You are on page 1of 17

17

r chapters; th
Figure 3.1).
Figure 3.2
44168_C003.indd 17 10/3/07 10:44:20 AM
Copyright 2008 by Taylor and Francis Group, LLC
18 Industrial Process Sensors
section 3.4.6).
Compression
Waves
Figure 3.1 Te ringing of a mechanical bell creates sound waves.
0 ms
0.73 ms
1.47 ms
2.21 ms
2.94 ms
P(x)
P(x)
P(x)
P(x)
P(x)
0 1 2 Meters
Figure 3.2 Te propagation of pressure waves through air, shown at fve diferent instants in
time. Te dots represent molecules of air, which move forward and backward along the direction
of propagation. Te local compression of air molecules causes variations in the pressure P(x),
which is shown as a function of position x.
44168_C003.indd 18 10/3/07 10:44:24 AM
Copyright 2008 by Taylor and Francis Group, LLC
Sound and Wave Phenomena 19
see chapter 4)
section 3.4.3)
Figure 3.4.
f
T

1
(a)
( b)
Figure 3.3 Two types of wave: (a) longitudi-
nal; (b) transverse.
44168_C003.indd 19 10/3/07 10:44:27 AM
Copyright 2008 by Taylor and Francis Group, LLC
20 Industrial Process Sensors
T
(a)
(b)

Time Axis
Position Axis
A
Peak-to-Peak Amplitude
Figure 3.4 A continuous wave at a single frequency: (a) the time dependence of a wave mea-
sured at a fxed point; the amplitude A and the peak-to-peak amplitudes are shown; the period
T is the time interval between zero crossings at the axis (or equivalently, the interval between
any two successive points of the wave that have the same phase); (b) Te position dependence of
a wave at a single instant in time; the wavelength is the distance between zero crossings at the
axis (or equivalently, the distance between any two successive points of the wave that have the
same phase).
Continuous Wave (CW)
Pulse
Tone Burst
Asymmetric Pulse
Figure 3.5 Four varieties of wave shape, as discussed in the text.
44168_C003.indd 20 10/3/07 10:44:34 AM
Copyright 2008 by Taylor and Francis Group, LLC
Sound and Wave Phenomena 21
in chapter 8.
section 3.6)

2
2 2
2
2
1
x c t

_
,

( , ) sin( ) x t A kx t +
( , ) sin( ) x t A kx t + +
c
k


44168_C003.indd 21 10/3/07 10:44:40 AM
Copyright 2008 by Taylor and Francis Group, LLC
22 Industrial Process Sensors


2
2
f
T
k
2

c f


( , )
( )
x t e
i kx t

+
e i
i
+ cos sin



( ) ( )
( )
t A e e d
i i t

1
2
A e t e d
i i t
( ) ( )
( )

1
2
44168_C003.indd 22 10/3/07 10:44:50 AM
Copyright 2008 by Taylor and Francis Group, LLC
Sound and Wave Phenomena 23
It should be evident that the wave shapes shown in Figure 3.5 can be transformed into
Fourier components using equation 3.11; since each of the components is a solution of
the wave equation, it follows that these other wave shapes are also solutions of the wave
equation.
c
k
g

sed in chapter 8).


z c
44168_C003.indd 23 10/3/07 10:44:52 AM
Copyright 2008 by Taylor and Francis Group, LLC
24 Industrial Process Sensors
c
n
n
c
2
1
2
1

_
,


2
2
1
1

_
,

n
n
sin sin
2
1
2
1

n
n

1

1

2
n
1
n
2
Nodes
Antinodes
3
Beat
(a) (b)
(c) (d)
(e) (f )
Figure 3.6 Generic wave phenomena: (a) refection and refraction; (b) the superposition of two
colliding waves; (c) the interference of two waves (the dotted and dashed lines) causes cancellation
(solid line) at this moment in time; (d) a standing wave; (e) the beat signal caused by combining
two signals of diferent frequencies (as in heterodyning); (f) the resonance of a cavity.
44168_C003.indd 24 10/3/07 10:44:58 AM
Copyright 2008 by Taylor and Francis Group, LLC
Sound and Wave Phenomena 25

c
n
n

_
,

arcsin
2
1
+
1 2
sin( ) sin( ) sin( ) [ sin( kx t kx t kx t kx + + + t)] 0
sin( ) sin( ) cos sin kx t kx t kx + +

_
,

+

2
2
tt +

_
,

2
44168_C003.indd 25 10/3/07 10:45:04 AM
Copyright 2008 by Taylor and Francis Group, LLC
26 Industrial Process Sensors
sin( ) sin( ) sin si

1 2
1 2
2
2
t t t +

_
,

1
]
1
nn

1 2
2
+

_
,

1
]
1
t
A B
Dead Zones
Figure 3.7 Two speakers that emit the same tone create an interference pattern that includes
dead zones in which the sound is reduced.
44168_C003.indd 26 10/3/07 10:45:07 AM
Copyright 2008 by Taylor and Francis Group, LLC
Sound and Wave Phenomena 27
f
c c
cT v T
c
c v T
c
c v
d
d s s s

_
,

_
,

( )
1

_
,

f
s
A B C
Wavefronts
Figure 3.8 A Doppler shif caused by motion of the source A moving away from observer B and
toward observer C.
44168_C003.indd 27 10/3/07 10:45:10 AM
Copyright 2008 by Taylor and Francis Group, LLC
28 Industrial Process Sensors
f
c v
c v
f
d
d
s
s

_
,

f
c v
c v
f
d
d
s
s

_
,

f f
d s

_
,

1
1

f f
c v
c
f
d s s

_
,

( ) 1
f f
d s
1
2

44168_C003.indd 28 10/3/07 10:45:17 AM


Copyright 2008 by Taylor and Francis Group, LLC
Sound and Wave Phenomena 29
Nodal Line
Beam
Diracted
Beam
Aperture
Incident
Wave
Huygens
Waves
Figure 3.9 Difraction of a wave by an aperture. Wave fronts are represented by solid lines,
and troughs are represented by dashed lines. Many of the Huygens waves have been omitted for
clarity.
44168_C003.indd 29 10/3/07 10:45:18 AM
Copyright 2008 by Taylor and Francis Group, LLC
30 Industrial Process Sensors
Wavefronts
Huygens Waves
Direction of
Propagation
Figure 3.10 Reconstruction of wavefronts by Huygens waves.
Angle
Intensity
Figure 3.11 A representative polar plot. Te
solid line represents the intensity of the wave as
a function of angle.
44168_C003.indd 30 10/3/07 10:45:20 AM
Copyright 2008 by Taylor and Francis Group, LLC
Sound and Wave Phenomena 31
P
A A
( )

_
,

dP
d
0
44168_C003.indd 31 10/3/07 10:45:24 AM
Copyright 2008 by Taylor and Francis Group, LLC
32 Industrial Process Sensors
A A A + x x x
x

0 0
( ) ( )
(
A A A
A
x x x
x
+ +

_
,

AA A
A A A A + + + x x x
x
x
x
) ( ) ( )

0 0
+ + +

0 0 0 A A
( )
x x

A A
+ ( )
0 0
x x
x
(x, t)
(x + x, t)
x
Figure 3.12 Te volume element of air used
in the derivation of the wave equation for sound.
Te dimension along the x axis is greatly exag-
gerated for clarity.
44168_C003.indd 32 10/3/07 10:45:31 AM
Copyright 2008 by Taylor and Francis Group, LLC
Sound and Wave Phenomena 33
A A A
A
P
P
x
x
P
x
x

( ) ( )

0
2
2
( ) ( ) A A
A
x
t
P
x
x

0
2
2
0
t
P
x x x x

_
,


A A

0
2
2
x

2
2 2
2
2
1
x c t

_
,

SuggestedReading
44168_C003.indd 33 10/3/07 10:45:37 AM
Copyright 2008 by Taylor and Francis Group, LLC

You might also like