution, lower the costs of mitigating climate change, and keep fossil fuel prices lower than otherwise. These advantages are global. Hence the additional costs of the incentives for early deployment should be considered learning investments; they must be wisely spent and need to be widely shared". About half the incoming solar energy reaches the Earth's surface.The Earth receives 174 petawatts (PW) of incoming solar radiation (insolation) at the upper atmosphere.Approximately 30% is reflected back to space while the rest is absorbed by clouds, oceans and land masses. The spectrum of solar light at the Earth's surface is mostly spread across the visible and near-infrared ranges with a small part in the near-ultraviolet. Earth's land surface, oceans and atmosphere absorb solar radiation, and this raises their temperature. Warm air containing evaporated water from the oceans rises, causing atmospheric circulation or convection. When the air reaches a high altitude, where the temperature is low, water vapor condenses into clouds, which rain onto the Earth's surface, completing the water cycle. The latent heat of water condensation amplifies convection, producing atmospheric phenomena such as wind, cyclones and anti-cyclones. Sunlight absorbed by the oceans and land masses keeps the surface at an average temperature of 14 C.By photosynthesis green plants convert solar energy into chemical energy, which produces food, wood and the biomass from which fossil fuels are derived.
3.1 YEARLY SOLAR FLUXES & HUMAN ENERGY CONSUMPTION

Solar 3,850,000 EJ[8] Wind 2,250 EJ[9]
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Biomass potential
100300 EJ[10] 510 EJ[11]
Primary energy use (2009) Electricity (2009)
62.5 EJ[12]
3.2 SOLAR ENERGY BASIC PRINCIPLE

Solar power is the conversion of sunlight into electricity. Sunlight can be converted directly into electricity using photovoltaics (PV), or indirectly with concentrated solar power (CSP), which normally focuses the sun's energy to boil water which is then used to provide power. Other technologies also exist, such as Stirling engine dishes which use a Stirling cycle engine to power a generator. Photovoltaics were initially used to power small and medium-sized applications, from the calculator powered by a single solar cell to off-grid homes powered by a photovoltaic array. Solar energy, radiant light and heat from the sun, has been harnessed by humans since ancient times using a range of ever-evolving technologies. Solar energy technologies include solar heating, solar photovoltaics, solar thermal electricity, solar architecture and artificial photosynthesis, which can make considerable contributions to solving some of the most urgent energy problems the world now faces.Solar technologies are broadly characterized as either passive solar or active solar depending on the way they capture, convert and distribute solar energy. Active solar techniques include the use of photovoltaic panels and solar thermal collectors to harness the energy. Passive solar techniques include orienting a building to the Sun, selecting materials with favorable thermal mass or light dispersing properties, and designing spaces that naturally circulate air.
3.3 HOW IS SOLAR ENERGY COLLECTED?

Solar energy can be used to heat a fluid such as water in solar collector panels. Simple types use flat collector panels mounted on a south-facing roof or wall, each with transparent cover to admit sunlight. Water circulates through channels or pipes inside each panel. The inside is usually painted black, because black surfaces readily absorb heat. The water is heated, and then the hot water is pumped to a heat exchanger that extracts the heat for use within the
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house. Solar energy can also be used to generate electricity in photovoltaic (PV) cells. A PV cell may power your calculator. Photovoltaic cells are made of semiconductors, similar to those used to make computer chips. Until recently these cells were very costly to produce. However, they are still only about 1015 per cent efficient. Energy Derivations from Solar Energy: Solar energy can be converted to thermal (or heat) energy and used to: Heat water for use in homes, buildings, or swimming pools. Heat spaces inside greenhouses, homes, and other buildings.
Solar energy can be converted to electricity in two ways:
Photovoltaic (PV devices) or solar cells -This change sunlight directly into electricity. PV systems are often used in remote locations that are not connected to the electric grid. They are also used to power watches, calculators, and lighted road signs.
Solar Power Plants - In this sunlight is converted to electricity indirectly. It is first converted to mechanic energy and later to electric energy. When the heat from solar thermal collectors is used to heat a fluid which produces steam that is used to power generator. Out of the 15 known solar electric generating units operating in the United States at the end of 2006, 10 of these are in California, and 5 in Arizona.
4. SOLAR CELL.
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Figure 1 SOLAR CELL .
Figure 2 MONOCRYSTALLINE SOLAR CHARGER.
Figure 3 PHOTOVOLTAIC CELL.
4.1 MONOCRYSTALLINE SOLAR CELL

Photovoltaic is the direct conversion of light into electricity at the atomic level. Some materials exhibit a property known as the photoelectric effect that causes them to absorb
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photons of light and release electrons. When these free electrons are captured, an electric current results that can be used as electricity. The photoelectric effect was first noted by a French physicist, Edmund Bequerel, in 1839, who found that certain materials would produce small amounts of electric current when exposed to light. In 1905, Albert Einstein described the nature of light and the photoelectric effect on which photovoltaic technology is based, for which he later won a Nobel Prize in physics. The first photovoltaic module was built by Bell Laboratories in 1954. It was billed as a solar battery and was mostly just a curiosity as it was too expensive to gain widespread use. In the 1960s, the space industry began to make the first serious use of the technology to provide power aboard spacecraft. Through the space programs, the technology advanced, its reliability was established, and the cost began to decline. During the energy crisis in the 1970s, photovoltaic technology gained recognition as a source of power for non-space applications.
4.2 WORKING PRINCIPLE OF SOLAR CELL

Sunlight is composed of photons, or particles of solar energy. These photons contain various amounts of energy corresponding to the different wavelengths of the solar spectrum. When photons strike a photovoltaic cell, they may be reflected, pass right through, or be absorbed. Only the absorbed photons provide energy to generate electricity. When enough sunlight (energy) is absorbed by the material (a semiconductor), electrons are dislodged from the material's atoms. Special treatment of the material surface during manufacturing makes the front surface of the cell more receptive to free electrons, so the electrons naturally migrate to the surface. When the electrons leave their position, holes are formed. When many electrons, each carrying a negative charge, travel toward the front surface of the cell, the resulting imbalance of charge between the cell's front and back surfaces creates a voltage potential like the negative and positive terminals of a battery. When the two surfaces are connected through an external load, electricity flows.
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Figure 4 WORKING OF SOLAR CELL
4.3 PHOTOVOLTAIC CELL.
The performance of a photovoltaic array is dependent upon sunlight. Climate conditions (e.g., clouds, fog) have a significant effect on the amount of solar energy received by a photovoltaic array and, in turn, its performance. Most current technology photovoltaic modules are about 10 percent efficient in converting sunlight. Further research is being conducted to raise this efficiency to 20 percent. The photovoltaic cell was discovered in 1954 by Bell Telephone researchers examining the sensitivity of a properly prepared silicon wafer to sunlight. Beginning in the late 1950s, photovoltaic cells were used to power U.S. space satellites (learn more about the history of photovoltaic cells). The success of PV in space generated commercial applications for this technology. The simplest photovoltaic systems power many of the small calculators and wrist watches used everyday. More complicated systems provide electricity to pump water, power communications equipment, and even provide electricity to our homes. The term "photovoltaic" comes from the Greek (phs) meaning "light", and from "Volt", the unit of electro-motive force, the volt, which in turn comes from the last name of
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the Italian physicist Alessandro Volta, inventor of the battery (electrochemical cell). The term "photo-voltaic" has been in use in English since 1849.[1] Photovoltaics is the field of technology and research related to the practical application of photovoltaic cells in producing electricity from light, though it is often used specifically to refer to the generation of electricity from sunlight. Cells can be described as photovoltaic even when the light source is not necessarily sunlight (lamplight, artificial light, etc.). In such cases the cell is sometimes used as a photodetector (for example infrared detectors), detecting light or other electromagnetic radiation The operation of a photovoltaic (PV) cell requires 3 basic attributes: 1. The absorption of light, generating either electron-hole pairs or excitons. 2. The separation of charge carriers of opposite types. 3. The separate extraction of those carriers to an external circuit. In contrast, a solar thermal collector collects heat by absorbing sunlight, for the purpose of either direct heating or indirect electrical power generation. "Photoelectrolytic cell" (photoelectrochemical cell), on the other hand, refers either a type of photovoltaic cell (like that developed by A.E. Becquerel and modern dye-sensitized solar cells) or a device that splits water directly into hydrogen and oxygen using only solar illumination.
4.4 BUILDING BLOCK OF A SOLAR PANEL.
Assemblies of photovoltaic cells are used to make solar modules which generate electrical power from sunlight. Multiple cells in an integrated group, all oriented in one plane, constitute a solar photovoltaic panel or "solar photovoltaic module," as distinguished from a "solar thermal module" or "solar hot water panel." The electrical energy generated from solar modules, referred to as solar power, is an example of solar energy. A group of connected solar modules (such as prior to installation on a pole-mounted tracker system) is called an "array."
5.APPLICATIONS.
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Figure 5 Polycrystalline photovoltaic cells laminated to backing material in a module
Solar cells are often electrically connected and encapsulated as a module. Photovoltaic modules often have a sheet of glass on the front (sun up) side, allowing light to pass while protecting the semiconductor wafers from abrasion and impact due to wind-driven debris, rain, hail, etc. Solar cells are also usually connected in series in modules, creating an additive voltage. Connecting cells in parallel will yield a higher current; however, very significant problems exist with parallel connections. For example, shadow effects can shut down the weaker (less illuminated) parallel string (a number of series connected cells) causing substantial power loss and even damaging the weaker string because of the excessive reverse bias applied to the shadowed cells by their illuminated partners. Strings of series cells are usually handled independently and not connected in parallel, special paralleling circuits are the exceptions. Although modules can be interconnected to create an array with the desired peak DC voltage and loading current capacity, using independent MPPTs (maximum power point trackers) provides a better solution. In the absence of paralleling circuits, shunt diodes can be used to reduce the power loss due to shadowing in arrays with series/parallel connected cells. To make practical use of the solar-generated energy, the electricity is most often fed into the electricity grid using inverters (grid-connected photovoltaic systems); in stand-alone systems,
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batteries are used to store the energy that is not needed immediately. Solar panels can be used to power or recharge portable devices.
6.EFFICIENCY OF SOLAR CELL.
Solar panels on the International Space Station absorb light from both sides. These Bifacial cells are more efficient and operate at lower temperature than single sided equivalents.
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The efficiency of a solar cell may be broken down into reflectance efficiency, thermodynamic efficiency, charge carrier separation efficiency and conductive efficiency. The overall efficiency is the product of each of these individual efficiencies. A solar cell usually has a voltage dependent efficiency curve, temperature coefficients, and shadow angles. Due to the difficulty in measuring these parameters directly, other parameters are measured instead: thermodynamic efficiency, quantum efficiency,integrated quantum efficiency, VOC ratio, and fill factor. Reflectance losses are a portion of the quantum efficiency under "external quantum efficiency". Recombination losses make up a portion of the quantum efficiency, VOC ratio, and fill factor. Resistive losses are predominantly categorized under fill factor, but also make up minor portions of the quantum efficiency, VOC ratio. The fill factor is defined as the ratio of the actual maximum obtainable power to the product of the open circuit voltage and short circuit current. This is a key parameter in evaluating the performance of solar cells. Typical commercial solar cells have a fill factor > 0.70. Grade B cells have a fill factor usually between 0.4 to 0.7. Cells with a high fill factor have a low equivalent series resistance and a high equivalent shunt resistance, so less of the current produced by the cell is dissipated in internal losses. Single pn junction crystalline silicon devices are now approaching the theoretical limiting power efficiency of 33.7%, noted as the ShockleyQueisser limit in 1961. In the extreme, with an infinite number of layers, the corresponding limit is 86% using concentrated sunlight.
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7.COST OF SOLAR CELL.
The cost of a solar cell is given per unit of peak electrical power. Solar-specific feed-in tariffs vary worldwide, and even state by state within various countries. Such feed-in tariffs can be highly effective in encouraging the development of solar power projects.
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High-efficiency solar cells are of interest to decrease the cost of solar energy. Many of the costs of a solar power plant are proportional to the panel area or land area of the plant. A higher efficiency cell may reduce the required areas and so reduce the total plant cost, even if the cells themselves are more costly. Efficiencies of bare cells, to be useful in evaluating solar power plant economics, must be evaluated under realistic conditions. The basic parameters that need to be evaluated are the short circuit current, open circuit voltage. The chart above illustrates the best laboratory efficiencies obtained for various materials and technologies, generally this is done on very small, i.e., one square cm, cells. Commercial efficiencies are significantly lower. Grid parity, the point at which photovoltaic electricity is equal to or cheaper than grid power, can be reached using low cost solar cells. Proponents of solar hope to achieve grid parity first in areas with abundant sun and high costs for electricity such as in California and Japan. Some argue that grid parity has been reached in Hawaii and other islands that otherwise use diesel fuel to produce electricity. George W. Bush had set 2015 as the date for grid parity in the USA. Speaking at a conference in 2007, General Electric's Chief Engineer predicted grid parity without subsidies in sunny parts of the United States by around 2015. The price of solar panels fell steadily for 40 years, until 2004 when high subsidies in Germany drastically increased demand there and greatly increased the price of purified silicon (which is used in computer chips as well as solar panels). The recession of 2008 and the onset of Chinese manufacturing caused prices to resume their decline with vehemence. In the four years after January 2008 prices for solar modules in Germany dropped from 3 to 1 per peak watt. During that same times production capacity surged with an annual growth of more than 50%. China increased market share from 8% in 2008 to over 55% in the last quarter of 2010. Recently, in December 2012 the price of Chinese solar panels had dropped to $0.60/Wp (crystalline modules). Swanson's law, an observation similar to Moore's Law that states that solar cell prices fall 20% for every doubling of industry capacity, has gained recent (as of 2012) media attention, having been featured in an article in the British weekly newspaper The Economist.
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8. LIFESPAN
Most commercially available solar panels are capable of producing electricity for at least twenty years.The typical warranty given by panel manufacturers is over 90% of rated output for the first 10 years, and over 80% for the second 10 years.Panels are expected to function for a period of 30 to 35 years. In the capital city of India, Delhi, citizens can face hours
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without electricity, but they are the lucky ones. In some parts of India it can be days. The basic weakness of the electric supply industry is non-viability of tariff. In 2001-02, the cost of supply was Rs.3.50 a unit while the realization was only Rs.2.40. Free or highly subsidized supply for agriculture and subsidies to domestic consumers have resulted in uneconomic charges for industrial consumers. This policy has driven many industries to depend more and more on self-generation. A second weakness of the Indian situation is under investment in transmission and distribution relative to generation. This is due to the lack of proper return in the investment of the power stations. This leads to the increase in price/unit and making the cost unreasonable for the common man. The use of solar energy for the production of electricity reduces the price/unit as low as 50 paise. The only problem in this procedure is the high installation charges. So, if our engineers work in such a way so as to reduce that cost and in further developments of the equipment, we can definitely meet the power demand in the future and this will be an ENERGY SOLUTION.
8.1 LIMITATIONS OF SOLAR ENERGY:
Earth receives vast solar energy, which is available for free of cost. Solar energy is available in most parts of the world but there are some limitations of solar energy. Low energy density 0.1 to 1 KW/m2. Large area is required to collect the solar energy.
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Direction of rays changes continuously. Energy is not uniform during cloudy weather and not available during the nights. Energy storage is essential. High initial cost. Low efficiency.
8.2 ADVANTAGES:
This system of energy conversion is noise less and cheap. Maintenance cost is low. They have long life. Pollution free. Highly reliable.
9. SOLAR PANEL CONSTRUCTION
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Figure 2 Polycrystalline PV cells connected in a solar panel.
Solar panels use light energy (photons) from the sun to generate electricity through the photovoltaic effect. The majority of modules use wafer-basedcrystalline silicon cells or thin-film cells based on cadmium telluride or silicon. The structural (load carrying) member of a module can either be the top layer or the back layer. Cells must also be protected from mechanical damage and moisture. Most solar panels are rigid, but semiflexible ones are available, based on thin-film cells. These early solar panels were first used in space in 1958. Electrical connections are made in series to achieve a desired output voltage and/or in parallel to provide a desired current capability. The conducting wires that take the current off the panels may contain silver, copper or other non-magnetic conductive transition metals. The cells must be connected electrically to one another and to the rest of the system. Externally, popular terrestrial usage photovoltaic panels use MC3 (older) or MC4 connectors to facilitate easy weatherproof connections to the rest of the system. Bypass diodes may be incorporated or used externally, in case of partial panel shading, to maximize the output of panel sections still illuminated. The p-n junctions of mono-crystalline silicon cells may have adequate reverse voltage characteristics to prevent damaging panel section reverse current. Reverse currents could lead to overheating of shaded cells. Solar cells become less efficient at higher temperatures and installers try to provide good ventilation behind solar panels.
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Some recent solar panel designs include concentrators in which light is focused by lenses or mirrors onto an array of smaller cells. This enables the use of cells with a high cost per unit area (such as gallium arsenide) in a cost-effective way.
9.1 CRYSTALLINE SILICON MODULES:
Most solar modules are currently produced from silicon photovoltaic cells. These are typically categorized as monocrystalline or polycrystallinemodules.
9 . 2 THIN-FILM MODULES:
Third generation solar cells are advanced thin-film cells. They produce high-efficiency conversion at low cost.
9.3 RIGID THIN-FILM MODULES:
In rigid thin film modules, the cell and the module are manufactured in the same production line. The cell is created on a glass substrate or superstrate, and the electrical connections are created in situ, a so-called "monolithic integration". The substrate or superstrate is laminated with an encapsulant to a front or back sheet, usually another sheet of glass. The main cell technologies in this category are CdTe, or a-Si, or a-Si+uc-Si tandem, or CIGS (or variant). Amorphous silicon has a sunlight conversion rate of 6-12%.
9.4 FLEXIBLE THIN-FILM MODULES:
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Flexible thin film cells and modules are created on the same production line by depositing the photoactive layer and other necessary layers on a flexible substrate. If the substrate is an insulator (e.g. polyester or polyimide film) then monolithic integration can be used. If it is a conductor then another technique for electrical connection must be used. The cells are assembled into modules by laminating them to a transparent colourless fluoropolymer on the front side (typically ETFE or FEP) and a polymer suitable for bonding to the final substrate on the other side. The only commercially available (in MW quantities) flexible module uses amorphous silicon triple junction (from Unisolar). So-called inverted metamorphic (IMM) multijunction solar cells made on compoundsemiconductor technology are just becoming commercialized in July 2008. The University of Michigan's solar car that won the North American Solar Challenge in July 2008 used IMM thin-film flexible solar cells. The requirements for residential and commercial are different in that the residential needs are simple and can be packaged so that as solar cell technology progresses, the other base line equipment such as the battery, inverter and voltage sensing transfer switch still need to be compacted and unitized for residential use. Commercial use, depending on the size of the service will be limited in the photovoltaic cell arena, and more complex parabolic reflectors and solar concentrators are becoming the dominant technology. The global flexible and thin-film photovoltaic (PV) market, despite caution in the overall PV industry, is expected to experience a CAGR of over 35% to 2019, surpassing 32 GW according to a major new study by IntertechPira.
9.5 MODULE EMBEDDED ELECTRONICS
Several companies have begun embedding electronics into PV modules. This enables performing maximum power point tracking (MPPT) for each module individually, and the
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measurement of performance data for monitoring and fault detection at module level. Some of these solutions make use of power optimizers, a DC-to-DC converter technology developed to maximize the power harvest from solar photovoltaic systems. As of about 2010, such electronics can also compensate for shading effects, wherein a shadow falling across a section of a panel causes the electrical output of one or more strings of cells in the panel to fall to zero, but not having the output of the entire panel fall to zero.
9.6 MODULE PERFORMANCE AND AGING
Module performance is generally rated under standard test conditions (STC): irradiance of 1,000 W/m, solar spectrum of AM 1.5 and module temperature at 25C. Electrical characteristics include nominal power (PMAX, measured in W), open circuit voltage (VOC), short circuit current (ISC, measured in amperes), maximum power voltage (VMPP), maximum power current (IMPP), peak power, Wp, and module efficiency (%). Nominal voltage refers to the voltage of the battery that the module is best suited to charge; this is a leftover term from the days when solar panels were only used to charge batteries. The actual voltage output of the panel changes as lighting, temperature and load conditions change, so there is never one specific voltage at which the panel operates. Nominal voltage allows users, at a glance, to make sure the panel is compatible with a given system. Open circuit voltage or VOC is the maximum voltage that the panel can produce when not connected to an electrical circuit or system. VOC can be measured with a meter directly on an illuminated panel's terminals or on its disconnected cable.[6] The peak power rating, Wp, is the maximum output according under standard test conditions (not the maximum possible output). Typical panels, which could measure approximately 1x2 meters or 2x4 feet, will be rated from as low as 75 Watts to as high as 350 Watts, depending on their efficiency. At the time of testing, the test panels are binned according to their test results, and a typical manufacturer might rate their panels in 5 Watt increments, and either rate them at +/- 3%, +/-5%, +3/-0% or +5/-0%. Solar panels must withstand rain, hail, and cycles of heat and cold for many years. Many crystalline silicon module manufacturers offer a warranty that guarantees electrical
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production for 10 years at 90% of rated power output and 25 years at 80%. The output power of many panels slowly degrades at about 0.5%/year.
10. RECYCLING
Most parts of a solar module can be recycled including up to 95% of certain semiconductor materials or the glass as well as large amounts of ferrous and non-ferrous metals. [13] Some
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private companies and non-profit organizations are currently engaged in take-back and recycling operations for end-of-life modules Recycling possibilities depend on the kind of technology used in the modules:
Silicon based modules: aluminium frames and junction boxes are dismantled manually at the beginning of the process. The module is then crushed in a mill and the different fractions are separated - glass, plastics and metals.] It is possible to recover more than 80% of the incoming weight.This process can be performed by flat glass recyclers since morphology and composition of a PV module is similar to those flat glasses used in the building and automotive industry. The recovered glass for example is readily accepted by the glass foam and glass insulation industry.
Non-silicon based modules: they require specific recycling technologies such as the use of chemical baths in order to separate the different semiconductor materials. For cadmium telluridepanels, the recycling process begins by crushing the module and subsequently separating the different fractions. This recycling process is designed to recover up to 90% of the glass and 95% of the semiconductor materials contained..Some commercial-scale recycling facilities have been created in recent years by private companies.
Since 2010, there is an annual European conference bringing together manufacturers, recyclers and researchers to look at the future of PV module recycling.
11. PRODUCTION
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Figure 3 The "solar tree", a symbol of Gleisdorf,Austria
In 2010, 15.9 GW of solar PV system installations were completed, with solar PV pricing survey and market research company PVinsights reporting growth of 117.8% in solar PV installation on a year-on-year basis. With over 100% year-on-year growth in PV system installation, PV module makers dramatically increased their shipments of solar panels in 2010. They actively expanded their capacity and turned themselves into gigawatt GW players. According to PVinsights, five of the top ten PV module companies in 2010 are GW players. Suntech, First Solar, Sharp, Yingli and Trina Solar are GW producers now, and most of them doubled their shipments in 2010.
11.1 TOP TEN PRODUCERS
The top ten solar panel producers (by MW shipments) in 2011 were:
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1. Suntech 2. First Solar 3. Sharp Solar 4. Yingli 5. Trina Solar 6. Canadian Solar 7. Hanwha Solarone 8. SunPower 9. Renewable Energy Corporation 10.Solarworld
11.2 MOUNTING SYSTEMS TRACKERS

Solar trackers increase the amount of energy produced per panel at a cost of mechanical complexity and need for maintenance. They sense the direction of the Sun and tilt the panels as needed for maximum exposure to the light.
11.3 FIXED RACKS

Fixed racks hold panels stationary as the sun moves across the sky. The fixed rack sets the angle at which the panel is held. Tilt angles equivalent to an installation's latitude are common. Most of these fixed racks are set on poles above ground.
11.4 GROUND MOUNTED

Ground mounted solar power systems consist of solar panels held in place by racks or frames that are attached to ground based mounting supports. Ground based mounting supports include:
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Pole mounts, which are driven directly into the ground or embedded in concrete. Foundation mounts, such as concrete slabs or poured footings Ballasted footing mounts, such as concrete or steel bases that use weight to secure the solar panel system in position and do not require ground penetration. This type of mounting system is well suited for sites where excavation is not possible such as capped landfills and simplifies decommissioning or relocation of solar panel systems.
11.5 ROOF MOUNTING
Roof-mounted solar power systems consist of solar panels held in place by racks or frames attached to roof-based mounting supports. Roof-based mounting supports include:
Pole mounts, which are attached directly to the roof structure and may use additional rails for attaching the panel racking or frames. Ballasted footing mounts, such as concrete or steel bases that use weight to secure the panel system in position and do not require through penetration. This mounting method allows for decommissioning or relocation of solar panel systems with no adverse effect on the roof structure.
All wiring connecting adjacent solar panels to the energy harvesting equipment must be installed according to local electrical codes and should be run in a conduit appropriate for the climate conditions
Technicians installing photovoltaic panels on a roof-mounted rack A roof-mounted solar panel system installed on a sloped roof using pole mounts and rails.
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16. LAND USE IN SOLAR ENERGY IN COMPARISON TO OTHER ENERGY SOURCES
Solar vs. Wind
Wind turbines can take a lot of space and be noisy, so theyre better suited for rural rather than urban locations.
Wind energy works best in windy places, not surprisingly. Solar power is versatile Germany is currently the largest market for solar panels, even though its not known as a particularly sunny place. In other words: its more important to live in a windy place if you want to use wind turbines than it is to live in a sunny place if you want to use solar panels.
Wind turbines require maintenance, and solar is virtually maintenance-free. Wind power can be less expensive to produce initially. On the other hand, the federal tax credit, state and local incentives, and SRECs are making solar power more affordable. 1BOG is also helping by negotiating group discounts for communities. In some places, you can recoup your investment in solar panels really quickly.
Solar vs. Hydropower
Hydropower is typically done in large-scale dams rather than for homeowners (although someone with a rushing stream or river on their property might be able to use small scale micro-hydro); solar can be used almost anywhere.
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Large dams are extremely expensive to build. Flooding large areas of land destroys habitat and can force human relocation; solar panels can be installed on existing unused space like rooftops.
Building large dams can cause geological damage leading to earthquakes. Dams can unfairly alter water supply between communities and countries. Building dams alters the natural water table level and can negatively affect wildlife such as salmon.
Solar vs. Biomass
Biomass (wood or plants) is usually used for fuels rather than electricity production, though it can be used either way. Right now, most homeowners in the U.S. dont have the option to purchase electricity made from biomass, though its available in a very small number of areas.
Crops like sugar cane and other sources for biomass require land that could otherwise be used for growing food. Algae helps avoid this problem somewhat because it can grow in water. Solar doesnt necessarily need to use land space, since it can go on existing roofs.
Burning biomass creates CO2 emissions, though less than fossil fuels like coal. Solar energy doesnt create emissions as it produces power.
Solar panels have efficiencies as high as 19%, meaning that much of the suns energy is converted into electricity. The efficiency of biomass is much, much lower perhaps less than 1%.
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GRAPH 1. Mean values of land area required to set up a typical power plant for different energy sources
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GRAPH 2. Mean values of direct land transformation associated with coal, nuclear, hydro and solar energy sources
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REQUIREMENT OF LAND IN INDIA FOR FUTURE ELCTRICITY DEMAND
The percentage distribution of Indias land area by landuse type according to the Ministry of Agriculture, New Delhi, is given in Table 4. As India is a densely populated country, the agricultural land and forest cover are necessary for food production and maintaining the ecological balance. Hence, it would be judicious to consider only the installing the solar electricity generation systems.The total area occupied by waste lands and the land not available for cultivation in India is around 951,860 sq. km, i.e. 31.1% of the total land area. As suggested by Sukhatme1, it would be wise for a densely populated country like India to target at a simple lifestyle pattern with an annual per capita electricity consumption of around 2000 kWh, i.e. 3400 TWh per annum for the country as a whole by 2070. Assuming that the installation of a solar power plant, both photovoltaic (PV) and thermal technologies, requires around 2 ha of land area and redoing the calculations by keeping all other assumptions the same as that by Sukhatme1, we determine that 38,813 sq. km of land would be required to meet the projected annual demand of 3400 TWh. That is1.3% of the total land area or 4.1% of the total uncultivable land area, excluding forests and net area sown, isenough to meet the projected demand by solar energy alone. waste lands for
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Figure 6. A concentrator PV power plant installed by Concentrix Solar. This shows that the technology can support multiple land usage. Moreover, there is a possibility in the near future that one can lease only the land required for the tracking tower instead of acquiring a large amountof land from farmers (Figure 6).The present study shows that solar power plants require less land in comparison to hydro power plants, and arecomparable to other energy sources including nuclear andcoal when life-cycle land transformations are considered. In addition, an attempt has been made to show how solarsource differs from other energy sources in the way ituses the land. Because of its unique type of land usage, ithas been argued that land availability may not be a limitingconstraint for the solar source Moreover, it
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shouldalso be noted that viability of solar power vis--vis otherforms of power depends on the trade-offs between manyfactors, such as capital cost, cost of generation, carbonfootprint, land area, potential risk involved in the technology,environmental friendliness and many others, butnot just on one measure. The U.S. supports clean energy and energy efficiency deployment in large part through tax policies. Tax policies have significant drawbacks relative to incentives through direct spending -- they are less transparent and more susceptible to gaming, and they often require net income or profits in order to benefit from them, making them less efficient as a policy tool. However, they have the advantage of being less politically vulnerable than direct spending in the U.S. budget process. States commitment to long-term targets along with yearly targets would encourage developers to invest in RECs. This commitment would, in the long run, also limit boom and bust cycles. A list of remedies may help improve the REC system and resolve these design flaws. As our experience with the Indian system grows, these recommendations are likely to become firmer and more detailed. That said, there are a number of policy recommendations that are clear, even in light of Indias limited history with the REC market. These include: Stricter compliance laws and enforcement measures Without strict compliance laws and enforcement actions on obligated entities, long-term, stable markets are unlikely to develop. SERCs, which are entrusted with the responsibility of enforcing RPO goals, must make sure all the distribution companies and captive consumers meet the RPO requirements. Declaration of long-term targets along with yearly targets The absence of long-term targets raises questions about how long RECs will be available. Once developers and investors believe that REC markets are here to stay, they will value RECs as a financial instrument and will drive investment in renewable energy generation. Long-term targets and consistent polices may also limit boom and bust cycles. Incentives for state compliance Incentives for enforcement agencies and compliant states could push state agencies to enforce RPO goals. Revenue generated through penalty collection could be pooled in a national fund used for this purpose (similar to incentives
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provided by APDRP where 50% of the operational cash loss reduction achieved by SEBs was provided in the form of grants to the states which undertook reforms). Introduction of secondary markets The creation of secondary markets can make RECs bankable by creating stable markets. This could ease some of the risks regarding long-term REC prices for investors and also limit volatility of REC prices. Stronger incentives for new renewable energy sources The current framework doesnt distinguish between established renewable energy sources and new renewable energy sources. Differentiated incentives (in addition to those for solar sources) are needed to encourage new renewable energy sources.
Products Special SPV Mono Special SPV Multi
Inputs / Watt 180W / 190W 230W,240W,

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Price / INR Rs. 34/W 245W,Rs. 32/W
280W,290W SPV Mono SPV Mono SPV Mono SPV Multi SPV Multi SPV Multi Thin Film Multi SPV 10W 20W - 30W 30W - 300W 10W 20W - 30W 30W - 300W 100W TABLE NO1 Rs. 53/W Rs. 43/W Rs. 41/W Rs. 50/W Rs. 40/W Rs. 38/W Rs. 32/W
18. COST EFFECTIVE SOLAR ENERGY AND ADVANCEMENT IN TECHNOLOGIES
Solar energy, the clean and natural source with enormous potential as future energy is an inexhaustible source for decentralised distribution of energy.
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It is observed that the solar energy currently represents less than 1 percent of the global energy supply.
According to sources, about 5000 trillion kWh per year energy is incident over countrys land area and most places receive 4-7 kWh per sq mtr per day.
According to MNRE, renewable energy has the potential to be cost effective with advancement in technologies and economies of scale.
Power generation from renewable is at present generally more expensive than from conventional sources.
The total installed capacity of renewable energy based power in the country is 26,267MW.
A capacity addition of 30,000MW is proposed from renewable energy during the 12th plan period.
The plan proposals envisages 29,800MW grid-interactive and 3267MW off grid power generation capacity addition from various renewable energy sources.
Further 20 million solar lighting systems and 20 million sq solar thermal collector area is envisaged by 2022.
The total installed capacity as on November end stood at 210,936MW and during the month all India peak deficit and peak met resulted into 9573 MW deficit:highest 5852 MW deficit was observed in southern region and lowest 106 MW in north eastern region.
It is advantageous to develop solar technology for maximum exploitation of the potential,India has.
Today, the technology produces less than one-tenth of 1% of the global energy demand.on a much larger scale, solar thermal power plants employ various techniques to concentrate suns energy as a heat source.
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Solar technologies are very expensive .Scientists have developed a new technology for producing solar energy comparitively cheaper by 75%.
19. SOLAR POTENTIAL IN INDIA: SCOPE AND CHALLENGES
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Installed power capacity in India is 187549.6MW out of which renewable energy share is 20162.2MW(nearly 11%).India recieves solar energy equivalent to more than 5.000 trillion units per year. Further the daily average solar energy incident per unit area varies
between 4-7 units,much in accordance with the location. Also most parts of the country have about 300 clear sunny days.All these augur well for solar energy development through well devised policy-cum-programme initiatives. In this context the Jawaharlal Nehru National solar mission(JNMSM) was launched in 2010 and there has been a dramatic change in the way solar technology is percieved. Among the broad targets of the mission capacities of 20,000MW , 100,000MW and 200,000MW are targeted for 2022,2030 &2050 respectively. The period 2022-2050 is expected to generate an investment opportunity of INR 850,000-1,050,000 million.
Realisation of the targets will make india a global leader in solar energy.
REGION SPECIFIC SOLAR ENERGY VARIABILITY
Avability of solar energy is influenced by geographic and climatic factors apart from daily , monthly and annual variations.
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Since the massive investments are involved, it is very important for the government and the private players to perform solar technology performance analyses.
The project developers need to study local conditions with a clockwork precision. Investigation of regional variability of solar energy in our vast country with sparse radiation data from merely 45 stations is futile.Hence the study was carried out with high spatial resolution NASA meteorological dataset that is available for a period of 22 years.
Radiation data was available for over 350 locations in India and monthly maps depicting solar energy availability were created to analyse the regional variability above 5.25kWh/m2/day of global horizontal solar radiation is considered excellent while that from 4-5.25kWh/m2/day is considered good.
It was found that the gangetic plains, the plateau region, the western dry region, Gujarat plains and hill regions, west coast plains, and ghat regions receive annual global insolation above 5kWh/m2/day.
These zones include states of Karnataka, Gujarat, Andhra Pradesh,Maharashtra, Madhya pradesh, Rajasthan, Tamil nadu, Haryana, Punjab, Kerala, Bihar, Uttar pradesh.
The eastern parts of Himachal pradesh, Uttarakhand, and Sikkim which are also solar hotspots.
SOLAR ENERGY :THE HOPE FOR TODAY AND TOMMOROW
Solar hotspots in India uphold the prospects as major hubs of clean power generation to meet the ever increasing electricity demands coupled with the diminishing stock of fossil fuels.
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This necessiates the region specific availability and variability analysis.
SPV: The SPV is a semiconductor based technology , which converts sunlight direct
into electricity.A SPV based system without battery backup on-site may actually be able to provide just about 67.5% of the maximum power output, on a clear sunny day.The EUROPEAN photovoltaic industry Association(EPIA) and Greenpeace predict that by 2050, solar power will meet about 21% of global electricity needs.Also the per peak watt price of solar modules in India is less than INR 100 and is further on a decline.
CSP: While SPV modules are capable of using global solar radiation , direct solar
radiation above 5kWh/m2/day is congenial for CSP applications.Sun rays are concentrated to focus on a point or a line where the boiler unit is placed.Depending on the design of the plants the temperature may vary from 300-1500degree. Heat collected in a CSP plant can be stored in various forms for later use and yhis makes it distinct benefit from SPV technology.Also it is relatively simpler and cost effective
as compared to conventional battery storage that is used with SPV.
19.1 ENERGY SCENARIO IN INDIA
India ranks sixth in the world in total energy consumption .Due to rapid economic development and increasing population in India, energy
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demand has grown at an average of 3.6% per annum over the past few years. Sustained 8% GDP growth of India requires an annual increase of commercial energy supply from 3.7% to 6.1%.
India has increased power capacity from 1,362MW to over 1,62366MW since independence. India is 11th largest economy in the workld ,in terms of purchasing power. At present the total installed capacity of small hydropower projects is 1423MW. India is among the five leading nations in wind power generation.The installed capacity is 1507MW. Out of which , 95% of installed wind power capacity is in the private sector. In rural areas over 3.2 million biogas plants and 33 million improved stoves have been installed . Solar lanterns, home- and street lighting systems , stand alone power plants, and pumping systems are being promoted. Photovoltaic systems based on solar energy have been put to a variety of uses in rural electrification, railway signalling, microwave repeaters power to border outposts and TV transmission and reception. India has electrified more than 50,000 villages but still more than 80,000 villages are yet to be electrified.
20 RENEWABLE ENERGY:
Renewable energy is energy which is generated from natural sources i.e., sun, wind, rain, tides, and can be generated again and again as when required.These are also known as nonPage 41
conventional sources of energy.These are available in plenty and by far most the cleanest sources of energy available on this planet.
20.1 ADVANTAGES
This kind of energy is available locally in the abundant quantity. They stand out as a viable source of clean and limitless energy. They have less carbon emissions, therefore they are considered as green and environment friendly.
Their use can to a large extent reduce chemical, radioactive, and thermal pollution. Renewable sources helps in stimulating the economy and creating job opportunities. Most systems have a life span of 30 to 40 years. Most systems carry a full warranty for 20 to 30 years or more. The technological advancements in solar energy systems have made them extremely cost effective.
OIL PRICE
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20.2 DISADVANTAGES
It is comparatively costlier to set up a plant as the initial costs are quite steep. Solar energy can be used during the day time.
It requires battery for storage for night operation,which increases the installation cost of project.
Not available throughout the day. Intensity variation during different time of year.
21 INSTRUMENTS USED IN THE PROJECT

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1) REGULATOR-IC 7812,CAPACITOR-100 MICROFARAD
2) LEDS-36,1 SINGLE STRIP,12 VOLT
3) SOLAR PANEL-100 Wpeak,20 VOLT,5 AMP
4) CABLE-30 METRE FOR SOLAR TO LOAD
HEIGHT- 2 METRE HEIGHT TO THE GROUND LUX METER-TO CHECK THE ILLUMINANCE
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21.1 LUX METER
A lux meter is a device for measuring brightness, specifically, the intensity with which the brightness appears to the human eye. This is different than measurements of the actual light energy produced by or reflected from an object or light source. A lux meter works by using a photo cell to capture light. The meter then converts this light to an electrical current, and measuring this current allows the device to calculate the lux value of the light it captured. The lux (symbol: lx) is the SI unit of illuminance and luminous emittance, measuring luminous flux per unit area. It is equal to one lumen per square metre. In photometry, this is used as a measure of the intensity, as perceived by the human eye, of light that hits or passes through a surface. One lux is equal to one lumen per square metre: 1 lx = 1 lm/m2
LUX METER
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21.2 MULTIMETER
A multimeter or a multitester, also known as a VOM (Volt-Ohm meter), is an electronic measuring instrument that combines several measurement functions in one unit. A typical multimeter would include basic features such as the ability to measure voltage, current, and resistance. Analog multimeters use a microammeter whose pointer moves over a scale calibrated for all the different measurements that can be made. Digital multimeters (DMM, DVOM) display the measured value in numerals, and may also display a bar of a length proportional to the quantity being measured. Digital multimeters have all but replaced analog moving coil multimeters in most situations. Analog multimeters are still manufactured but by few manufacturers.
A multimeter can be a hand-held device useful for basic fault finding and field service work, or a bench instrument which can measure to a very high degree of accuracy. They can be used to troubleshoot electrical problems in a wide array of industrial and household devices such as electronic equipment, motor controls, domestic appliances, power supplies, and wiring systems.
Multimeters are available in a wide range of features and prices. Cheap multimeters can cost less than US$10, while the top of the line multimeters can cost more than US$5,000.
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21.3 LIGHT EMITTING DIODES
A light-emitting diode (LED) is a semiconductor light source. LEDs are used as indicator lamps in many devices and are increasingly used for other lighting. When a light-emitting diode is forward-biased (switched on), electrons are able to recombine with electron holes within the device, releasing energy in the form of photons. This effect is called electroluminescence and the color of the light (corresponding to the energy of the photon) is determined by the energy gap of the semiconductor. A LED is often small in area (less than 1 mm2 pattern.
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LED STRIP
It contains 36 LEDs.
Each LED is of 3.5 watt.
Cost of one LED is Rs-110 only.
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UTILIZATION OF NON CONVENTIONAL ENERGY SOURCE IN DRIVES LAB FOR INDOOR LIGHTINING

1. NON CONVENTIONAL ENERGY RESOURCES

1.2 TIDAL ENERGY:

1.3 SOLAR ENERGY:

1.4 GEO-THERMAL ENERGY:

1.5 ENERGY FROM BIOMASS:

2.IMPORTANCE OF NON-CONVENTIONAL SOURCES OF ENERGY:

3.1 YEARLY SOLAR FLUXES & HUMAN ENERGY CONSUMPTION

100300 EJ[10] 510 EJ[11]

Primary energy use (2009) Electricity (2009)

3.2 SOLAR ENERGY BASIC PRINCIPLE

3.3 HOW IS SOLAR ENERGY COLLECTED?

Solar energy can be converted to electricity in two ways:

Figure 1 SOLAR CELL .

Figure 2 MONOCRYSTALLINE SOLAR CHARGER.

Figure 3 PHOTOVOLTAIC CELL.

4.1 MONOCRYSTALLINE SOLAR CELL

4.2 WORKING PRINCIPLE OF SOLAR CELL

Figure 4 WORKING OF SOLAR CELL

4.3 PHOTOVOLTAIC CELL.

4.4 BUILDING BLOCK OF A SOLAR PANEL.

Figure 5 Polycrystalline photovoltaic cells laminated to backing material in a module

6.EFFICIENCY OF SOLAR CELL.

7.COST OF SOLAR CELL.

8.1 LIMITATIONS OF SOLAR ENERGY:

9. SOLAR PANEL CONSTRUCTION

Figure 2 Polycrystalline PV cells connected in a solar panel.

9.1 CRYSTALLINE SILICON MODULES:

9.3 RIGID THIN-FILM MODULES:

9.4 FLEXIBLE THIN-FILM MODULES:

9.5 MODULE EMBEDDED ELECTRONICS

9.6 MODULE PERFORMANCE AND AGING

Figure 3 The "solar tree", a symbol of Gleisdorf,Austria

11.1 TOP TEN PRODUCERS

11.2 MOUNTING SYSTEMS TRACKERS

11.3 FIXED RACKS

11.4 GROUND MOUNTED

11.5 ROOF MOUNTING

16. LAND USE IN SOLAR ENERGY IN COMPARISON TO OTHER ENERGY SOURCES

Solar vs. Wind

Solar vs. Hydropower

Solar vs. Biomass

REQUIREMENT OF LAND IN INDIA FOR FUTURE ELCTRICITY DEMAND

Products Special SPV Mono Special SPV Multi

Inputs / Watt 180W / 190W 230W,240W,

Price / INR Rs. 34/W 245W,Rs. 32/W

18. COST EFFECTIVE SOLAR ENERGY AND ADVANCEMENT IN TECHNOLOGIES

19. SOLAR POTENTIAL IN INDIA: SCOPE AND CHALLENGES

REGION SPECIFIC SOLAR ENERGY VARIABILITY

SOLAR ENERGY :THE HOPE FOR TODAY AND TOMMOROW

This necessiates the region specific availability and variability analysis.

as compared to conventional battery storage that is used with SPV.

19.1 ENERGY SCENARIO IN INDIA

21 INSTRUMENTS USED IN THE PROJECT

1) REGULATOR-IC 7812,CAPACITOR-100 MICROFARAD

2) LEDS-36,1 SINGLE STRIP,12 VOLT

3) SOLAR PANEL-100 Wpeak,20 VOLT,5 AMP

4) CABLE-30 METRE FOR SOLAR TO LOAD

21.1 LUX METER

21.3 LIGHT EMITTING DIODES

Each LED is of 3.5 watt.

Cost of one LED is Rs-110 only.

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