1

P-N Junction Diodes

How do they work?
(A little math)
Movement of Electrons and Holes
when Forming the Junction
Circles are charges free to move (Electrons and Holes)
Squares are charges NOT free to move (Ionized Donor or Acceptor Atoms)
Space Charge or Depletion Region
Electron diffusion
Hole diffusion
High hole
Concentration
High electron
Concentration
Local region of
positive charge
due to
imbalance in
electron-donor
concentrations
Local region of
negative charge
due to
imbalance in
hole-acceptor
concentrations
High hole
Concentration
High electron
Concentration
E
Movement of Electrons and Holes
when Forming the Junction
Space Charge or Depletion Region
Uniformly doped p-type and n-type
semiconductors before the junction
is formed.
The electric field in the depletion region
and the energy band diagram of a p-n
junction in thermal equilibrium.
E
(a) A p-n junction with abrupt doping
changes at the metallurgical junction.
(b) Energy band diagram of an abrupt
junction at thermal equilibrium.
(c) Space charge distribution.
(d) Rectangular approximation of the space
charge distribution.
2
Movement of Electrons and Holes
when Forming the Junction
Space Charge or Depletion Region
Space charge distribution in the
depletion region at thermal
equilibrium.
Electric-field distribution.
The shaded area corresponds to the
built-in potential.
N
D
- N
A
Movement of Electrons and Holes
when Forming the Junction
No net current flow
in equilibrium
Einstein Relation
q
kT D
n
n
=

Built-in-Potential
Movement of Electrons and Holes
when Forming the Junction
For N
A
=N
D
=10
15
/cm
-3
in Silicon at room temperature,
V
bi
~ 0.6 V
For a non-degenerate semiconductor, |-qV
bi
|<|E
g
|
Note: This is not the diode turn-on voltage!
This is the voltage required to reach a flat band diagram and sets an upper limit
(typically an overestimate) for the voltage that can be applied to a diode before it
burns itself up.
Built-in-Potential
function of
impurity concentration
Movement of Electrons and Holes
when Forming the Junction
Built-in potentials on the p-side and n-side of abrupt junctions
in Si and GaAs as a function of impurity concentration.
3
Movement of Electrons and Holes
when Forming the Junction
Depletion Region Approximation
Depletion Region Approximation states that approximately no free
carriers exist in the space charge region and no net charge exists
outside of the depletion region ( known as the quasi-neutral region).
within the quasi-neutral region
within the space charge region
K
s
: dielectric constant

0
: permittivity of free space
Poissons Equation
E
C
E
V
E
F
E
i
E
C
E
V
E
F
E
i
p-Type Material n-Type Material
- qxV
BI
+
+
+++
+
+++ + + + + +++++ +
Thus,
Movement of Electrons and Holes
when Forming the Junction
Depletion Region Approximation: Step Junction Solution
0

s
K dx
dE
= Poissons Equation
Movement of Electrons and Holes
when Forming the Junction
Depletion Region Approximation: Step Junction Solution
Movement of Electrons and Holes
when Forming the Junction
Depletion Region Approximation: Step Junction Solution
4
Movement of Electrons and Holes
when Forming the Junction
Depletion Region Approximation: Step Junction Solution
Movement of Electrons and Holes
when Forming the Junction
Depletion Region Approximation: Step Junction Solution
Diode under Forward Bias.mov Diode under no Bias.mov Diode under Reverse Bias.mov
Schematic representation of
depletion layer width and
energy band diagrams of a
p-n junction under various
biasing conditions.
Reverse-bias condition
Forward-bias condition
Thermal-equilibrium
Movement of Electrons and Holes
when Forming the Junction
Depletion Region
Forward bias Reverse bias
Movement of Electrons and Holes
when Forming the Junction
Depletion Region
Carrier distribution
Energy band diagram
5
Fig. 4-8: Double-het
erostructure configur
ation
Thus, only the boundary conditions change resulting in
direct replacement of V
bi
with (V
bi
-V
A
) with V
A
0.
Movement of Electrons and Holes
when Forming the Junction
Depletion Region Approximation: Step Junction Solution
Movement of Electrons and Holes
when Forming the Junction
Depletion Region Approximation:
Step Junction Solution with V
A
0
Consider a p
+
n junction (heavily doped p-side, lightly doped n side)
Movement of Electrons and Holes
when Forming the Junction
6
Movement of Electrons and Holes
when Forming the Junction
Electron diffusion across a pn junction
Movement of Electrons and Holes
when Forming the Junction
Forward bias condition
Movement of Electrons and Holes
when Forming the Junction
Reverse bias condition
7
P-N Junction Diodes
Current Flowing through a Diode
I-V Characteristics
Quantitative Analysis
(Math, math and more math)
p-n Junction I-V Characteristics
In Equilibrium (no bias)
Total current balances due to the sum of the individual components
Electron Drift
Current
Electron Diffusion
Current
Hole Drift
Current
Hole Diffusion
Current
Diode under no Bias.mov
no net current!
E
C
E
V
E
F
E
i
p-Type Material
n-Type Material
- qxV
BI
+
+
+++
+
+++ + + + + +++++ +
0 = + = + = n D q nE q J J J
n n
Diffusion
n
Drift
n n

no net current!
p-n Junction I-V Characteristics
E
C
E
V
E
F
E
i
n vs. E
p vs. E
In Equilibrium (no bias)
Total current balances due to the sum of the individual components
0 = + = + = p D q pE q J J J
p p
Diffusion
p
Drift
p p

p-n Junction I-V Characteristics
Forward Bias (V
A
> 0)
I
Hole Drift
Current
Electron Drift
Current
Electron Diffusion
Current
Hole Diffusion
Current
I
P
I
N
Diode under Forward Bias.mov
Current flow is dominated
by majority carriers flowing
across the junction and
becoming minority carriers
V
A
Current flow is
proportional to
e(Va/Vref) due to
the exponential
decay of carriers
into the majority
carrier bands
Lowering of
potential hill
by V
A
surmount potential barrier
P N
I I I + =
8
Hole Diffusion Current negligible
due to large energy barrier
Hole Drift
Current
Electron Drift
Current
Electron Diffusion Current negligible
due to large energy barrier
Reverse Bias (V
A
< 0)
Diode under Reverse Bias.mov
p-n Junction I-V Characteristics
Current flow is constant
due to thermally generated
carriers swept out by E
fields in the depletion
region
Current flow is dominated by
minority carriers flowing
across the junction and
becoming majority carriers
Increase of
potential hill
by V
A
Where does the Reverse Bias Current come from?
Generation near the depletion region edges replenishes the
current source.
p-n Junction I-V Characteristics
Putting it all together
p-n Junction I-V Characteristics
for Ideal diode
V
ref
= kT/q
-I
0
(
(

|
|
.
|

\
|
= 1
0
kT
qV
exp I I

: Diode Ideality Factor

p-n Junction I-V Characteristics
Diode Equation
9
Quantitative p-n Diode Solution
Assumptions:
1) Steady state conditions
2) Non- degenerate doping
3) One- dimensional analysis
4) Low- level injection
5) No light (G
L
= 0)
Current equations:
) x ( J ) x ( J J
n p p
+ =
|
|
.
|

\
|
=
dx
dp
qD pE q J
p p p

|
|
.
|

\
|
=
dx
dn
qD nE q J
n n n

Application of the Minority Carrier Diffusion Equation
Since electric fields
exist in the
depletion region,
the minority carrier
diffusion equation
does not apply
here.
Quisineutral Region Quisineutral Region
0
0
0
0
Quantitative p-n Diode Solution
minority carrier diffusion eq.
minority carrier diffusion eq.
Quisineutral Region Quisineutral Region
Quantitative p-n Diode Solution
kT ) F F (
i
P N
e n np

=
2
quasi-Fermi levels formalism
kT E E
i
kT E E
i
f i
i f
e n p
e n n
) (
0
) (
0

=
=
Equilibrium
kT F E
i
kT E F
i
P i
i N
e n p
e n n
) (
) (

=
=
Non-Equilibrium
The Fermi level is meaningful only when the system is in thermal equilibrium.
The non-equilibrium carrier concentration can be expressed by defining
Quasi-Fermi levels F
n
and F
p
.
Equilibrium Non-Equilibrium
Quasi - Fermi Levels
10
Quisineutral Region Quisineutral Region
Quantitative p-n Diode Solution
kT ) F F (
i
P N
e n np

=
2
quasi-Fermi levels formalism
?
Quisineutral Region Quisineutral Region
Quantitative p-n Diode Solution
|
|
.
|

\
|
+ =
dx
dn
D nE q J
n n n

( )
dx
n n d
qD
p
n
+
=
0
dx
n d
qD
p
n

=
|
|
.
|

\
|
+ =
dx
dp
D pE q J
p p p

( )
dx
p p d
qD
n
p
+
=
0
dx
p d
qD
n
p

=
0
0
Approach:
Solve minority carrier diffusion equation in quasineutral regions.
Determine minority carrier currents from continuity equation.
Evaluate currents at the depletion region edges.
Add these together and multiply by area to determine the total
current through the device.
Use translated axes, x t x and -x t x in our solution.
Quisineutral Region Quisineutral Region
x=0 x=0
Quantitative p-n Diode Solution
Quisineutral Region Quisineutral Region
x=0 x=0
Quantitative p-n Diode Solution
Holes on the n-side
11
Quantitative p-n Diode Solution
Quisineutral Region Quisineutral Region
x=0 x=0
Holes on the n-side
Quantitative p-n Diode Solution
Similarly for electrons on the p-side
Quisineutral Region Quisineutral Region
x=0 x=0
Quisineutral Region Quisineutral Region
Depletion Region
Negligible thermal R-G implies
J
n
and J
p
are constant throughout
the depletion region. Thus, the
total current can be define in
terms of only the current at the
depletion region edges.
Quantitative p-n Diode Solution
0 0
0
0
( ) ( )
( ) ( )
N P p p P
p N p p N
x J x x x J
x J x x x J
=
=
) x ( J ) x ( J J
p P p N
+ =
Continuity equation
... light as such
processes other All
G R Thermal
P
... light as such
processes other All
G R Thermal
N
t
p
t
p
J
q t
p
t
n
t
n
J
q t
n

+ =

+ =

1
1
Continuity Equations
Quantitative p-n Diode Solution
12
Quisineutral Region Quisineutral Region
x=0 x=0
Quantitative p-n Diode Solution
Total on current is constant throughout the device.
Thus, we can characterize the current flow components as
-x
p
x
n
J
pn-junction diode structure used in the discussion of currents. The sketch
shows the dimensions and the bias convention. The cross-sectional area
A is assumed to be uniform.
Hole current (solid line) and recombining electron current (dashed line) in the quasi-neutr
al n-region of the long-base diode of Figure 5.5. The sum of the two currents J (dot-dash l
ine) is constant.
Hole density in the quasi-neutral n-region of an ideal short-base
diode under forward bias of Va volts.
13
The ratio of generation-region width xi to space-charge-region width xd as a
function of reverse voltage for several donor concentrations in a one-sided s
tep junction.
The current components in the quasi-neutral regions of a long-base diode
under moderate forward bias: J(1) injected minority-carrier current, J(2)
majority-carrier current recombining with J(1), J(3) majority-carrier current
injected across the junction. J(4) space-charge-region recombination current.
(d) Adapted from [8]. Current-voltage characteristic for a diode near the
boundary between (a) and (c), showing diffusion current at lower voltages and
a transition to thermionic-emission current at higher biases.
Current in a Heterojunction
14
(a) Transient increase of excess stored holes in a long-base ideal diode for a
constant current drive applied at time zero with the diode initially unbiased. Note
the constant gradient at x = xn as time increases from (1) through (5), which
indicates a constant injected hole current. (Circuit shown in inset.) (b) Diode
voltage VD versus time.
(a) Transient decay of excess stored holes in a long-base ideal diode. In the case
shown, the initial forward bias applied through the series resistor is abruptly
changed to a negative bias at time t = 0. (Circuit shown in inset.) (b) Diode current
ID versus time.
Junction and Free-Carrier Storage
J
elec
x
n-region
J = J
elec
+ J
hole
SCL
Minority carrierdiffusion
current
Majority carrier diffusion
and drift current
Total current
J
hole
W
n W
p
p-region
J
The total current anywhere in the device is constant.
Just outside the depletion region it is due to the diffusion of
minority carriers.
Quantitative p-n Diode Solution
15
Quantitative p-n Diode Solution
Thus, evaluating the current components at the depletion region edges,
we have
Note: V
ref
from our previous qualitative analysis equation is the thermal voltage, kT/q
J = J
n (x=0)
+J
p (x=0)
= J
n (x=0)
+J
n (x=0)
= J
n (x=0)
+J
p (x=0)

Ideal Diode Equation Shockley Equation

Current-Voltage Characteristics
of a Typical Silicon p-n Junction
Quantitative p-n Diode Solution
Examples
Diode in a circuit