The large displacement shear characteristics of granular media against

concrete and steel interfaces

Barmpopoulos, I.H.
Mott MacDonald Ltd London, formerly Imperial College London
Ho, T.Y.K.
Geotechnical Engineering Office, Civil Engineering and Development Department, Hong Kong,
formerly Imperial College London
Jardine, R.J.
Imperial College London
Anh-Minh, N.
Atkins Geotechnics, Atkins Global, formerly Imperial College London

Keywords: ring-shear apparatus; granular media; steel and concrete interface; shaft friction; driven pile design

Modern methods for estimating the axial capacity of piles driven in granular media rely on accurate interface
shear failure models. While earlier studies have focused on determining shaft friction failure parameters from
small displacement laboratory shear box experiments, large displacement ring-shear interface tests provide a
better representation of conditions adjacent to the shafts of driven piles. This paper describes systematic
studies in which granular quartzitic media, ranging from angular rock flour to sub-rounded coarse sand, were
sheared against concrete and steel interfaces in ring shear experiments that involved several metres of shear
slippage. The study included an examination of how the large displacement processes involve grain crushing
and modify the texture of the interfaces. Conclusions are drawn regarding the constant volume angle of
interface shearing resistance that may be applied in pile design, the soils’ particle size distributions and the
roughness of the interfaces tested, before and after the ring-shear tests.

1 INTRODUCTION steel piles may be designed safely by simply

assuming an invariable δ΄cv = 29o.
Field research in clays and sands with highly This paper summarises how the CUR (2001)
instrumented displacement piles has shown that hypothesis has been investigated by Anh-Minh
(local) shaft failure is governed by the Coulomb (2005); Barmpopoulos (2006) and Ho (2007) through
effective stress interface friction criterion; Jardine large displacement tests on a suite of standard
and Bond (1989), Lehane et al (1993). New design granular silica test media sheared against annular
procedures have been developed that incorporate interfaces made from both mild steel and concrete.
recommendations for evaluating the local shaft Measurements on the roughness of the interfaces and
resistance by applying (i) functions that predict the the particle size distributions of the soils, before and
expected normal effective stresses from appropriate after each test, indicated how grain crushing, surface
site investigation tests and (ii) site specific laboratory roughness changes and displacement magnitude may
interface shear experiments; Jardine and Chow (1996) affect the ultimate interface friction angles, δ΄cv.
and Jardine et al (2005). With granular media, the The interface shear experiments were performed in
constant volume friction value, δ΄cv, has been shown a modified Bishop et al (1971) ring shear apparatus
to be the controlling shear parameter: local shaft that allows shear displacements of potentially many
failure takes place during loading tests when the soil metres to be imposed between the soil and the
at the interface ceases to dilate. interface, replicating aspects of pile driving. A
Preliminary correlations with field tests led Jardine generic ‘multi-stage’ testing approach was selected to
et al (1992) to propose that small displacement direct address the influences of interface material and
shear tests involving interfaces of appropriate stress roughness, normal stress level, shearing history and
levels, materials and roughnesses might be sufficient initial particle size distribution.
to measure the operational δ΄cv of sands and silts. Ho (2007) and Ho et al (2008) discuss the
However, CUR (2001) argued that pile driving influence of the interface position or the modes of
produces continuous changes in both the particle size shearing. They also review earlier contributions by
distributions of sand in contact with the pile shaft, Potyondy (1961), Kulhawy & Peterson (1979),
and the surface roughness of the interface. They Yoshimi & Kishida (1981), Kishida & Uesugi (1987),
concluded that operational friction angles would tend Paikowsky et al (1995), Subba Rao et al (1998),
to a unique value for silica sands and suggested that Dove and Frost (1999), DeJong and Frost (2002),
Frost et al (2004), Lings & Dietz (2005) and Dietz
and Lings (2006). We do not include any such review upper and lower shearing stages was kept open; the
here, but note that the above studies primarily recorded stresses represent the average interface
involved relatively small displacement tests contact stresses. Fast shearing (250 mm/min) was
performed in modified direct or simple shear cells. applied to develop a 2 m annular displacement in
each intervening (second) sub-stage with the gap
kept closed. Sample loss was minimised, but the
2 TESTING PROGRAMME stress measurements were affected. Changes in the
frictional response associated with particle breakage
2.1 Ring shear apparatus and interface roughness changes were best gauged by
comparing the ‘before-and-after’ slow sub-stage
The Bishop apparatus, which is illustrated measurements. The key features of this testing
schematically in Figure 1, allows notionally programme are summarized in Figure 2 where
unlimited shear displacements to be applied indicative tests results on two three-stage tests on
continuously, without having to stop and reverse the sand – concrete interface are illustrated.
shearing movement. Any friction developed between Overall, the total lengths of shear displacements
the soil and vertical walls of the soil confining rings experienced in the three- and four-stage tests were
can be measured and accounted for in this equipment. around 6 m and 8 m respectively. The two single-
The sets used at Imperial College have been modified stage tests performed on concrete interfaces
to allow shearing rates to be applied that are developed total shear displacements of 10 m and 15
comparable to those mobilised during pile driving. m. Some of the experiments were repeated, but with
shearing being halted at different stages so that
checks could be made of the progressive changes in
interface roughness and particle size distributions.

Figure 1. Cross section of Bishop ring shear apparatus used in

the study (after Bishop et al (1971)).
2.2 Testing procedure
The authors’ multi-stage ring shear tests were
designed to consider the interface shear behaviour of
piles driven deeply into layers of sands or silt having
constant or increasing relative density. Step increases
were applied to the normal stresses, with controlled
phases of large deformation shearing taking place
between each loading stage.
The majority of the concrete interface tests
comprised three stages conducted with normal
stresses of 100, 200 and 400 kPa; two single-stage
tests at 800 kPa were also carried out. A larger
programme of tests was conducted with the steel
interfaces with stages at 100, 200, 400 and 800 kPa.
Each test involved a fresh interface, and each loading
stage involved three sub-stages. In the first and last
sub-stages, shearing was conducted at a slow rate of
0.9 mm/min for an annular displacement interval of
about 50 mm. During these intervals, the horizontal
gap incorporated in the Bishop apparatus between the
Figure 2 Indicative three-stage tests results illustrating the key
features of the testing programme (sand 16/30 against concrete
interfaces).
2.3 Soils tested
The soils tested were (i) four graded mortar test
sands produced by the David Ball Co., UK denoted
7/14, 14/25, 16/30 and 52/100; (ii) TVS (also known
as Ham River Sand) from the Thames Valley in the
UK, (iii) FS a fine siliceous uniform sand from
Fontainebleau, France and (iv) HPF4, an industrial
rock flour silica silt. The sands were all sub-rounded
to sub-angular while the silt particles were angular.
Particle size distributions were determined by wet
sieving; the mean (D50) values are shown in Table 1.
The shear tests were carried out dry. Since the
operational constant volume δ΄cv is not affected by
the initial relative density in sands (Jardine et al
1992), a single nominally uniform initial density
(equal to about 1600 kg/m3) was used in all the tests.
Table 1. Properties of soil tested and types of interface used.

Interface Soil Description D50

(mm)

Steel, crushed industrial rock flour;

HPF4 0.04
Concrete Angular
Steel FS uniform sand; Angular 0.21
Steel,
52/100 uniform sand; sub-rounded 0.26
Concrete
Steel, river sand; sub-rounded to
TVS 0.32
Concrete sub- angular
Steel, uniform sand; sub-rounded to
16/30 0.72
Concrete sub-angular
Steel,
14/25 uniform sand; sub-angular 0.90
Concrete 3(b)
Steel,
7/14 uniform sand; sub-angular 1.60
Concrete

2.4 Particle size distributions before and after tests

In the tests run by Anh-Minh (2005) and
Barmpopoulos (2006) global assessments were made
of the changes in particle size distribution based on
the whole sample left at the end of testing, while Ho
(2007) sub-sampled material from areas of the
specimen that had experienced different degrees of
shear distortion. We report here only the global data
from the concrete interfaces tests, which are
presented in Figure 3, noting that the fine material
was concentrated in shear zones formed close to the
interfaces (Figure 4). 3(c)

2.5 Preparation for the interfaces tested

Concrete driven piles are often cast in stainless steel
moulds that provide a relatively smooth finish along
their shaft. The roughnesses of specimens cut from
industrial piles (provided by Centrum Pile Limited,
UK) were measured to define the finish required for
the annular ring shear concrete test specimens.
The concrete interfaces were made with mortar
sand (sieved to remove grains > 1.2 mm), cement and
water mixed in a ratio of 2:1:0.5 by weight and cast

3(d)

Figure 3. Particle size distributions of the soil samples tested

against the concrete interfaces before and after the tests.

against a smooth Perspex surface, taking care to

remove air voids.
These mortar or ‘concrete’ specimens were cured in
their moulds for 1 day and then under water for not
less than 27 days before testing. Unconfined
compression tests showed equivalent cube strengths
exceeding 37 MPa within seven days of casting.
3(a)

Figure 4. Shear zone formed close to the interface. Sand 7/14
against steel interface (Ho 2007).
To achieve similar finishes to the industrial piles, any
imperfections on the concrete ring surface were
rectified by gentle hand polishing with fine sand
paper. As noted below, measurements were made
that indicated initial (pre-test) centre line average
roughness, Ra, between 14 and 15 µm for the
concrete interfaces.
The steel interfaces were made from mild steel and
were shot-blasted prior to each use. The resulting Ra
values of about 4 to 5µm fell towards the lower range
of field measurements reported by Jardine et al
(1992). Earlier measurements on uncoated weathered
industrial steel piles have shown Ra of around 5 to 10
µm prior to installation.
10mm
Figure 5. Sampling length on concrete interface.
2.6 Roughness measurements before and after tests
Surface roughness measurements were taken at
several locations, and over appropriate shear
trajectory lengths, for all interfaces, using a Rank
Taylor Hobson Talysurf profilometer. A typical
sampling length on concrete interface is illustrated in
Figure 5. The characteristic patterns of the concrete
and steel prototype profiles are shown in Figure 6.
The roughnesses of the concrete specimens are
summarised in Table 2. Measurements made on
interfaces after shearing are denoted S, while the
average industrial pile specimen values are indicated
as I and measurements made on the concrete test
interface prototypes are denoted P.
Figure 6. Characteristic patterns of the concrete and steel
prototype profiles.
Table 2. Roughness measurements for the concrete interfaces.
Ra (µm)
D50 0.04 0.26 0.32 0.72 0.90 1.6 1.6* 1.6#
S 12.4 29.6 23.0 40.8 45.6 55.6 93.4 118
P 14.2
I 12.7
I: Industrial, P: Prototype, S: Sheared profile, D50: Initial size
*10m of shearing, #15m of shearing
3 TEST RESULTS AND DISCUSSION
3.1 Friction angle measurements for concrete and
steel interfaces
The large displacement interface shear strength data
are summarised for both concrete and steel interfaces
in Table 3 and Figures 7 and 8 respectively.
The δ΄cv values were displacement-dependant: the
values developed after 50 mm and 6 m of shearing
differed most markedly with the concrete tests on
coarse sands. The data plotted represent average
values determined after shear displacements of 2, 4, 6
and 8m. Figures 7(a) and 8(a) show the full normal
stress range, while Figures 7(b) and 8(b) focus on
results obtained with normal stresses up to 400 kPa.
The results presented in Table 3 correlate closely
with the sands’ initial D50 values and to clarify the
results, linear regression analyses were made of all
the measurements made considering three sets of
relatively narrow initial D50 ranges, which are
annotated as 1, 2 and 3 on the Figures. The relatively
high R2 regression coefficients shown in Figures 7
and 8 confirm the strong linear correlation between
normal and shear stresses (with c΄ = 0), indicating
that the large displacement values of δ΄cv did not
depend significantly on normal stress level. Note that
the results of the two large displacement single-stage
concrete interface tests have been excluded from the
Group 3 regression analysis summarised in Figure
7(a).
Table 3. Concrete interfaces, defined after shear displacements
of 4 to 8m unless otherwise stated.

Friction angles δ’cv for the concrete and the steel interfaces
52/100
HPF4

16/30

14/25
Sand
TVS

7/14
FS

Tested (a) Range up to 800 kPa (full scale)

Concrete 25.9
after 6m 31.0 n/a 27.6 26.9 25.5 25.7 27.0*
29.5#
Steel
after 8m 30.5 27.5 28.0 28.6 28.7 27.4 29.0

Note: Above values obtained from linear regression analysis

* δ΄cv after 10m, # δ΄cv after 15m

The concrete interface tests indicate average ‘6_m’

displacement δ΄cv values for Groups 1, 2 and 3 of
25.6o, 27.3° and 30.9° respectively, showing trends
for the ‘6_m’ displacement δ΄cv values to be higher (b) Range up to 400 kPa (re-scaled for clarity)
for the finer soils and for the sand-concrete tests to Figure 7. Results on concrete interfaces
develop slightly lower δ΄cv values than the sand-steel
cases. The trend for tan δ΄cv against initial mean
particle size D50, is shown in Figure 9. Also shown,
is the spread of design recommendations noted by
Jardine et al (2005); the concrete ‘6_m’ trend falls
between the CUR (2001) recommendation and the
variable trend seen in the short displacement direct
shear tests reported by Jardine et al (1992).
The steel interface tests showed a weaker
dependency of tan δ΄cv on initial D50. The angles for
the Group 1 and 2 sand samples fell within a
relatively narrow range (27.5° to 29.0°) although the
angular silt samples gave angles about 2° higher.
(a) Range up to 800 kPa (full scale)
Generally, the results for the steel interface tests are
slightly higher than those for concrete and are 0° to
1.5o lower than the CUR (2001) recommendation of
δ΄cv = 29°. The differences between the small and
large displacement shear test trends reflect the
gradual growth with displacement of particle
breakage and, for the steel interfaces, surface
smoothing.

3.2 Particle size distributions and interface surface

roughnesses for the concrete tests
It is immediately clear that the coarser sands (e.g.
Sands 7/14, 14/25 and 16/30), experienced the most
substantial degrees of soil grain crushing and fines (b) Range up to 400 kPa (re-scaled for clarity)
generation during shearing. Figure 8. Results on steel interfaces

Figure 9. Comparison of the results of interface friction angle
δ΄cv for the concrete and steel interfaces with various published
trend lines (modified after Jardine et al (2005))
Figure 3(a) considers data from identical tests that
were halted after different stages, showing how the
relative volume of the fine soil (developed near the
interface) grows sharply over the first few metres of
displacement and stabilises after around 10 to 15m.
The finer sands (e.g. TVS and Sand 52/100) showed
far less significant crushing and variations in their
global particle size distributions.
Regarding the roughness of the interfaces (Table
2), in all tests, except those on HPF4 silt (D50 = 0.04
mm), the concrete interfaces became rougher after
shearing against the sands under a final normal stress
of 400 kPa. It is possible that industrial piles would
have harder surfaces and might experience less
marked increases during driving. As with particle
crushing, surface roughening increased with total
shear displacement. Shearing against HPF4 silt
reduced the surface roughness, suggesting a
polishing action against the concrete interface.
The observation of marginally higher δ΄cv values in
the concrete-sand tests than in the steel-sand
experiments may appear to contradict the classical
expectation that interface friction should increase as
surface hardness falls and surface roughness
increases: see for example Bowden and Tabor
(1967), Frost et al (2002). However, the anomaly
may relate to the different surface morphology of the
two interface types. The concrete interface surface
can be described as being undulated with gentle
peaks and valleys (Figure 6) that may encourage the
coarse grain soils (i.e 7/14, 14/25, 16/30) towards a
slipping failure mode, resulting in lower δ΄ values.
With increasing displacement, crushing of particles
and ploughing of the interface occurs and fines
concentrate at the interface resulting in the trend for
δ΄cv to rise as displacements increase.
In contrast, the steel interface has both sharp
peaks and deep valleys (Figure 6). The grains of both
coarse and fine soils are in contact with numerous
sharp asperities. The greater hardness of the steel
leads to less surface abrasion taking place; the
generation of fines by sand particle crushing
dominates the trend for δ΄cv to grow with post-peak
shear displacement. Ho et al (2008) provide further
information regarding the particle size distribution
and roughness trends for the steel interfaces; the
latter generally became marginally smoother as a
result of shearing.
3.3 Effect of particle crushing and relative
roughness on δ΄cv for the concrete interfaces
As noted above, prolonged shearing under high
stresses modifies the particle size distribution (see
Figure 3) and interface surface roughness (see Table
2). The effect of the accumulative displacement on
tan δ΄cv is further illustrated for concrete interfaces in
Figure 10. The δ΄cv values of the coarse sand
increases progressively with shear displacement.
Figure 10. Effect of shearing displacement on δ’cv for the tests
on concrete interfaces
Data from short displacement interface shear tests
can show practically linear relationships between tan
δ΄ and normalised relative surface roughness Ra/D50;
see for example Uesugi and Kishida (1986) or
Jardine et al (1992). Considering first the δ΄cv angles
defined after just 50mm of displacement, when fines
generation would be minimal and the interfaces
relatively fresh, the soil-concrete data may be plotted
meaningfully in terms of the initial Ra values and
particle size distributions, as summarised by the D50
data. The 50mm results have been processed in this
way and the resulting tan δ΄cv trends given at the left
hand side of Figure 11 show good agreement with
the direct shear tests of Jardine et al (1992). Also
shown are trends from the large displacement
concrete interface shear tests, where Ra is taken from
the post-test interface shear roughness measurements
and D50 is estimated to fall in the range of the fine
soil isolated in the grading tests, as this dominates in
the shear zone. Ho et al (2008) give a closer analysis
of the equivalent trends for the steel interface tests.
The results presented in Figure 11 suggest a
general overall pattern for the sub-rounded to sub-
angular sands shearing against the concrete
interfaces. It appears that tan δ΄cv increases linearly
with relative roughness (from a minimum of around
0.425) until Ra/D50 ~ 60×10-3 when it reaches a
plateau with tan δ΄cv ~ 0.51 (or δ΄cv ~ 27o) that
applies, with some variation, to roughness ratios up
to 1200×10-3. The angular silt is able to develop
marginally higher δ΄cv values, but none of the
interface shear tests is able to reach angles as high as
those normally associated with triaxial or direct shear
tests on the same soils under critical state shearing
conditions. The sub-rounded to sub-angular silica
sands tested typically show φ΄cv values of around 32o;
Jardine et al (1992).
Figure 11. Relationship tan δ΄cv for the concrete interfaces and
normalised roughness, with trend lines
4 SUMMARY AND CONCLUSIONS
The experiments described above lead to six main
conclusions:
1. Silica sands sheared against concrete interfaces of
similar initial roughness to industrial piles
developed large-displacement constant volume
interface friction angles δ΄cv of 25.5° to 31° that
increased with decreasing initial grain size and
generally fell below the sands’ φ΄cv values (the
latter typically falling around 32o).
2. The concrete interface δ΄cv values were also
slightly (0o to 1.5o) lower that those applying in
equivalent tests on mild steel interfaces that had
similar roughnesses to industrial piles.
3. Differences in the interfaces’ surface topographies
might explain the otherwise surprising trend for
δ΄cv to be higher in the tests involving hard steel
interfaces than in those on softer concrete surfaces.
4. The steel interface tests showed lower sensitivity
to initial particle size, their mean δ΄cv values fell
marginally below the 29o design recommendation
proposed by CUR (2001).
5. Tests on both interface types showed δ΄cv values
that did not depend significantly on the normal
stresses, over the ranges applied.
6. Large shear displacements permitted significant
particle breakage to occur, causing considerable
changes in surface roughness and increases in δ΄cv.
7. The studies confirm that δ΄cv is displacement-
dependent. This has many important implications
for practical geotechnical engineering. Due
consideration must be given to the choice of test
method when determining interface shear
parameters for different applications. For
example, limited displacement direct or simple
shear test data are not applicable to the analysis of
displacement pile foundations, for which ring
shear testing is more appropriate. However, small
displacement test data are more appropriate in
applications such as shallow foundations, cast
shafts or retaining walls.
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
The Authors acknowledge the generous assistance of
colleagues and technical staff at Imperial College
London. This paper is also published with the
permission of the Head of the Geotechnical
Engineering Office and the Director of Civil
Engineering and Development, the Government of
the Hong Kong Special Administrative Region, who
supported the second Author during his studies at
Imperial College.
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