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) cos( ) (
0
+ = t A t x
A
) sin( ) (
0
+ = t A t x
2
rad/sec 2
0 0
f =
Hz
0
f
A
13
RMIT University2013 EEET2369 Signals and Systems 25
Trigonometric Identities
The following trigonometric identities are often used to simplify
mathematical representations of sine and cosine signals to aid
in analysis.
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
) ( sin ) ( cos ) 2 cos(
2 2
=
1 ) ( cos ) ( sin
2 2
= +
) cos( ) sin( 2 ) 2 sin( =
) sin( ) cos( ) cos( ) sin( ) sin( b a b a b a =
) sin( ) sin( ) cos( ) cos( ) cos( b a b a b a m =
( ) ) 2 cos( 1
2
1
) ( cos
2
+ =
( ) ) 2 cos( 1
2
1
) ( sin
2
=
RMIT University2013 EEET2369 Signals and Systems 26
Example 2-1: Plotting Sinusoids
Plot the function:
What is the amplitude?
What is the frequency?
A single period of this waveform is?
And what is its phase-shift? (in radians and degrees):
] 4 . 0 ) 40 ( 2 cos[ 20 ) ( = t t x
14
RMIT University2013 EEET2369 Signals and Systems 27
So far.
So far we have looked at the classification of signals and
systems and seen some examples of these.
Weve also reviewed sinusoidal signals and the parameters
that define the phase, frequency and amplitudes of sinusoids.
In the next part of this lecture we will look at some of the
manipulations that can be performed on signals, how to
mathematically represent these and how these manipulations
can be recognised from the signals mathematical form.
RMIT University2013 EEET2369 Signals and Systems 28
Manipulation of Signals
Its good to be able to identify certain manipulations to a base
signal function by observing changes to its mathematical form.
Changes to a signal can easily be identified by observing the
mathematical function that defines a signal.
Changes to time-delay/phase, amplitude, frequency (in periodic
functions) or dilation/contraction can easily be identified from
observations about the function.
15
RMIT University2013 EEET2369 Signals and Systems 29
Time-Shifting Signals
In the sinusoid example we saw a phase-shift of a sine wave
will give some sort of time-shift in either the positive or negative
time direction.
There are some basic rules for time-shifting that apply to all
signals and will be used a great deal this semester.
Lets consider a simple square pulse:
=
elsewhere , 0
2 t 0 , 1
) (t x
RMIT University2013 EEET2369 Signals and Systems 30
Time-Shifting Signals
What will look like? ) 3 ( + t x ) 2 ( t x What will look like?
16
RMIT University2013 EEET2369 Signals and Systems 31
Time-Shifting Signals (cont)
What will look like? ) 3 ( + t x ) 2 ( t x What will look like?
=
elsewhere , 0
4 t 2 , 1
) 2 (t x
= +
elsewhere , 0
1 t 3 - , 1
) 3 (t x
What general rule can we apply here?
RMIT University2013 EEET2369 Signals and Systems 32
Relating Phase-Shift (in Periodic Functions) to Time-Shift
For the previous sinusoid example:
we can use the rules for time-shifting a signal to say this is the
same as: .
i.e.
In general, to relate phase-shift to time-shift we can use:
] 4 . 0 ) 40 ( 2 cos[ 20 ) ( = t t x
)] 005 . 0 )( 40 . 2 cos[( 20 ) ( = t t x
A time-shift of 0.005 sec
in the +ve direction
original as same ] 4 . 0 ) 40 ( 2 cos[ 20 ) (
)] 2 . 0 ( 2 ) 40 ( 2 cos[ 20 ) (
)] 005 . 0 ( 40 2 40 2 cos[ 20 ) (
)] 005 . 0 )( 40 . 2 cos[( 20 ) (
=
=
=
=
t t x
t t x
t t x
t t x
0
2 f
T
=
17
RMIT University2013 EEET2369 Signals and Systems 33
Time-Flipping Signals
What will look like? What will look like? ) 3 ( t x ) ( t x
RMIT University2013 EEET2369 Signals and Systems 34
What will look like?
Time-Flipping Signals (cont)
What will look like? ) 3 ( t x ) ( t x
=
elsewhere , 0
3 t 1 , 1
) 3 ( t x
=
elsewhere , 0
0 t 2 - , 1
) ( t x
What general rule can we apply here?
18
RMIT University2013 EEET2369 Signals and Systems 35
Time-Scaling of Signals
What will look like? And finally ? ( ) 2 / t x ) 3 ( t x
RMIT University2013 EEET2369 Signals and Systems 36
What will look like?
Time-Scaling of Signals (cont)
What will look like? ( ) 2 / t x ) 3 ( t x
=
elsewhere , 0
4 t 0 , 1
) 2 / (t x
What general rule can we apply here?
=
elsewhere , 0
667 . 0 t 0 , 1
) 3 ( t x
19
RMIT University2013 EEET2369 Signals and Systems 37
Time-Scaling of Signals (cont)
Discuss if this rule would still apply for periodic functions.
What would you predict will occur when applying this to
periodic functions?
Write down your predictions. Speak to people near you if youd
like.
RMIT University2013 EEET2369 Signals and Systems 38
Other Common Signals (Briefly)
Unit step function (a.k.a. Heaviside step function): this
function is often used to help define signals that begin at a
certain time and stay on for an infinite duration after that
specified time.
<
= =
0 t , 0
0 , 1
) ( ) (
t
t u t x
20
RMIT University2013 EEET2369 Signals and Systems 39
Other Common Signals (Briefly)
Real exponent:
Where is a real number
(either positive or negative)
a
at
e t x = ) (
RMIT University2013 EEET2369 Signals and Systems 40
Other Common Signals (Briefly)
Rectangular pulse:
Where T is the width of the rectangular pulse and A is the
amplitude of the pulse.
(
\
|
|
\
|
+ = = T t u T t u A t A t x
T
2
1
2
1
) ( ) (
21
RMIT University2013 EEET2369 Signals and Systems 41
Other Common Signals (Briefly)
Impulse function (a.k.a. Dirac delta function):
One of the most important functions in signal processing.
Properties include:
At t = 0 sec the amplitude of a delta function is infinite:
The area under a delta function is always unity:
)
`
=
= =
elsewhere , 0
0 t ,
) ( ) ( t t x
= ) 0 (
Function only
defined at
time = 0 sec
=1 ) ( dt t
RMIT University2013 EEET2369 Signals and Systems 42
Other Common Signals (Briefly)
Impulse function continued:
The impulse function is a theoretical function; It cannot be
realised in a practical situation!
It would be impossible to produce a real signal that is infinitely
tall and infinitely narrow.
Some approximations of an impulse function include a very
narrow, weighted square pulse or a weighted triangle pulse.
22
RMIT University2013 EEET2369 Signals and Systems 43
Other Common Signals (Briefly)
Why are these impulse approximations weighted?
Consider the Dirac Delta property when answering
this.
=1 ) ( dt t
Why 1/(2a)?? Why 1/a??
RMIT University2013 EEET2369 Signals and Systems 44
Other Common Signals (Briefly)
Ramp function: The ramp function starts at and
monotonically increases in amplitude when .
<
=
0 t , 0
0 ,
) (
t t
t x
sec 0 = t
sec 0 t
23
RMIT University2013 EEET2369 Signals and Systems 45
Readings for next week
For next week its highly recommended that you read the
following sections in the McClellan textbook (Signal Processing
First):
Complex exponentials and phasors (sections 2-5 to 2-6)
Introduction to spectra (section 3-1)
E-mail me if you have any questions
about this reading and I will make
sure your issues are addressed next
lecture:
katrina.neville@rmit.edu.au
RMIT University2013 EEET2369 Signals and Systems 46
Finally
This lecture has given an introduction to signals and systems.
We have looked at the definitions of signals and systems and
looked at examples of commonly used signals and systems.
The concept of analogue, digital and discrete-time have been
introduced.
In the second part of the lecture we looked at some basic
manipulations of signals and how we can mathematically
represent these manipulations.
Finally we were introduced to some common signals that will
often appear in the signal processing field.