STUDY OF ACN Que: Describe the following IEEE standards: (a)802.11a/b/g (b)802.15/802.

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Sol: IEEE 802.11a Created in 1999, this version of WiFi works on

the 5 GHz band. This was done with the hope of encountering less interference, since many devices (like most wireless phones) use the 2.4 GHz band as well. 802.11a is fairly quick too, with maximum data rates topping out at 54 megabits per second. However, the 5GHz frequency has more difficulty with objects that are in the signals path, so the range is often poor. This is an extension to 802.11 that pertains to wireless LANs and goes as fast as 54 Mbps in the 5-GHz band. 802.11a employs the orthogonal frequency division multiplexing (OFDM) encoding scheme as opposed to either FHSS or DSSS.

IEEE 802.11b - Also created in 1999, this standard uses the more typical 2.4 GHz band and can achieve a maximum speed of 11 megabits per second. 802.11b was the standard that kick-started WiFis popularity. The 802.11 high rate WiFi is an extension to 802.11 that pertains to wireless LANs and yields a connection as fast as 11 Mbps transmission (with a fallback to 5.5, 2, and 1 Mbps depending on strength of signal) in the 2.4-GHz band. The 802.11b specification uses only DSSS. Note that 802.11b was actually an amendment to the original 802.11 standard added in 1999 to permit wireless functionality to be analogous to hard-wired Ethernet connections.

IEEE 802.11g Designed in 2003, the 802.11g standard upped the maximum data rate to 54 megabits per second while retaining usage of the reliable 2.4 GHz band. This resulted in widespread adoption of the standard. Wireless g remains common even today, as it is adequately fast and routers lacking support of the new n standard are incredibly cheap. This pertains
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to wireless LANs and provides 20+ Mbps in the 2.4-GHz band.COMPARISONS: (b) comparisons:

Technology Wi-Fi Wi-Fi Wi-Fi WiMax WiMax

Standard 802.11a 802.11b 802.11g 802.16d 802.16e

Usage WLAN WLAN WLAN WMAN WMAN

Throughput <= 54Mbps <= 11Mbps <= 54Mbps <= 75Mbps (20Mhz BW) <= 75Mbps (20Mhz BW)

Range <= 300feet <= 300feet <= 300feet 4-6 miles 4-6 miles

Frequency 5Ghz 2.4Ghz 2.4Ghz Sub 11Ghz 2.4Ghz

Que: Write Note on: (i)first generation(AMPS) Sol: Advanced Mobile Phone System (AMPS) is an analog mobile phone system standard
developed by Bell Labs, and officially introduced in the Americas in 1978, Israel in 1986, and Australia in 1987 It was the primary analog mobile phone system in North America (and other locales) through the 1980s and into the 2000s. As of February 18, 2008, carriers in the United States were no longer required to support AMPS and companies such as AT&T and Verizon have discontinued this service permanently. AMPS was discontinued in Australia in September 2000.

AMPS is a first-generation cellular technology that uses separate frequencies, or "channels", for each conversation (see FDMA). It therefore required considerable bandwidth for a large number of users. In general terms, AMPS was very similar to the older "0G" Improved Mobile Telephone Service, but used considerably more computing power in order to select frequencies, hand off conversations to PSTN lines, and handle billing and call setup. What really separated AMPS from older systems is the "back end" call setup functionality. In AMPS, the cell centers could flexibly assign channels to handsets based on signal strength, allowing the same frequency to be re-used in various locations without interference. This
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allowed a larger number of phones to be supported over a geographical area. AMPS pioneers coined the term "cellular" because of its use of small hexagonal "cells" within a system

Standards
AMPS was originally standardized by ANSI as EIA/TIA/IS-3. EIA/TIA/IS-3 was superseded by EIA/TIA-553 and TIA interim standard with digital technologies, the cost of wireless service is so low that the problem has virtually disappeared.

(ii) 2G(GSM): Sol: 2G Second generation network - GSM

Mobile communication of second generation 2G standard GSM.

2G started in 1991 with a speed for data transmission 9.6 kbit/s. In 1999, in the GSM standard is incorporated, the standard GPRS (considered as intermediate generation - 2.5G), which provides mobile Internet with greater speed. GSM (group name from Groupe Spcial Mobile, later renamed to Global System for Mobile Communications) is the global standard for digital mobile cellular connection with the TDMA separation of channel and a high degree of safety, thanks to an open encryption key. Developed under the auspices of the European Telecommunications Standards Institute (ETSI) in the 80 years of the twentieth century. GSM refers to second generation networks (2nd Generation), although in 2006 it entered in a conditional phase 2,5 G and is the most popular standard for mobile cellular connection in the world. Mobile phones are manufactured for use in a range of four frequencies: 850 MHz, 900 MHz, 1800 MHz, 1900 MHz. The GSM standard uses GMSK modulation. Network Architecture

Base station (BS) is connecting your cell phone with a cellular network. Each base station is called cell, because it has a specific coverage area. All base stations are linked, so you can get a reliable connection when you move from one cell to another. This process is called "transfer" (hand-over). With base stations included in the set of Base Stations Controller (BSC). SHARDA UNIVERSITY BEYOND BOUNDARIES

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The mobile station (terminal) from your cell phone and SIM-module is one type of electronic signature (which includes your subscriber number) to be sent to the nearest cell as an application that you want as a subscriber access to the system. BSC submit the application to the heart of the cellular network - Mobile Switching Center (MSC). MSC takes care of providing a connection to route incoming and outgoing calls to and from fixed or mobile networks. MSC contains a critical component called HLR (Home Location Register) - Internal register (register of inland locations), providing administrative information, identifying you as an individual subscriber. Once receiving a request from the cellular phone, HLR instantly compare specific signature in this application, the data for the subscriber. If your subscription is correct, MSC sent back, via cell phone to your message that you are admitted to network. Usually at this point on the display is written the name of the cellular network. From here onwards can receive and make calls. On receipt of a call, MSC first checks HLR to see your location. At any time, cell phones will send a message to the nearest cell to inform the network where you are. This process is known as polling. Each base station uses a purely digital technology to support a massive number of subscribers simultaneously connected to a cellular network, but also enable them to make and receive calls. This technique is called multiplexing. The network is able to redirect your calls to the base station in whose coverage is your phone, even if other subscribers at the same time are connected to it. When you switch to another cell (eg. while driving), HLR information is automatically updated to make accurate routing of signal for your calls. When you make an outgoing call, another module of the MSC is activated called the VLR (Visitor Location Register) - register which verify that you are actually allowed to make calls. (For example, your customer number may be banned for international calls). VLR response is forwarded back to your phone. Voicemail and the Centre for short messages (SMS) are other services that provide MSC. SMS messages are transmitted on a separate channel of the conversations, and you can receive short messages even when talking.

Radio

interfaces

of

GSM

digital

cellular

network

Interfaces are of two types: 1. Interface for connection to external networks (signaling system No.7 /SS7/)
o

Abis - interface between BS and BSC;

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o o o o o o o

A - interface between BSC and MSC; B - interface between VLR and MSC; C - interface between MSC and HLR; D - interface between VLR and HLR; E - interface between MSC and EIR; F - interface between two stations; Um - Radio Interface between MS and BS. Normal (normal burst); To adjust the frequency; For Synchronization; For Access series (shortened series); Blank (deaf serie).

2. Species series (burst):

o o o o o

2G technologies
2G technologies can be divided into Time Division Multiple Access (TDMA)-based and Code Division Multiple Access (CDMA)-based standards depending on the type of multiplexing used. The main 2G standards are:

GSM (TDMA-based), originally from Europe but used in almost all countries on all six inhabited continents. Today accounts for over 80% of all subscribers around the world. Over 60 GSM operators are also using CDMA2000 in the 450 MHz frequency band (CDMA450).[2] IS-95 aka cdmaOne (CDMA-based, commonly referred as simply CDMA in the US), used in the Americas and parts of Asia. Today accounts for about 17% of all subscribers globally. Over a dozen CDMA operators have migrated to GSM including operators in Mexico, India, Australia and South Korea. PDC (TDMA-based), used exclusively in Japan iDEN (TDMA-based), proprietary network used by Nextel in the United States and Telus Mobility in Canada IS-136 a.k.a. D-AMPS (TDMA-based, commonly referred as simply 'TDMA' in the US), was once prevalent in the Americas but most have migrated to GSM.

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2G services are frequently referred as Personal Communications Service, or PCS, in the United States.

(iii) 3G/4G Sol: Third-generation (3G) networks started with the vision to develop a single global standard for high-speed data and high-quality voice services. The goal was to have all users worldwide to use a single standard that would allow for true global roaming. It was not possible because it was realized that backward compatibility with 2G networks and frequency differences among countries were too much of a barrier to overcome, so agreement on a single 3G implementation could not be reached.

FOURTH GENERATION NETWORKS

The 4G is a new generation of wireless intended to complement and replace the 3G systems, in the near future. Accessing information anywhere, anytime, with a seamless connection to a wide range of information and services, and receiving a large volume of information, data, pictures, video, and so on, are the key features of the 4G infrastructures The future 4G infrastructures will consist of a set of various networks using IP (Internet protocol) as a common protocol so that users are in control because they will be able to choose every application and environment. Based on the developing trends of mobile communications, the 4G will have broader bandwidth, higher data rate, and smoother and quicker handoff and will focus on ensuring seamless service across a multitude of wireless systems and networks. The key concept is integrating the 4G capabilities with all of the existing mobile technologies through advanced technologies

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Application adaptability and high dynamism are some of the main features of 4G services of interest to users. Que:Header format and extension in IPv6? Sol: An IPv6 packet is the smallest message entity exchanged via the Internet Protocol across
an Internet Protocol version 6 (IPv6) network. Packets consist of control information for addressing and routing, and a payload consisting of user data. The control information in IPv6 packets is subdivided into a mandatory fixed header and optional extension headers. The payload of an IPv6 packet is typically a datagram or segment of the higher-level Transport Layer protocol, but may be data for an Internet Layer (e.g., ICMPv6) or Link Layer (e.g., OSPF) instead. IPv6 packets are typically transmitted over a Link Layer protocol, such as Ethernet which encapsulates each packet in a frame, but this may also be a higher layer tunneling protocol, such as IPv4 when using 6to4 or Teredo transition technologies.

Fixed header
The fixed header of an IPv6 packet consists of its first 40 octets (320 bits). It has the following format: Fixed header format Offse Oct ts et 0 1 2 3

Octet Bit 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 0 4 8 12 16 20 24 28 32 0

1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 3 3 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 0 1 Flow Label Next Header Hop Limit

Versio Traffic Class n Payload Length 32 64 96 128 160 192 224 256

Source Address

Destination Address

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36 288 Version (4 bits) The constant 6 (bit sequence 0110). Traffic Class (8 bits) The bits of this field hold two values. The 6 most-significant bits are used for DSCP, which is used to classify packets. The remaining two bits are used for ECN; priority values subdivide into ranges: traffic where the source provides congestion control and non-congestion control traffic. Flow Label (20 bits) Originally created for giving real-time applications special service. The flow label when set to a non-zero value now serves as a hint to routers and switches with multiple outbound paths that these packets should stay on the same path so that they will not be reordered. It has further been suggested that the flow label be used to help detect spoofed packets. Payload Length (16 bits) The size of the payload in octets, including any extension headers. The length is set to zero when a Hop-by-Hop extension header carries a Jumbo Payload option. Next Header (8 bits) Specifies the type of the next header. This field usually specifies the transport layer protocol used by a packet's payload. When extension headers are present in the packet this field indicates which extension header follows. The values are shared with those used for the IPv4 protocol field, as both fields have the same function (see List of IP protocol numbers). Hop Limit (8 bits) Replaces the time to live field of IPv4. This value is decremented by one at each intermediate node visited by the packet. When the counter reaches 0 the packet is discarded. Source Address (128 bits) The IPv6 address of the sending node. Destination Address (128 bits) The IPv6 address of the destination node(s). In order to increase performance, and since current link layer technology is assumed to provide sufficient error detection, the header has no checksum to protect it.

Extension headers
Extension headers carry optional Internet Layer information, and are placed between the fixed header and the upper-layer protocol header.The headers form a chain, using the Next Header fields. The Next Header field in the fixed header indicates the type of the first extension header;
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the Next Header field of the last extension header indicates the type of the upper-layer protocol header in the payload of the packet. All extension headers are a multiple of 8 octets in size; some extension headers require internal padding to meet this requirement. There are several extension headers defined,and new extension headers may be defined in the future. Extension headers are to be examined and processed at the packet's destination only, except for Hop-by-Hop Options, which need to be processed at every intermediate node on the packet's path, including sending and receiving node. The defined extension headers below are listed in the preferred order, should there be more than one extension header following the fixed header. Note that all extension headers are optional and should only appear at most once, except for the Destination Options header, which may appear twice. If a node does not recognize a specific extension header, it should discard the packet and send an Parameter Problem message (ICMPv6 type 4, code 1) When a Next Header value 0 appears in a header other than the fixed header a node should do the same. Extension Header Hop-by-Hop Options Destination Options (before routing header) Routing Fragment Authentication Header (AH) Type 0 60 43 44 51 Description Options that need to be examined by all devices on the path. Options that need to be examined only by the destination of the packet. Methods to specify the route for a datagram (used with Mobile IPv6). Contains parameters for fragmentation of datagrams. Contains information used to verify the authenticity of most parts of the packet. Carries encrypted data for secure communication. Options that need to be examined only by the destination of the packet. Parameters used with Mobile IPv6.

Encapsulating Security Payload 50 (ESP) Destination Options (before 60 upper-layer header) Mobility (currently without 135 upper-layer header)

Value 59 (No Next Header) in the Next Header field indicates that there is no next header whatsoever following this one, not even a header of an upper-layer protocol. It means that, from the header's point of view, the IPv6 packet ends right after it: the payload should be empty.There could, however, still be data in the payload if the payload length in the first header of the packet
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is greater than the length of all extension headers in the packet. This data should be ignored by hosts, but passed unaltered by routers.

Que:discuss tcp and udp protocol?

Transmission Control Protocol (TCP) and User Datagram Protocol (UDP)is a transportation protocol that is one of the core protocols of the Internet protocol suite. Both TCP and UDP work at transport layer TCP/IP model and both have very different usage. TCP (Transmission Control Protocol) is the most commonly used protocol on the Internet. The reason for this is because TCP offers error correction. When the TCP protocol is used there is a guaranteed delivery. This is due largely in part to a method called flow control. Flow control determines when data needs to be re-sent, and stops the flow of data until previous packets are successfully transferred. This works because if a packet of data is sent, a collision may occur. When this happens, the client re-requests the packet from the server until the whole packet is complete and is identical to its original. UDP (User Datagram Protocol) is anther commonly used protocol on the Internet. However, UDP is never used to send important data such as webpages, database information, etc; UDP is commonly used for streaming audio and video. Streaming media such as Windows Media audio files (.WMA) , Real Player (.RM), and others use UDP because it offers speed! The reason UDP is faster than TCP is because there is no form of flow control or error correction. The data sent over the Internet is affected by collisions, and errors will be present. Remember that UDP is only concerned with speed. This is the main reason why streaming media is not high quality

Different Applications of TCP and UDP

Web browsing, email and file transfer are common applications that make use of TCP. TCP is used to control segment size, rate of data exchange, flow control and network congestion. TCP is preferred where error correction facilities are required at network interface level. UDP is largely used by time sensitive applications as well as by servers that answer small queries from huge number of clients. UDP is compatible with packet broadcast - sending to all on a network and multicasting sending to all subscribers. UDP is commonly used in Domain Name System, Voice over IP, Trivial File Transfer Protocol and online games.

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BasicDifference between TCP and UDP

TCP Reliability: TCP is connection-oriented protocol. When a file or message send it will get delivered unless connections fails. If connection lost, the server will request the lost part. There is no corruption while transferring a message. Ordered: If you send two messages along a connection, one after the other, you know the first message will get there first. You don't have to worry about data arriving in the wrong order. Heavyweight: - when the low level parts of the TCP "stream" arrive in the wrong order, resend requests have to be sent,
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UDP Reliability: UDP is connectionless protocol. When you a send a data or message, you don't know if it'll get there, it could get lost on the way. There may be corruption while transferring a message.

Ordered: If you send two messages out, you don't know what order they'll arrive in i.e. no ordered

Lightweight: No ordering of messages, no tracking connections, etc. It's just fire and forget! This means it's a lot quicker,
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STUDY OF ACN and all the out of sequence parts have to be put back together, so requires a bit of work to piece together. Streaming: Data is read as a "stream," with nothing distinguishing where one packet ends and another begins. There may be multiple packets per read call. Examples: World Wide Web (Apache TCP port 80), e-mail (SMTP TCP port 25 Postfix MTA), File Transfer Protocol (FTP port 21) and Secure Shell (OpenSSH port 22) etc. and the network card / OS have to do very little work to translate the data back from the packets. Datagrams: Packets are sent individually and are guaranteed to be whole if they arrive. One packet per one read call.

Examples: Domain Name System (DNS UDP port 53), streaming media applications such as IPTV or movies, Voice over IP (VoIP), Trivial File Transfer Protocol (TFTP) and online multiplayer games etc

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