CHAPTER I PRELIMINARIES In this chapter, we present some basic definitions of Algebra which are essential for this dissertation.

. DEFINITION: 1.1 A non- empty set G on which there is defined a binary operation is called a group with respect to this operation, if the

following conditions are satisfied. i. Closure property: If a, b G then a b G. ii. Associative property : If a, b, cG then a (b c)=(a b) c. iii. Existence of identity : There exist an element e in G such that a e= e a=a, for every element in G. iv. Existence of inverse : For every aG there exist an element a in G such that a a=a a=e.

DEFINITION: 1.2 A group G is said to be abelian (or commutative) if for every a,bG, a.b=b.a A group which is not abelian, is called non-abelian. DEFINITION: 1.3 A non- empty subset H of a group G is said to be a subgroup of G, iff a, bH. ab-1H, HG. DEFINITION: 1.4 A non-empty set G together with a binary composition .is called a semi-group if a.(b.c) = (a.b).c for all a, b, cG.obviously then every group is a semi group. DEFINITION: 1.5 If G is a group with identity element e then the subset {e} and G are trivially subgroups of G and we call them the trivial subgroups. All other subgroups will be called non-trivial (or proper subgroups) DEFINITION: 1.6 A subgroup H of a group G is called a normal subgroup of G if Ha=aH for all aG. A normal subgroup is also called invariant or self conjugate subgroup.

DEFINITION: 1.7 A normal subgroup H of a group G is called a maximal normal subgroup of G if H G and there exists no normal subgroup K of G such that, HKG. Thus H G is a maximal normal subgroup of G if whenever K<G such that, HKG then either K=H or K=G. In fact, a subgroup H G is called maximal subgroup of G if whenever H KG then either K=G or K=H . DEFINITION: 1.8 A group having no proper normal subgroups is called a simple group. DEFINITION: 1.9 Let G be a group, N is a normal subgroup of G. then G/N is called the Quotient Group, when G/N is defined as the collection of all cosets of N in G. i.e, G/N ={ Na / aG }. DEFINITION: 1.10

Let G be a group. If for some a G, every element xG is of the form an= x for n is a smallest positive integer, then G is called a Cyclic group. Here a is called the generator. The cyclic group is denoted by G = <a>or (a). DEFINITION: 1.11 If S and T are non-empty sets, then a mapping from S to T is a subset, M of Sx T such that for every s S there is a unique element tT such that the ordered pair (s, t) is in M. DEFINITION: 1.12 The mapping of S intoT is said to be a One- to- One mapping, if whenever S1 S2, then S1 S2. DEFINITION: 1.13 The mapping of S into T is said to be onto T, if given t T there exist an element s S such that t=s. DEFINITION: 1.14 If is a One -to - One mapping of S onto T, then is called a One - to - One Correspondence between S and T. DEFINITION: 1.15 A one - to - one and onto mapping from a finite set onto itself is called Permutation.

Collection of permutation will from a group. DEFINITION: 1.16 A group Pn of all permutations of degree n is called the Symmetric group of degree n or the symmetric group of order n !.

DEFINITION: 1.17 Let G be a group A sequence of subgroups {e}= G0G1G2 Gn= G(1) is called a normal series of G if Gi is a normal subgroup of Gi+1, i=0,1,2.,n-1 The factor (quotient) groups Gi+1 (i) are called the factors of the normal series. Gi

Here each Gi is normal in Gi+1, although it may not be normal in G.Also it is possible that Gi=Gi+1 for some i The number of distinct members of (1) excluding G is called the length of the normal series. DEFINITION: 1.18 Let N= { G0, G1,G} be a subnormal series of a group G then a subnormal series M= {H0,H1,H} is said to be a refinement of N if NM .

DEFINITION: 1.19 A refinement M of N is said to be a proper refinement, if NM but NM.

DEFINITION: 1.20 In a group (G, ), the descending sequence of sets G=H0H1...Hn = {e} is called a Composition series.
i.

(Hi, ) is a subgroup of (G, ) (Hi, ) is a normal subgroup of(Hi-1 , )

ii.

iii. The normal series G = H0H1Hn= {e} has no proper refinement. DEFINITION: 1.21 A subnormal series {Hi} of group G is a composition series if all the factor groups Hi+1/Hi are simple. A normal series { Hi} of G is a principal or chief series if all the factor groups Hi+1/ Hi are simple. DEFINITION: 1.22

A Subnormal (or sub invariant ) series of a group G is a finite sequence H0,H1,.Hn of subgroups of G such that Hi<Hi+1 and Hi is a normal subgroup of Hi+1 with H0={e} and Hn=G. DEFINITION: 1.23 A normal (or invariant ) series of G is a finite sequence H0,H1,.Hn of normal subgroups of G such that Hi<Hi+1, H0={e} and Hn=G DEFINITION: 1.24 A mapping : G G is said to be Homomorphism, if for all a,b G, (ab) = (a) . (b). DEFINITION: 1.25 Let : G G is a homomorphism. Then the set {X G / (x) = e} is called the Kernel of and is denoted by K. K = {X G / (x) = e }. DEFINITION: 1.26 Two subnormal (normal) series {Hi} and {kj} of the same group G are isomorphic if there is one to one correspondence

between the collections of factor groups {Hi+1/Hi} and {Ki+1 / Kj} such that corresponding factor groups are isomorphic. Clearly, two isomorphic subnormal (normal) series must have the same number of groups.

DEFINITION: 1.27 A homomorphism : G G is said to be an isomorphism, if is one to-one and onto. Two groups G and G* are said to be isomorphic, if there is an isomorphism G onto G*. In this case we write G DEFINITION: 1.28 The Center of a group G is the set of all aG such that ax = xa for all xG. i.e ,the set of all elements of G that commute with every element of G. DEFINITION: 1.29 G*.

The series{e} z(G) z1 (G) z2(G) . described in the preceding discussion is the Ascending central series of the group G. DEFINITION: 1. 30 Let ( G, o) be a group. The upper central series of G is the sequence of sub-groups { Cn } such that

( i ) { e} = C0 G1 ...... Cn ..... ( ii )
G Ci =Z ( i 1) . Ci 1 Ci 1

DEFINITION: 1. 31 A group (G, ) is said to be Solvable if it has a normal series.

G = H0H1 ..Hn={e} in which every quotient group

is abelian. Such series is called a solvable series for (G,

) , since every finite group (G, ) with more than one element has a composition series, every finite abelian group is solvable . DEFINITION: 1. 32

A group ( G, o) is said to be nilpotent if it has normal series

{ e} = C0 G1 ...... Cn = G
Such that
G Ci =Z ( i 1) . Ci 1 Ci 1

CHAPTER II SERIES OF GROUPS In this chapter, we discuss about the schreier theorem and Jordan holder theorem and zassenhaus (Butterfly) lemma. 2.1 SECTION THEOREM : 2.1.1 (SCHREIER) Two subnormal (normal) series of a group G have isomorphic refinements. PROOF:

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Given: Two subnormal series of a group G. To prove: G has isomorphic refinements. Let G be a group and let, {e} = H0<H1<H2.<Hn = G And, {e} = K0<K1<K2<.Km = G be two subnormal series for G. For i where 0 i n-1, form the chain of groups. Hi = Hi(Hi+1 K0 ).. Hi (Hi+1Km) =Hi+1 this inserts (2.2) (2.1)

m-1 not necessarily distinct groups between Hi and Hi+1. If we do this for each I where 0 i n-1, let Hi,j= Hi (Hi+1 Kj) Then we obtain the chain of groups. {e} = H0,0 H0,1 H0,2 .. H0,m-1H1,0 H1,1 H1,2 .. H1,m-1 H2,0 H2,1H2,2 ..H2,m-1H3,0

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 Hn-1,1 Hn-1,2 ..Hn-1,m-1 Hn-1,m = G

(2.3)

The chain (2.3) contains nm+1 not necessarily distinct groups. Hi,0= Hi for By using Lemma, Let H and K be subgroups of a group G and let H*and K* be a normal subgroups of H and K respectively. Then H* (HK)/ H* (HK)* ; K*(HK)*/K*(HK)
; (HK)/[(H*K) (HK*)].

each i.

Eq. (2.3) is a subnormal series, ie, each group is normal in the following group. This chain refines the series of Eq. (2.1). In asymmetric fashion, We get Kj,i = Kj(Kj+1Hi) for 0jm-1and 0 in.

This gives a subnormal chain {e} = K0,0 K0,1 K0,2 .K0,n-1 K1,0 K1,1 K1,2 .K1,n-1 K2,0

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 K2,1 K2,2 .K2,n-1 K3,0 Km-1,1 Km-1,2 .Km-1,n-1 Km-1,n =G (2.4)

The chain Eq. (2.4) contains mn+1 not necessarily distinct groups and Kj,0 =Kj for each j. This chain refines the series of Eq. (2.2) by using result, H*(HK)/H*(HK) ; K*(HK)/K*(HK)
; (HK)/[(H*K)(HK*)]

We have, Hi(Hi+1Kj+1)/Hi(Hi+1Kj) ; Kj(Kj+1Hi+1)/Kj(Kj+1Hi).

(or) Hi,j+1/Hi,j ; Kj,i+1/Kj,i For 0 i n-1 and 0jm-1. The isomorphism of equation Eq.(2.5) give a one-to-one correspondence of isomorphic factor groups between the subnormal chains of Eq.(2.3) and Eq.(2.4). To verify this correspondence, put Hi,0 = Hi and Hi,m =Hi+1, while Kj,0=Kj and Kj,n =Kj+1.

( 2.5)

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Each chain of Eq. (2.3)and Eq. (2.4) contains a rectangular array of mn symbols . Each gives rise to a factor group. The factor groups arising from the rth row of s in Eq.(2.4). Deleting the repeated groups from the chains in Eq.(2.3) and Eq (2.4), we get subnormal series of distinct groups that are isomorphic refinements of Eq.(2.1) and Eq.(2.2). Therefore two subnormal (normal) series of group G have isomorphic refinements. Hence the Proof.

THEOREM : 2.1.2 ( SECOND ISOMORPHISM) Let H be a subgroup of G and let N be a normal subgroup of G, then (HN)/N ; H(HN). PROOF: Given : H be a subgroup of G and N be a normal subgroup of G. To prove : (HN)/N ; H/(HN).

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Since H and N are subgroups of G, and N is normal in G, then HN is normal in H. Let hHand nN. Now, define : HNH /(HN) by (hn) = h(HN). First we have to prove : is well defined. Let h1H & n1N, and suppose h1n1=hn. Then h-1 h1= nn1-1 so h-1h1 is in both H and N, and thus is in HN. Consequently, h(HN) =h1 (HN ) in H/ (HN). Thus (h1,n1) = (hn). Therefore is well defined. Claim : is a homomorphism onto H/ (HN) . Let n1,n2N& h1,h2H. By Using result, If N is a normal subgroup of G and H is any subgroup G is also normal in G, then H VN =H N=N H. If furthermore H is also normal in G, then H N is normal in G. n1,h2=h2n3 since N is normal in G.

15

Then, [(h1n1) (h2n2)] = [(h1h2) (n3n2)] = h1h2(HN) = H1(HN).h2(HN) [(h1 n1) (h2 n2 )] =(h1n1).(h2,n2) There fore , is a homomorphism. Since (he) = h (HN) for all hH, Therefore is onto H/(HN). The kernel of consists of all hnHN such that hHN; This kernel is (HN)N. clearly, (HN) N=N Thus is a homomorphism onto H/(HN) with kernel N, so by using result, Let :GG be a homomorphism with kernel K , and let
K : G G K be the canonical homomorphism. Then there exists a

unique isomorphism : G K G such that X = X ( K ) for each xG.

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HN/N ; H/(HN). Hence the proof. THEOREM: 2.1.3 (JORDAN HOLDER) Any two composition (principal) series of a group G are isomorphic. PROOF: Given: Any two composition series of a group G . To Prove: G has isomorphic. Let {Hi} and {Kj} be two composition series of G. By using Schreier theorem , Two subnormal (normal ) series of a group G have isomorphic refinements. They have isomorphic refinements. But since all factor groups are already simple, By using result, M is a maximal normal subgroup of G if and only if G/M is simple. This shows that neither series has any further refinement. Thus {Hi} and {Kj} must already be isomorphic.

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For a finite group, we get a composition series as a type of factorization of the group into simple factor groups, analogous to the factorization of a positive integer into primes. In both cases, the factorization is unique, up to the order of the factors. Hence the proof.

THEOREM: 2.1.4 If G has a composition(principal) series, and if N is a proper normal subgroup of G, then there exists a composition(Principal) series containing N. PROOF: Given: If G has a composition series , and if N is a proper normal subgroup of G. To Prove: A group G there exists a composition series containing N. The series, {e} <N<G, is both a subnormal and a normal series. Since G has a composition series {Hi},

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Then by using Schreier theorem. Two subnormal (normal) series of a group G have isomorphic refinements. There is a refinement of {e}<N< G to a subnormal series isomorphic to a refinement of {Hi}. But as acomposition series, {Hi} can have no further refinement. Thus {e}<N<G can be refined to a subnormal series all of whose factor groups are simple. Therefore, A group G is a composition series containing N. Hence the proof. LEMMA: 2.1.5 (ZASSENHAUS OR BUTTERFLY) Let H and K be subgroups of a group G and let H*and K* be a normal subgroups of H and K respectively. Then 1. H*(HK*) is a normal subgroup of H* (HK). 2. K* (H*K)is a normal subgroup of K* (HK).
3.

H*(HK)/H*(HK*) ; K* (HK)/K* (H*K)

; (H K ) / [ ( H* K ) ( H K* ) ].

PROOF: Given : H & K be subgroups of a group G and H*& K*be a normal subgroups of H and K. To prove :

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1) H*(HK*)is a normal subgroup of H*(HK) 2)K*(H*K) is a normal subgroup of K*(HK) 3) H*(HK)/H* (HK*) ; K*(HK)/K*(H*K)
; (HK)/[(H*K)(HK*)].

Let H and K be subgroups of a group G, and Let H* be a normal subgroup of H and K*be a normal subgroup of K.

By using result, If N is a normal subgroup of G and H is any subgroup of G, then HVN=HN=NH .If furthermore H is also normal in G, then HN is normal in G . H* and HK as subgroups of H, we get H*(HK ) is a group. Similar arguments show that H*(HK*), K*(HK), and K*(H*K) are also groups. By using result, Let H be a subgroup of G and let N be a normal subgroup of G. The (HN) /N ; H/(HN).

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Therefore, H*K is a normal subgroup of HK. Hence the proof (i). Since, If N is a normal subgroup of G and H is any subgroup of G, then HVN=HN=NH. Therefore, H*K and HK* as subgroups of HK shows that (HK*) is a group. Since both HK* and H*K are normal subgroups of HK . If H is also normal in G, then HN is normal in G. Therefore, show that L=(H*K) (HK*) is a normal subgroup of HK. Hence the proof (ii). L=(H*K)

The subgroup relationship denoted by the heavy middle line in fig (a). We claim the other two heavy lines also indicate normal subgroup relationships, and that the three factor groups given by the three normal subgroup relations are all isomorphic. To prove: First define a homomorphism and is onto with k.

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 :H* (HK*) is normal in H*(HK) , and that H*(HK)/H*(HK*) ; (HK)

H* (HK) HK

K*(H K)

H* (HK) K*(HK)

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L=(H*K)( HK*)

K* H* H*(HK) K*(H*K)

Fig (a)

Like wise the result for the groups on the right hand heave line fig(a) the follows by symmetry. Let : H*(HK)(HK ) /L be defined as follows For hH*& xHK. Let (hx) = xL. To prove : is well defined and a homomorphism. Let h1,h2 H*and x1, x2 HK. If h1x1=h2x2, Then, h2-1h1= x2x1-1H*(HK) = H* KL

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So x1L=x2L.

is well defined.
Since H* is normal in H, there is h3in H* x1h2 =h3 x1. Then, [(h1,x1)(h2,x2)] =[(h1,h3)(x1,x2)] = (x1,x2)L = (x1 L) (x2 L) [ ( h1, x1 ) ( h2, x2 ) ] = (h1x1) . (h2x2 ) Thus is a homomorphism. Since onto ((HK) / L. Finally if h H* and xHK, then (Hx) = xL=L Iff xL, or iff, hxH*L = H* (H*K)(HK*)= H*( HK*). Thus ker () = H* (HK*). Hence the proof ( iii).
Hence the Butterfly lemma.

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2.2 SECTION THE CENTER AND THE ASCENDING CENTRAL SERIES. THEOREM : 2.2.1 The center of a group is a normal subgroup of the group. PROOF: Given : The center of a group. To Prove : It is a normal subgroup of the group. Now let G be a group. Let Z(G) be the center of G. Since by the center of a group is a normal subgroup of the group. Therefore Z(G) is normal in G. We can form the factor group G/Z(G) and find the center Z (G/Z(G)) of this factor group. Since Z (G/Z(G)) is normal in G/Z(G). If : GG / Z (G) is the canonical map. Then by using result, Let be a homomorphism of a group G into a group G. If e is the identity in G, then e is the identity in G, and if aG, then a-1 =(a)-1. If H is subgroup of G,

25

Then H is a subgroup of G, and H is normal in G implies that H is normal in G . [Z(G/Z(G)]-1 is a normal subgroup Z1(G) of G. Hence the Proof.

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CHAPTER - III SOLVABLE GROUPS In this chapter, we discuss about the solvable groups and their theorems. THEOREM: 3.1 Every sub- group (H, ) of a solvable group (G, ) is solvable . PROOF: Let G = H0H1Hn = {e} be a fixed solvable chain for (G, o). Let (K, o) be a subgroup of(G, o). To prove : There exists a solvable chain. K=K0 K1.. Kn= {e} for (K, o). Let Ki = KH (i=0,1,2. n ). First we shall show that (Ki, o) is normal in (Ki-1, o) for this , a Ki-1 and a oKi o a-1= (a oKi oa-1)K (a oHi o a-1 )K ( Q K i H i ) = HiK since (Hi, o) is normal = Ki as HiK = Ki Which shows (Ki, o) normal in (Ki-1, o),
27

Again Since,

Ki = K Hi
=

K(Hi-1Hi ) (Q Hi-1 Hi )

= (KHi-1)Hi Ki = Ki-1Hi , So that

K i 1 K i 1 , o , o Ki Ki I H i

By using result, If (H,* ) and (K, *) are subgroup of the group ( G, *) with ( K, *) normal then ( H / HK, *)
K i 1 K oH i , o i 1 , o K i 1 H i K i 1 H i K oH

(H* K / K, *)

But the Quotient group i 1 i , ois abelian, K i 1 H i being sub group of the abelian group
K i 1 , o H i K

This implies every quotient group i 1 , o is aabelian . Ki

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Hence (K, o) is solvable. THEOREM : 3.2 Every homomorphic image of a solvable group ( G, o) is solvable. PROOF: Given : Every homomorphic image of a solvable group(G,) . To Prove :It is solvable. Let f be a homomorphism from (G, o) onto (G, *). Let G= H0H1 Hn = {e} be a fixed solvable chain for ( G, o). i=0,1,2.n

If we get Hi= f (Hi)

Then we get a chain for (G,*) G = H0Hi ..Hn= {e} Since (Hi o) is normal in ( Hi-1 , o), Then (Hi *) is certainly normal in (Hi-1 ,*) by using result , let f be a homomorphism from the group ( G , * ) into the group (G , o), then
i)

If (H , o ) is a normal sub-group of (G , o), the subgroup (f-1 ( H ) ,* ) is a normal subgroup of ( G, *).

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ii)

If f is onto mapping and (H, * ) is a normal sub group of (G, *), the subgroup (f (H), o) is a normal subgroup of (G , o).

So the chain for (G , *) is a normal chain . Therefore, We have to show that

H i1 ,* H i , *is a abelian .

Define:
fi : H i 1 H i 1 Hi H i

fi (a oHi) = f (a) * Hi ,aHi-1 , i = 1,2.n. The mapping fi is well defined , for if a oHi= b oHi, then a-1 obHi. Hence f (a-1 o b ) = f ( a)-1* f(b)f (Hi) = Hi =>f (a) *Hi= f (b) * H i . => fi (a o Hi ) = fi (b oHi). The mapping fi is also a homomorphism For this,

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if a, b Hi-1. fi((a oHi) o (b oHi) = fi ((a ob) oHi) = f(a ob))* Hi = (f(a) * f(b))*Hi = (f(a) *Hi )* ( f(b) *Hi) fi((a oHi) o (b oHi) = fi ((a oHi))*fi((b oHi)). Since f(Hi) = Hi, the mapping fi maps the set
H i 1 H i1 H i onto the set H i ,

thus fi is one - to - one and onto mapping. Hence

H i 1 H i1 , o ,* H i H i

Since
H i 1 , o H i is commutative.

The quotient group

H i 1 , o H i is also abelian .
(G ,*) is solvable.

Hence the proof:

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THEOREM: 3.3
S ,o A ,o If n 5, then ( n ) and ( n ) are not solvable groups.

PROOF: Given : n 5
S ,o A ,o To prove: ( n ) and ( n ) are not solvable groups. S ,o Symmetric group ( n ) has a normal subgroup

( An , o) of even permutations of index 2.

This subgroups is called alternating group on n symbols. If n5.

( An , o) is a simple group.
Consequently, its normal chain An {e}. n> 5,

( An , o) is solvable group iff ( An , o) is commutative.

A ,o Since ( n ) is not a commutative group for n 4.

( An , o) is not solvable for n 5 ,

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Consequently,

S ,o The symmetric group ( n ) is not solvable .

Hence the proof. THEOREM: 3.4 A group (G, o) is solvable if and only if G(n) = {e}, for some n 1. PROOF: To prove : A group ( G, o) is solvable if G(n)= { e}, for some n 1. Let G(n) = (e) for some n . By using result, A group ( [ G,G] , o) is normal sub group of ( G , o). ( G (i+1) , o ) is normal sub group of ( G (i) , o) and (G(i) / G (i+1) , ) is abelian By using result, (G/[G, G] , o) is an abelian group . Hence the series, GG(1)G(2).G(i)G(i+1) Gn=(e). i, (0 i i-1).

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Satisfies the conditions (i) and (ii) for solvability of G. Conversely, Take: (G, o) is solvable . To Prove: G(n) = {e} for some n 1. Assume that (G, o) is solvable . There exists a descending chain, G= G0G1.GiGi+1 . Gn = {e}. Such that (Gi+1 , o)is normal in (Gi, o) and (G/Gi+1 , o) is abelian, for 0 i n-1. We prove by induction on that G (i) Gii since (G/Gi , ) is abelian. By using result , If (H, o) is a subgroup of (G, o) and (N, o) is a normal subgroup of (G, o).Then (HN, o) is a normal subgroup of (H, o). G(1) G1 Assuming G(k)G K+1 To prove: G(k+1)G K+1 Since Gk/ GK+1
Gk +1 Gk ( k ) ( Gk k )
( 1)

= ( G k +1 )

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In particular, G(n) Gn = (e). Hence the proof.

THEOREM: 3.5 A group of prime power order is solvable. PROOF: Given: A group of prime power order. To Prove: It is solvable. Let (G, o) be a group of order pn( n 1) By using result, If O(G)= pn Where p is a prime number. Then Z (G) {e}. O(G)=pn p is a prime number Then Z (G) { e }. If Z (G) = G, then G is abelian and hence G is solvable. If G Z ( G )= G1, Consider G/G1.

35

This is a p - group and hence has a non trivial centre of the form G2/G1. Where ( G2 , o) is normal in (G, o) If G2 G, Let ( G3, o) be the subgroup of ( G, o) G3 / G2 is the centre of G /G2 . Continue the process Since G is finite we have a sequence, (e) = G1 G2 .Gn= G ie , G Gn-1 .. G1 = (e) With (Gi/ G(-1) , o ) is abelian i. Hence G is solvable. THEOREM: 3.6 Any group of order pq where p & q being distinct primes , is solvable. PROOF: Given: Any group of order pq where p &q being distinct primes. To Prove: It is solvable.

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If p =q That is O (G) = p2 Then G is abelian and hence G is solvable. If p q. Assume p< q. By using result, Let (p, *) be a sylow p- sub-group of (G, *) and a G be any element whose order is a power of p. If a* p * a-1 = p . then a p. Therefore, (G, o) has a unique sylow q- subgroup Q which is normal in G. The normal series GQ(e) has abelian quotient. (G, o)is solvable. Hence the proof. THEOREM: 3.7 A group (G, o) is nilpotent iff Zn = {e} for some n. PROOF: To prove : A group ( G, o) is nilpotent iff Zn = {e} for some n. Let (G, o) be nilpotent

37

Then for some n there exists a subgroup Cn= G is the upper central series. We claim that Zi Cn-i, i (0 i n)

We see that for i =0 , Z0 = G Cn = G. This shows that Z0 Cn-0=Cn . Assume that ZiCn-i Then,Zi+1 = [G, Zi] [Gi, Cn-1 ]Cn-i-1as
G Cn i =Z Cn i 1 Cn i 1

In particular, i = n, Zn C0 = {e}. ie Zn= {e}. Conversely, Assume that Zn = {e} for some n. To prove: G is nilpotent Here we claim that Zn-1 Cii, (0 i n). This is clearly true for i =0. Because Zn = {e}C0 = {e}. Assume that Zn-i Ci

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Consider Zn-i-i We see that [Zn-i-1 , G ] = Zn-i Ci Since

G Ci +1 =Z Ci Ci

We have Zn-i-1 Ci+1 If ,for i = n. i.e, G = Cn => G is nilpotent Hence the proof. THEOREM : 3.8 Any sub group of a nilpotent group is nilpotent . PROOF: Given: Any sub group of a nilpotent group. To prove: It is nilpotent. Let ( H, o) be a sub group of a nilpotent group ( G, o )

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Clearly Zi(H) Zi(G). If Zn (G) = { e} . Then Zn (H) = {e} i.e (H, o) is nilpotent. Hence the proof. THEOREM: 3.9 Any homomorphism image of nilpotent group is nilpotent. PROOF: Given: Any homomorphism image of nilpotent group. To prove: It is nilpotent. Let f : G G' be a homomorphism of group (G, *) onto a group (G' o)

(ie) F (G) = G' Clearly ,f (Zi(G)) = Zi(f(G)) = Zi(G') , i 1. If Zn (G) = {e} Then Zn (G') = { f (e) } = { e1 }.
(G' , o) is nilpotent.

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Hence the proof. THEOREM: 3.10 Any group of prime order is nilpotent. PROOF: Let (G, o) be a group of order pn. Where p be a prime and n 1. We have it by induction for n = 1, O (G) = p For n =1 O(G) =p2 (G,) is abelian group. Hence it is nilpotent. Let n >1 Then Z (G) {e} (G / Z(G)) ' has order less than pn , By induction , It is nilpotent , By using result,

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Let (G , o) be a group and let H {e} be a sub group contained in the centre Z(G) of (G , o) such that (G/H, o) is nilpotent.Then ( G, o) is nilpotent . ( G, o) is nilpotent. Hence the proof.

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