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Acknowledgements v
Introduction 1
The special role of logic in rational inquiry . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1
Why learn an artificial language? . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2
Consequence and proof . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4
Instructions about homework exercises (essential!) . . . . . . . . . . 5
To the instructor . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10
Web address . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15
I Propositional Logic 17
1 AtomicSentences 19
1.1 Individual constants . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 19
1.2 Predicate symbols . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 20
1.3 Atomic sentences . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 23
1.4 General first-order languages . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 28
1.5 Function symbols (optional) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 31
1.6 The first-order language of set theory (optional) . . . . . . . . 37
1.7 The first-order language of arithmetic (optional) . . . . . . . . 38
1.8 Alternative notation (optional) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 40
2 TheLogic of Atomic Sentences 41
2.1 Valid and sound arguments . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 41
2.2 Methods of proof . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 46
2.3 Formal proofs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 54
2.4 Constructing proofs in Fitch . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 58
2.5 Demonstrating nonconsequence . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 63
2.6 Alternative notation (optional) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 66
3 TheBooleanConnectives 67
3.1 Negation symbol: . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 68
3.2 Conjunction symbol: . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 71
3.3 Disjunction symbol: . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 74
3.4 Remarks about the game . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 77
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3.5 Ambiguity and parentheses . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 79
3.6 Equivalent ways of saying things . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 82
3.7 Translation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 84
3.8 Alternative notation (optional) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 89
4 TheLogic of Boolean Connectives 93
4.1 Tautologies and logical truth . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 94
4.2 Logical and tautological equivalence . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 106
4.3 Logical and tautological consequence . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 110
4.4 Tautological consequence in Fitch . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 114
4.5 Pushing negation around (optional) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 117
4.6 Conjunctive and disjunctive normal forms (optional) . . . . . . 121
5 Methods of Proof for Boolean Logic 127
5.1 Valid inference steps . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 128
5.2 Proof by cases . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 131
5.3 Indirect proof: proof by contradiction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 136
5.4 Arguments with inconsistent premises (optional) . . . . . . . . 140
6 FormalProofs and Boolean Logic 142
6.1 Conjunction rules . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 143
6.2 Disjunction rules . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 148
6.3 Negation rules . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 154
6.4 The proper use of subproofs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 163
6.5 Strategy and tactics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 167
6.6 Proofs without premises (optional) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 173
7 Conditionals 176
7.1 Material conditional symbol: . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 178
7.2 Biconditional symbol: . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 181
7.3 Conversational implicature . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 187
7.4 Truth-functional completeness (optional) . . . . . . . . . . . . . 190
II Quantifiers 225
9 Introduction to Quantification 227
9.1 Variables and atomic wffs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 228
9.2 The quantifier symbols: , . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 230
9.3 Wffs and sentences . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 231
9.4 Semantics for the quantifiers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 234
9.5 The four Aristotelian forms . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 239
9.6 Translating complex noun phrases . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 243
9.7 Quantifiers and function symbols (optional) . . . . . . . . . . . 251
9.8 Alternative notation (optional) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 255
10 The Logic of Quantifiers 257
10.1 Tautologies and quantification . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 257
10.2 First-order validity and consequence . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 266
10.3 First-order equivalence and DeMorgans laws . . . . . . . . . . 275
10.4 Other quantifier equivalences (optional) . . . . . . . . . . . . . 280
10.5 The axiomatic method (optional) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 283
11 Multiple Quantifiers 289
11.1 Multiple uses of a single quantifier . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 289
11.2 Mixed quantifiers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 293
11.3 The step-by-step method of translation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 298
11.4 Paraphrasing English . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 300
11.5 Ambiguity and context sensitivity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 304
11.6 Translations using function symbols (optional) . . . . . . . . . 308
11.7 Prenex form (optional) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 311
11.8 Some extra translation problems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 315
12 Methods of Proof for Quantifiers 319
12.1 Valid quantifier steps . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 319
12.2 The method of existential instantiation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 322
12.3 The method of general conditional proof . . . . . . . . . . . . . 323
12.4 Proofs involving mixed quantifiers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 329
12.5 Axiomatizing shape (optional ) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 338
13 Formal Proofs and Quantifiers 342
13.1 Universal quantifier rules . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 342
13.2 Existential quantifier rules . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 347
13.3 Strategy and tactics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 352
13.4 Soundness and completeness (optional) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 361
Contents
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