GRD Guidelines

engineering guidelines - grilles & diffusers
B
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Table of Contents
Engineering Guidelines - GRD
overview
Engineering Guidelines Overview...................................................................................................................................................B4
grilles & diffusers

Grilles & Diffusers...........................................................................................................................................................................B5 Basic Principles of Air Distribution.................................................................................................................................................B5 The Goal of an Air Diffusion System: Maintaining Comfort....................................................................................................B5 Comfort Limits Set by ASHRAE Handbook, ASHRAE Standard 55 and ISO Standard 7730...................................................B5 Comfort: A Function of Room Air Velocity..............................................................................................................................B6 Fangers Comfort Index...........................................................................................................................................................B7 General Comfort Guidelines....................................................................................................................................................B7 Outlet Location and Selection ........................................................................................................................................................B7 Three Methods........................................................................................................................................................................B7 Method I.Selection by Noise Criteria (NC).............................................................................................................................B7 Method II.Selection by Supply Jets Mapping........................................................................................................................B8 Method III.Selection by Comfort Criteria - ADPI....................................................................................................................B8 Isothermal Air Jets.......................................................................................................................................................................B10 Jet Characteristics: Four Zones of Expansion.......................................................................................................................B10 Room Air Induction Rate for an Outlet..................................................................................................................................B11 Jet Characteristics Surface Effect (Coanda Effect)...............................................................................................................B12 Procedure to Obtain Catalog Throw Data.............................................................................................................................B13 Isothermal Jet Theory for All Outlets....................................................................................................................................B13 Nonisothermal Jets...............................................................................................................................................................B13 Exhaust and Return Grille Pressure......................................................................................................................................B13 Throw and Drop from Side Wall Outlets in Free Space.........................................................................................................B14 Other Diffusers With Cooling................................................................................................................................................B17 Supply Outlet Classifications........................................................................................................................................................B17 Typical Air Distribution Characteristics.................................................................................................................................B17 Classification of Supply Outlets............................................................................................................................................B19 Horizontal, Circular and Cross Flow Patterns.......................................................................................................................B21 Vertical Downward Projection From Ceiling.........................................................................................................................B23 Estimating Downward Vertical Projection............................................................................................................................B24 Diffuser Applications on Exposed Ducts...............................................................................................................................B24 Horizontal Projection at Floor Level: Displacement Ventilation............................................................................................B25 Vertical Upward Projection from Floor, Low Side Wall and Sill............................................................................................B26 Perimeter Applications.................................................................................................................................................................B27 Outlet Located Back from Perimeter Wall.............................................................................................................................B28 Outlet Vertical Projection at a Window.................................................................................................................................B28 Rolling a Room......................................................................................................................................................................B28 Some Perimeter Considerations............................................................................................................................................B28 ADPI-Air Diffusion Performance Index.........................................................................................................................................B29 ADPI Can be Obtained by Measurement or Through Prediction...........................................................................................B30 Jet Calculations....................................................................................................................................................................B31 Industrial Applications..................................................................................................................................................................B32 Thermal Standards for Industrial Work Areas.......................................................................................................................B32 Control of Heat Exposures by Isolating the Source...............................................................................................................B32 General Ventilation................................................................................................................................................................B33
ENGINEERING GUIDELINES
B2
Table of Contents (continued)

Local Relief...........................................................................................................................................................................B33 Guidelines for Local Area or Spot Cooling Ventilation:.........................................................................................................B33 Outlet Selections...................................................................................................................................................................B33 Other Grille and Diffuser Application Factors...............................................................................................................................B36 Pressure Measurements.......................................................................................................................................................B36 Airflow Measurements.........................................................................................................................................................B36 Velocity Distribution from Linear Diffusers...........................................................................................................................B36 Ducts for Linear Diffusers.....................................................................................................................................................B36 Expansion and Contraction of Aluminum Linear Grilles.......................................................................................................B36 Installation Acoustics...........................................................................................................................................................B37
acoustical applications & factors

Acoustical Applications & Factors................................................................................................................................................B39 Noise Criteria (NC)................................................................................................................................................................B39 Room Criteria (RC)................................................................................................................................................................B41 Air Terminal Sound Issues....................................................................................................................................................B43 AHRI Standard 885...............................................................................................................................................................B44 Environmental Adjustment Factor .......................................................................................................................................B44 Discharge Sound Power Levels.............................................................................................................................................B45 Acceptable Total Sound in a Space.......................................................................................................................................B46 Maximum Sound Power Levels for Manufacturers Data.....................................................................................................B48 Desired Room Sound Pressure Levels...................................................................................................................................B48 Radiated Sound Power Level Specifications.........................................................................................................................B49 Discharge Sound Power Level Specifications.......................................................................................................................B49 Diffuser Specifications..........................................................................................................................................................B50 Determining Compliance to a Specification..........................................................................................................................B51
references
References....................................................................................................................................................................................B52
glossary
Glossary........................................................................................................................................................................................B54
B3
Overview

(ASHRAE) Standard 70 and Standard 113. Although Titus has no control over the system, design and application of these products, a function which rightfully belongs to the designer, this data accurately represents the product performance based on the results of laboratory tests. Furthermore, the recommended methods of applying this information have been shown by field experience to result in optimum space air distribution.
The selection and performance data contained in this catalog are the result of extensive studies conducted in the Titus engineering laboratories under professional engineering guidance, with adherence to sound engineering applications. They are intended to be aids to heating and air conditioning engineers and designers with skill and knowledge in the art of air distribution. The data has been obtained in accordance with the principles outlined within the American Society of Heating, Refrigerating and Air Conditioning Engineers
B4
Grilles and Diffusers

BASIC PRINCIPLES OF AIR DISTRIBUTION
THE GOAL OF AN AIR DIFFUSION SYSTEM: MAINTAINING COMFORT
An understanding of the principles of room air distribution helps in the selection, design, control and operation of air systems. The real evaluation of air distribution in a space, however, must answer the question: Are the occupants comfortable? In general, a person is thermally comfortable when body heat loss equals heat production without being conscious of any changes in the bodys temperature regulating mechanisms. The human body heat loss to the environment can occur through the following: Radiation Conduction Convection Evaporation

100 Neck region
Local Air Velocity, FPM
80
40 %
60
30 %
40
20 %
Feeling of coolness
20
10 %
Feeling of warmth
0 -6 -4 -2 0 2 4
Local Air Temp. minus Ambient Temp. (TX - TA)
The comfort of an occupant is determined by both occupant variables and the conditions of the space. Occupant factors include activity level and metabolic rate (reported in Met units), as well as occupant clothing levels (reported in Clo units). The factors that influence space comfort conditions include:
Local Air Velocity, FPM
Figure 1.Comfort Chart - Neck Region

100 40% 80 30% 60 20% 40 Feeling of coolness 10% Feeling of warmth Ankle region
Dry bulb and radiant temperatures Relative humidity Air velocity The design of the air distribution system should address the above factors so that the occupants heat loss is maintained at a comfortable rate.
COMFORT LIMITS SET BY ASHRAE HANDBOOK, ASHRAE STANDARD 55 AND ISO STANDARD 7730
For many years, it has been shown that individual comfort is maintained through the change in seasons when the following conditions are maintained in the occupied zone of a space: 1. Air temperature maintained between 73 - 77F 2. Relative humidity maintained less than 60% 3. Maximum air motion in the occupied zone 4. (6 to 6 vertical, within 1 of walls): 50 fpm cooling 30 fpm heating 5. Ankle to head level, 5.4F standing & 3.6F seated maximum temperature gradient Note:The comfort standards state that no minimum air movement is necessary to maintain thermal comfort, provided the temperature is acceptable. To maximize energy conservation, maintain proper temperatures at the lowest possible air speed. The previous conditions assume occupants are sedentary or slightly active individuals and appropriately dressed. Variations in clothing can have a strong effect on desired
20
0 -6 -4 -2 0 2 4
Local Air Temp. minus Ambient Temp. (TX - TA)
GRILLES AND DIFFUSERS
Figure 2.Comfort Chart - Ankle Region temperature levels, often creating circumstances where a single setpoint will not satisfy all individuals in a space. In meeting the above criteria for comfort, the temperature of the space and the relative humidity is largely controlled by the mechanical equipment including chillers or package units, air handlers, room thermostat, and air terminal unit. The air motion in the occupied zone is a function of the discharge velocity, discharge temperature (and room load) and the pattern of the air diffusion device into the space. At todays relatively low (< 1 cfm / sq.ft.) air delivery rates, and with properly selected diffusers, room load (and resultant Dt) is often the strongest variable in setting room air motion.
B5
Basic Principles of Air Distribution (continued)


Generally, the acceptable level of comfort for a space is considered to be at the point where 20% or less of the room occupants may object to the room conditions. This would indicate that the given condition is acceptable to 80% of the occupants. We all have perceived this above change and these subjective responses to drafts (temperature difference and air velocity). In 1938 Houghten et. al. developed the curves shown in (Figures 1 and 2). Utilizing this data, the equation for effective draft temperature was generated.
COMFORT: A FUNCTION OF ROOM AIR VELOCITY

Some interesting relationships exist between room air motion and the feeling of occupant comfort. Figure 1 shows the effect of air motion on comfort. The charts show that the feeling of comfort is a function of the local room air velocity, local temperature and ambient temperature. Local temperature (Tx) (Figures 1 and 2) is the temperature at a given point in a space. Ambient temperature (TA) is the desired room temperature and can be considered the thermostat setpoint. The basic criteria for room air distribution can be obtained from the curves shown in (Figure 1). The chart shows the equivalent feeling of comfort for varying room temperatures and velocities at the neck. The % curves indicate the number of people who would object to the temperature and velocity conditions. The same comfort perceptions are shown in (Figure 2) for the ankle region. Table 1.Effect of Velocity and Temperature on Comfort Local Velocity Temperature F fpm 80 60 40 15 60 40 30 15 75 74 73 71 75 75 75 75 (tX - tC) 0 -1 -2 -4 0 0 0 3 Percentage Objecting 20% 20% 20% 20% 10% 5% Neutral Warm
Equation 1:Effective draft temperature

= ( tX - tC ) - 0.07 ( Vx - 30 )
where: = effective temperature tX = local air temperatures, F tC = ambient temperature (average room temperature or control temperature, F) Vx = local air velocity, fpm ADPI (Air Diffusion Performance Index) was derived by Nevins and Ward. The percentage of all local points in an occupied space where - 3< <+ 2 with the velocity less than 70 fpm results in a single comfort index for the space.
= -3F 100 Neck region 80 = +2F
60
30
40
Table 1 shows the relationship between local velocities and temperatures on occupant comfort. As an example, at a local velocity of 80 fpm, the local temperature can be maintained at 75F to reach an 80% comfort level in the space. The same 80% comfort level can be maintained with local air velocity of 15 fpm and a local temperature reduced to 71F. The lower portion of Table 1 shows the effect on comfort of room air velocity with local temperature remaining constant at 75F. For example, with a local velocity of 30 fpm and a local temperature at 75F, the comfort reaction is neutral. Increasing the velocity to 60 fpm results in the objective increasing to 10%. This phenomenon of feeling can be illustrated by using a ceiling fan. A person can be cooled without decreasing the actual temperature by turning on a ceiling fan. The fan, in effect, increases the local air velocity and increases the feeling of coolness. It is shown that a velocity change of 15 fpm produces approximately the same effect on comfort as a 1F temperature change. The dotted lines in (Figures 1, 2 and 3) show the division between the feeling or perception of heating and cooling.
0 -6 -4 -2 0 2 4
Local Air Temp. minus Ambient , F (tX - tC)
Figure 3.Comfort Chart with ADPI Parallelogram In the parallelogram in (Figure 3), the left line is = - 3, the right line is = + 2 and the top line is 70 fpm. The parallelogram in (Figure 3) shows these limits and all their points are within the overall 80% acceptance. This method of obtaining a single point comfort rating can be used to rate a system in the field. It will also be covered more thoroughly in the outlet selections section, and the ADPI section page B29. It is also expected that there is a strong correlation between ADPI and ventilation air mixing, or Air Change Effectiveness, and this issue is expected to be included in the upcoming revision to ASHRAE Standard 62 on indoor air quality.
B6
10 %
If 20% objections or 80% acceptance at the same velocities are allowed between (Figure 1 and Figure 2), the temperature deviation allowed between the ankle and neck levels would be about 4F (less than ASHRAE values of 5.4F).
40
Feeling of coolness
20
20 %
Feeling of warmth
Basic Principles of Air Distribution (continued)

FANGERS COMFORT INDEX

A third comfort index which is used frequently in reports to compare research results is Fangers procedure which is the basis for ISO Standard 7730. Fangers method determines the Predicted Mean Vote (PMV) and the Predicted Percentage of Dissatisfied (PPD) at each of a number of measuring points uniformly distributed throughout the occupied zone. The Fanger equation includes thermal parameters not considered in the ADPI (relative humidity, mean radiant temperature, clothing insulation, and activity levels). The PMV approach has the advantage of providing a single number rating combining all comfort elements. The ASHRAE 55 and ISO 7730 Standards yield essentially the same space conditions for acceptability. ASHRAE 55 incorporates PMV in its current revision. From both ASHRAE and ISO standards, the estimated comfort of 80% of the individuals in a space can be plotted. From a program developed as part of the ASHRAE 55 review process, a consensus computer program was developed and published. This program has been used to plot data on a psychrometric chart for two sets of typically occurring conditions:
Executive & Clerical 80% 60% 50%
HEATING
Generally, during heating, local air velocities are low, often below 30 fpm. If the 80% comfort factor is to be met, the maximum temperature gradient from ankle to the neck should be no more than 5.4F.
COOLING
During cooling, which is the predominant mode in most occupied spaces, local air temperature differentials generally are not more than 1 to 2F from ankle to neck region with properly designed air distribution systems. Therefore, to maintain the 80% comfort level, the air distribution system should be selected to limit the local air velocities to not exceed 50 fpm.
OUTLET LOCATION AND SELECTION

THREE METHODS
Outlets are located in the side wall, ceiling, sill, etc., by the designers preference or by necessity due to the building construction. The type and size are selected to most effectively overcome stratification zones created by the natural convection and internal loading. At the same time selection should result in acceptable noise levels and room velocities and temperatures to satisfy as high a percentage of occupants as possible per (Figure 1, page B6). (At least 80% of space occupants.)
0.8
Partial Pressure, Millibars
40% 0.5 % RH
METHOD I.SELECTION BY NOISE CRITERIA (NC)

The most frequently used procedure to select an outlet size is by using the tabulated Outlet NC level (which typically assumes a 10 dB room absorption at the observers location) equal to the desired space NC. See page B39. (While RC is replacing NC in the ASHRAE Handbook, most specifications will continue to reference NC for some time, and with diffusers, there is seldom any difference between NC and RC.) To take into account the number of outlets, distance, room size, etc., see the discussion on the Outlet NC Level and Noise Criteria/Room Criteria in the Acoustical Design section, page B39. Multiple outlets in a space at the same cataloged NC rating will result in an increase in the actual sound levels heard. A second outlet within 10 ft. will add no more than 3 dB to the sound pressure level. Guidelines for Selection by NC Generally within a 10 ft. module the catalog NC rating will apply for diffusers and continuous linears We hear only 10 ft. of a continuous diffuser A wide open balancing damper in the neck may add 4 - 5 NC Significantly closed balancing dampers can add more than 10 NC, depending on the duct pressure and supply fan characteristics
0.3 Executive Clerical
20%
10%
0.0 50 55 60 65 70 75 80 85 Temperature, F.
Condition 1(Executive):
Figure 4.PMV Chart
Met Rate = 1.1 (Typical for office) Clothing Rate = 1.0 (Shirt, tie, long pants, socks) Air Speed = 20 fpm (Typical interior office)
Condition 1(Clerical):
Met Rate = 0.9 (Sedentary) Clothing Rate = 0.5 (Skirt, blouse, no socks) Air Speed = 20 fpm (Typical interior office)
It can be seen from this graph that a single setpoint, such as 75F, 50% RH is not likely to satisfy even 80% of all individuals in a space.
GENERAL COMFORT GUIDELINES
Most published guidelines for comfort suggest the below conditions are maintained, adjusted for seasonal and occupational clothing and activity levels:
The effect of inlet dampers can be determined by calculating the ratio of the Velocity to Total Pressure.
B7
Outlet Location and Selection (continued)


MAPPING PROCEDURES
1. Select type of diffuser (Reviewing the Classification of Supply Outlets section on page B17 will help determine the best device). 2. For diffusers, check Table 5 on page B17 to determine if the air quantity is less than the maximum. 3. When selecting a side wall grille, check configuration in (Figures 10 through 15), in this section for drop during cooling (use cfm and jet velocity). 4. Plot isothermal T150, T100, T50 from performance data in catalog for a selected size and cfm at the throw distances. 5. If the outlet provides a horizontal pattern below the ceiling, the pattern will tend to leave the ceiling near the 100 fpm terminal velocity. 6. Repeat steps 1 through 5 as necessary to meet job requirements.
Flow restrictions increase the space sound levels. When making a selection at a given cfm and adding a damper, a device with a low total pressure will have a higher actual increase in NC as compared to a device with a higher total pressure. The sound level increases above the cataloged NC rating due to the pressure increases from dampers or other control devices, can be approximated by the use of Table 2. An inlet balancing damper can be expected to add about 3 dB when fully open, and as much as 10 dB or more if significantly closed. Table 2.Effect of Dampers on Outlet NC Total Pressure Ratio dB Increase 100% 150% 200% 400% 0 4.5 8 16
METHOD II.SELECTION BY SUPPLY JETS MAPPING

This selection procedure uses the throw values to terminal velocities of 150, 100 and 50 fpm from the performance tables. Examples of how terminal velocities are used are shown in (Figures 7 and 8, pages B11 and B12). Temperature differences at these terminal velocities are added to the map by using the following equation:
METHOD III.SELECTION BY COMFORT CRITERIA - ADPI

ADPI (Air Diffusion Performance Index) statistically relates the space conditions of local or traversed temperatures and velocities to occupants thermal comfort. This is similar to the way NC relates local conditions of sound to occupants noise level comfort. High ADPI values are desirable as they represent a high comfort level, and also increased probability of ventilation air mixing. Acceptable ADPI conditions for different diffuser types are shown in (Figure 5) for velocities less than 70 fpm and velocity-temperature combinations that will provide better than the 80% occupant acceptance. The curves in (Figure 5) summarize some of the tests which established ADPI and the relationships from which this selection procedure originates.
100 4 Light Troffer Diffusers
Equation 2:Temperature change of supply jet

D tx = 0.8 D to where: D tx = tx - tc D to = to - tc
o
Vx Vo
tx = local air temperature, F tc = ambient temperature (average room temperature for control temperature, F) to = outlet air temperature, F Table 3.Jet Velocity vs. Temperature Rise VX, fpm tX, F 500 8 400 6.4 300 4.8 200 3.2 100 1.6 50 0.8
Note: Temperature Differential between total air and room air for various terminal velocities. Calculated with Equation 2, with Dto = 20F and Vo = 1000 fpm.
80 12 Two Slot Diffuser
Selection by supply jet mapping identifies the most probable portion of the space to be uncomfortable. Portions of a space away from the supply jet will have velocities and temperatures that are nearly equal to the space ambient conditions. Not all applications result in overblow in a confined space as shown in (Figure 8). In some cases the throw terminates with the airstream dropping into the occupied space. This is due to the buoyancy effect between the airstream and space air and/or external forces. Drop must then be considered as shown in (Figures 10 through 15, pages B13 - B16) for side wall outlets and Table 5, page B17 for ceiling diffusers. Many examples of jet performance mapping are shown throughout this engineering section.
ADPI
60 High Sidewall Round Ceiling Diffusers
40
20
= 20 BTUH/Sq.Ft . = 40 BTUH/Sq.Ft . 0.5 1.0 1.5 2.0
2.5
3.0
3.5
4.0
T50/L
Figure 5. Throw vs. Characteristic Room Length
B8
Outlet Location and Selection (continued) The curves show relative comfort for: Four different outlet types Catalog throw and space characteristics Loading (one cfm/sq. ft. with a 20F differential is a load of about 20 Btuh/sq. ft.) Flow rate (variable volume) L is the space characteristic length in feet. This is usually the distance from the outlet to the wall or mid-plane between outlets. This can also be considered the module line when outlets serve equal modules through a space, and all consideration can then be based on the module parameters. T50 is a catalog throw value to a terminal velocity of 50 fpm. A throw value can be selected using a catalog performance table by multiplying the throw ratio (T50/L) by the characteristic length (L). The throw ratio is based on a 9 ft. ceiling height. The throw can be increased or decreased by the same amount that the ceiling height exceeds or is less than 9 ft. To obtain optimum comfort in the space, ADPI tests indicate selecting the outlet from the throw ratios in Table 4 as follows. For more details on how ADPI is obtained from basic tests or field tests see ADPI topic, page B29.

ADPI SELECTION PROCEDURE

1. Select type of diffuser. 2. If a ceiling diffuser is being used, check Table 5, page B18 to determine if the air quantity is less than the maximum for the ceiling height of the room. When selecting a side wall grille, check configuration in (Figures 10 through 15, pages B15-B17) for drop during cooling (use cfm and duct velocity). 3. Select the characteristic length from the plans - the distance from a diffuser to a wall or the distance to center line between two diffusers. 4. Select the range of acceptable throw values from Table 4 below at the corresponding characteristic length. 5. From Performance Table for diffuser at required cfm, select a size with a T50 within range. With a VAV system, this must be done for both maximum flow rate (maximum load) and at the lowest flow rate expected when the space is occupied. (This may be higher than the minimum flow shown in the building plans.) 6. Check sound levels for NC compatibility. This selection will result in maximum comfort and ventilation mixing for the application. If this selection cannot be made as outlined, supply jet mapping can determine areas of discomfort in the space.
Table 4.Recommended ADPI Ranges for Outlets Outlet Sidewall Grilles 1.3-2.0 Ceiling Diffusers Round Pattern TMR, TMRA, TMS, PAS Ceiling Diffusers Cross Pattern PSS, TDC, 250 Slot Diffusers ML, TBD, LL1, LL2 Light Troffer Diffusers LTT, LPT Sill and Floor Grilles All types T50 0.7-1.7 1.0-5.0 0.5-3.3 1.0-2.0 0.6-1.2 T50/L Range L T50 L T50 L T50 L T50 L* T50 L** T50 Calculated T50 & L Data 10 13-20 5 3-6 5 5-10 5 8-18 4 4-40 5 4-9 15 20-30 10 6-12 10 10-20 10 15-33 6 6-30 10 7-17 20 26-40 15 9-18 15 15-30 15 23-50 8 8-40 15 11-26 25 33-50 20 12-24 20 20-40 20 30-66 10 10-50 20 14-34 30 39-60 25 15-30 25 25-50 25 38-83 12 12-60 25 18-43
Recommended T50/L range for PAS: 0.9-1.8 Isothermal throw to terminal velocity of 50 fpm. Select diffuser size within these ranges.
L Characteristic length from diffuser to module line. L* Distance between units plus 2 ft. down for overlapping airstream. L** Distance to ceiling and to far wall.
B9
ISOTHERMAL AIR JETS


because the data is repeatable and predictable without having to correct for the buoyancy effect associated with heated or cooled air. Because of predictability, test methods used to obtain throw data for grilles and diffusers are based on isothermal air (see ASHRAE Standard 70). Extensive studies of isothermal jets have shown that the air projection is related to the average velocity at the face of the air supply outlet or opening. The distance an airstream will travel is based on the relationship between the discharge velocity, cfm, discharge area and velocity profile. Isovel testing has shown that as an isothermal jet leaves a free opening, it can be described by its predictable characteristics and known equations. A free jet has four distinct zones of expansion with the centerline velocity of each zone related to the initial velocity as shown in (Figures 6 & 7).
The vast majority of air diffusion systems in the United States are overhead forced air systems. A grille or diffuser generates a high velocity jet and comfort conditions are maintained through mixing. The primary airstream from the air diffuser device draws the room air into the supply air jet as shown in (Figure 6, page B10). The primary airstream induces room air (or secondary air) to provide complete room air mixing and maintain thermal comfort conditions by creating uniform room temperatures. The room air motion is largely a function of the discharge velocity and induction rate of the air diffusion device at higher flows, but is increasingly dependent on room load and discharge temperature as the flow rate decreases. Isothermal jets (Isothermal refers to the supply air being at the same temperature as the room air) are studied
II
Zone III
IV
PRIMARY AIR
Total air
High velocity
22
Induced room air gentle movement
Greatest possible source of drafts
Figure 6.Expansion of primary air jet
JET CHARACTERISTICS: FOUR ZONES OF EXPANSION

As air leaves an outlet, four distinct zones of expansion define the jet. These zones are shown in the dimensionless graph (Figure 7, page B11). This graph can be generated for any diffuser or grille by experimentation, and is used to calculate the throw for a diffuser at any flow condition. (The K value for each zone is the value of the X axis where the Y axis is = 1). A description of each zone and an equation to define the characteristics of each zone is shown below. In the first zone, the jet maintains a constant velocity with minimal mixing of supply and room air. This zone extends approximately one and a half duct diameters from the face.
Equation 4: Second zone velocity

Where Q = outlet flow rate
Vx Vo
K2
Ao X
Where K2 = the second zone throw constant Ao = outlet effective area (This value may be less than the actual opening or the outlet.) X = throw distance
Equation 3: First zone velocity

Vx Vo = constant Where Vx = air speed at a point Vo = outlet air velocity In the second zone, the jet begins to mix with room air. Induction of room air also causes the jet to expand. Linear outlets typically have a long second zone and long throws.
Equation: 4A: Second zone throw X =

o
Q Vx
K2 Ao3
B10 B10
Isothermal Jets (continued) The third zone is the zone where most of the induction occurs. This is the most important zone because it has the most effect on room air velocities and room induction. The relationship between initial velocity and jet center line velocity for the third zone is given by the equation below.

Equation 5: Third zone velocity Vo Vx =

o
K3
Ao X
p
1.0
where K3 = third zone constant
K3
TY
PIC
Zone I Decreasing
AL
LIN
Zone II
EA
150 fpm 100 fpm
Zone III 50 fpm

o
Vx/ Vo
Zone IV
X/ A
Increasing
Figure 7.Four Zones of Expansion of Primary Air Jet The fourth zone is the zone with relatively low velocities. The performance in zone four is a function of the cfm. The performance is independent of the outlet size.
ROOM AIR INDUCTION RATE FOR AN OUTLET

The amount of room air induced into a primary air jet can be approximated using the equation shown below:
Equation 6: Fourth zone velocity Vx Vo =

o
K4
Ao X
p
Equation 6A: Fourth zone throw X =

o
Equation 7: Room air induction equation Qx V Induction ratio = = C o x Qo Vo

Qo Qx Vo Vx C = = = = =
Q Vx
K4
Figure 7 above shows a non-dimensional plot of the variables in the zones of an expanding jet for a grille (shaded area). The mathematical relationship between the centerline velocity and the distance to this velocity is indicated for each zone. These relationships for all outlets are obtained by the methods outlined in ASHRAE Standard 70. Average constants are included in the ASHRAE Handbook [2] for Zone III for a number of different types of outlets. Throw for each outlet type can be predicted by equations 3 through 6. Catalog throw data is generated by obtaining the constants for an outlet type and calculating the throw using the zone equations. The area for Ao and Vo must be the same for the relationships to be valid.
supply cfm cfm at distance x distance from outlet discharge velocity velocity at distance x from outlet entrainment coefficient, 1.4 for infinite slots and 2.0 for round free axial jets
B11
Isothermal Jets (continued)


Isothermal 50 60 80 100 120 150 200 300
25 T100 fpm
T150 fpm 50 fpm Isovel
T150 fpm 14" x 4" 150 cfm 500 fpm 9'
Feet
150 cfm Velocity Measurements 300 cfm Throw T150, T100, T50
30
T50 fpm 20 15 24' 10 5 0
B
20 T100 fpm
Figure 8.Mapping of Isothermal Throw
Isothermal and Cooling 24' 15 10 5 0 T150 fpm T50 fpm T150 fpm T100 fpm 9' 150 cfm Velocity Measurements 300 cfm Throw T150, T100, T50 T50 fpm Isothermal & 20 F Cooling
Figure 9.Mapping of Cooled Air Throw
JET CHARACTERISTICS SURFACE EFFECT (COANDA EFFECT)

The previous section discussed the relationships between velocity and throw in free space applications. If the jet is projected parallel to and within a few inches of a surface, the jets performance will be affected by the surface. This is called surface effect or Coanda Effect. The surface effect creates a low pressure region and tends to attach the jet flow to the ceiling or surface. (The higher pressure in the room holds the airstream to the ceiling.) As the jet flows along a surface, secondary room air can no longer mix with the part of the jet adjacent to the surface, which causes the amount of induction to decrease. This surface effect will occur if: The angle of discharge between the jet and the surface is less than 40 for circular pattern diffusers, somewhat less for jets. A side wall outlet is within 1-foot of the ceiling. Floor or sill outlet is near (within 10) to a wall. A ceiling outlet discharges along the ceiling.
B12 B12

PROCEDURE TO OBTAIN CATALOG THROW DATA

Test data in (Figure 7, page B11) shows typical velocity measurements obtained during isothermal testing of a typical 12 x 6 grille with 155 cfm. At each measuring distance (x), velocities are obtained below the ceiling at 1, 2, 3 inches, etc. The highest sustained velocities (Vx) at each distance are used in (Figure 7). For a complete series of different size outlets, (Figure 7) is a dimensionless plot of Vx /Vo vs. x /Ao. When the curves of (Figure 7) are established for a complete series, the throw values are included in the Titus performance tables for terminal velocities of 150, 100, and 50 fpm. These catalog data can then be used to map velocities. A uniform distribution of the three catalog velocities across the ceiling are shown in (Figures 8 and 9, page B12) for 150 cfm. In general, the T50 location for a free jet with 20B DT cooling will be approximately the same distance from the outlet as the T100 isothermal jet. Figures 8 and 9 also show that for 300 cfm, the three values overblow to the opposite wall. These values are approximately the total distance to the wall and down the wall. In both the 150 and 300 cfm conditions the 50 fpm isothermal envelope (isovel) is near the ceiling and wall. Higher velocities occur only near the wall with the 300 cfm. Velocities in the rest of the room are below 50 fpm. Two outlets handling the same opposing airflow values would result in airflow in the space like that shown for one jet at the wall. The 150 fpm throw would exist at the same position whether heating or cooling. With overblow, as with 300 cfm, drop would not be the same as the 150 cfm. The higher airflow is also an example of Rolling the Room, (Figure 35, page B28).
NONISOTHERMAL JETS
Year round applications often require heating, cooling and isothermal conditions through the same device. Titus originally tested all outlets using the method of analysis in (Figure 7). During cooling with a 20F differential, a modification of a similar method proposed by Koestel, taking into account the buoyancy effect, was used. As a result, Titus built an elaborate database on jet characteristics from all diffusers and grilles as shown in (Figures 10 through 15, pages B15 - B17). The most significant results are shown in these figures with side wall grilles in many applications, locations, and blade configurations. These charts show the relationship of cfm, jet velocity, throw and drop with a 20F differential between the supply air and the space air temperatures. Each circle on these curves represents the 50 fpm terminal velocity from the same size outlet under these configurations handling 300 cfm with a jet velocity of 600 fpm. Each intercept of cfm and velocity indicates the same grille size which can be determined from the tables in Sections K, L and M. From (Figure 10), the 50 fpm cooling throw and drop for a 300 fpm jet at 150 cfm are 12 ft. throw and 4.5 ft. drop below the ceiling. For 300 cfm and 300 fpm, the throw is 13 ft. and the drop is 6 ft. below the ceiling. The characteristics with 300 cfm in this room size in (Figures 12 and 13) are very similar during cooling and isothermal conditions. The drop during cooling with 150 cfm results in low temperatures and velocities 50 fpm and above in the middle of the room. In (Figures 14 and 15), the throw is reduced due to the 45 spread of the jet and drop is reduced.
EXHAUST AND RETURN GRILLE PRESSURE

For all exhaust and return grilles, the Negative Static Pressure shown in the return performance data charts is a conservative value which can be used for design purposes. For actual pressure drop, subtract the velocity pressure from the reported pressure value.
ISOTHERMAL JET THEORY FOR ALL OUTLETS

Although the information so far has dealt with grille or wall outlets, the same principles included in (Figure 7) apply equally well for all types of outlets: ceiling diffusers with air patterns on the ceiling, ceiling slots, and upward and downward projection of air. Slots and linear outlets usually show a large second zone characteristic, which results in longer throws as indicated by the dotted line in (Figure 7). Testing using isothermal air is repeatable. Therefore, isothermal diffuser testing has been the basis for throw determination in all standards since the original ADC Test Code 1062. These include 1062 thru 1062 R4, ISO, and the latest ASHRAE Standard 70. In addition, Titus has used the three throw values at 150, 100 and 50 fpm as aids in applications by mapping and application of the Air Diffusion Performance Index (ADPI). All results from different diffusers and diffuser locations are shown in the section on Classification of Supply Outlets, Table 4, page B9.
B13


The relationship of cfm, velocity, drop, and throw is based on deflection angle and ceiling effect. The figures below represent 50 fpm terminal velocities and can be used to estimate throw and drop for ceiling diffusers. The dots on the figures (or the same intercept of cfm and velocity) represent a single outlet using varying configurations.
TYPICAL 100 fpm ENVELOPE
THROW AND DROP FROM SIDE WALL OUTLETS IN FREE SPACE

The following figures show the effect of buoyancy on drop and throw for cooling jets. The charts are based on side wall outlets.
0
100
cfm 200
1000 fpm
JET VE LOCIT
Drop, Ft.
5 10 15
40
0 60 800 0 100
30 0 fp m JE T VE LO
700
500
150
0
00
20
cfm
B
Drop, Ft.
CI TY
20
10
20
Throw, Ft.
30
40
50
Figure 10.Throw and Drop for Outlet 2-4 feet Below Ceiling, 20 Degrees Vertical Deflection, 0 Degrees Spread
0
cfm 100
1000
1500 fpm
200
40 0
5 10 15 20
700
500
JET VE LOCIT
0 60 800 0 100
0 30 m fp
150
VE
0
00
20
LO
cfm
T JE
CI TY
10
20
Throw, Ft.
30
40
50
Figure 11.Throw and Drop for Outlets Mounted Without Ceiling, 20 Degree Vertical Deflection, 0 Degree Spread 1. Throw and drop values are based on 50 fpm terminal velocity. 2. Data are based on tests with 20F cooling temperature differential in space with no boundary wall. 3. Data are based on Models 271 and 272 (AeroBlade Grille). 4. The small circle in the white area of each chart shows comparative performances of one size grille at 300 cfm and 600 fpm outlet velocity. 5. Deflection settings and resulting patterns are shown on Page B21. 6. Shaded areas to right of each chart indicate noise level above 30 NC. 7. Velocities shown are outlet discharge Jet Velocity. To calculate Vo, divide the flowrate by the effective area.
B14 B14

0
100 cfm
1500
Drop, Ft.
5 10 15 20
200 400 600 800

30 pm 0f JE T
1000 700
500
fpm J ET VE LO
CITY
1000 1500
2000 cfm
VE LO
CI TY
10
20
Throw, Ft.
30
40
50
Figure 12.Throw and Drop for Outlet 1 Foot Below Ceiling 0 Degree Deflection, 0 Degree Spread
0
100 cfm
Drop, Ft.
5
400
200
150
0 fp
m J ET
VEL
10 15 20
600
1000 700
500
OCI
TY
30 0f pm JE T VE
800 1000 1500
fm 2000 c
LO CI TY
10
20
Throw, Ft.
30
40
50
Figure 13.Throw and Drop for Outlet Without Ceiling, 0 Degree Deflection, 0 Degree Spread 1. Throw and drop values are based on 50 fpm terminal velocity. 2. Data are based on tests with 20F cooling temperature differential in space with no boundary wall. 3. Data are based on Models 271 and 272 (Aeroblade Grille). 4. The small circle in the white area of each chart shows comparative performances of one size grille at 300 cfm and 600 fpm outlet velocity. 5. Deflection settings and resulting patterns are shown on Page B21. 6. Shaded areas to right of each chart indicate noise level above 30 NC. 7. Velocities shown are outlet discharge Jet Velocity. To calculate Vo, divide the flowrate by the effective area.
B15


0 5 10 15
100 200 400 600 30 800 0 fp 1000 m JE T 2000 cfm VE LO CI TY
1500 fp
m JET VELO
CITY
Drop, Ft.
500
700
1000
10
20
Throw, Ft.
30
40
50
Figure 14.Throw and Drop for Outlet 1-1/2 Feet Below Ceiling, 0 Degree Vertical, 45 Degree Spread
0 5 10 15
Drop, Ft.
100 200 0 40 600 800 1000

30 0 fp m
150
0 fp
m J ET VEL
fm 2000 c
LO C IT Y
500
700
1000
OCI
TY
JE T VE
10
20
Throw, Ft.
30
40
50
Figure 15.Throw and Drop for Outlet 2 to 4 Feet Below Ceiling, 0 Degree Vertical, 45 Degree Spread 1. Throw and drop values are based on 50 fpm terminal velocity. 2. Data are based on tests with 20F cooling temperature differential in space with no boundary wall. 3. Data are based on Models 271 and 272 (Aeroblade Grille). 4. The small circle in the white area of each chart shows comparative performances of one size grille at 300 cfm and 600 fpm outlet velocity. 5. Deflection settings and resulting patterns are shown on Page B21. 6. Shaded areas to right of each chart indicate noise level above 30 NC. 7. Velocities shown are outlet discharge Jet Velocity. To calculate Vo, divide the flowrate by the effective area.
B16 B16

The same characteristic is shown for heating. In general, only the size of the stratification zone is changed by the type of outlet and application. Results from air distribution studies show that the temperature gradient and size of the stratification zone were decreased by a decreased temperature differential and an increase in airflow rate or supply velocity. These conditions tend to reduce the buoyancy effects, and also result in an increased and more uniform room air motion. In the example shown, the heating tests were conducted with about 0F on two exposures. The cooling tests were conducted with about 100F on two exposures. The loading during these tests was excessive compared to the wall and window R values of today. Thus the temperature gradients, stratification zones, and temperature differentials were greater than would be expected. However, these conditions permitted the general characteristics to be observed and compared between different configurations.
OTHER DIFFUSERS WITH COOLING

In (Figures 10 through 15, pages B14-B16) the drop is primarily a function of the cfm. Therefore, to obtain a small drop, a small air quantity is necessary. For all outlets with horizontal airflow along the ceiling, the drop can be related to the air quantity and the ceiling height as shown in Table 5. In these cases airflow less than maximum shown results in drop above the occupied zone. Table 5.Maximum cfm for Diffusers Based on Drop
Outlet Type TMRA TMR TMS PAS TDC PSS 250* LL2* Modulinear* LL1 320 500 800 1200 1600 2000 160 250 400 600 800 1000 Ceiling Height, Ft. 8 550 270 1100 650 250 9 1300 700 1500 1000 400 10 2200 1300 2000 1500 650 900 1400 1600 12 4000 2100 14 6200 3300 16 9300 5500
FIVE STEPS TO ANALYSIS

The following are very important considerations to remember when selecting outlets and applications. They are best illustrated by following the step-by-step procedure in Figure 16, page B17.
STEP 1 - PRIMARY AIR

* cfm per side Primary air is the starting point when laying out or investigating the space room air motion. Primary air is defined as the mixture of air supplied to the outlet and induced room air within an envelope of velocities greater than 150 fpm. The primary pattern can be completely defined by high velocity isovels taken through two perpendicular planes. These show the number and angles of the jets in the primary airstream. Maximum velocities in the primary air can be obtained analytically as shown in (Figure 7, page B11). Data obtained isothermally (no temperature difference between the supply and room air) down to a velocity of 150 fpm apply equally well for heating and cooling for most diffusers.
SUPPLY OUTLET CLASSIFICATIONS

Independent comfort reactions have been covered and show the effect of local velocities and temperatures at a persons neck or ankle sections. The basic jet characteristics that can be obtained by testing have been diagrammed. Many different outlets can be selected and can be placed in many locations for conditioning a space. This section covers the principle of analyzing the airflow into the space from some typical outlets during comparative heating and cooling conditions. From early air distribution tests conducted at the University of Illinois from 1950-1955 and continuing on through today, the principles of stratification, natural convection currents, stagnation layers and air motion for types of outlet locations have been studied. From these results, some general outlet classifications appear. These classifications may be used in the first approach to outlet selection.
STEP 2 - TOTAL AIR

Total air is defined as the mixture of primary and room air (that portion of the air in a space not included in the primary and total air envelopes) which is under the influence of the outlet conditions. Normally, the total air has a relatively high velocity but it has no sharply defined lower limit. Even though the total air follows the general pattern indicated by the primary air, its spread and travel may not be in proportion to that of the primary air. Other factors such as ceiling height, obstructions, internal and external loads, may disturb the orderly course of the airstream. The temperature difference between the total and room air produces a buoyancy effect. This causes cool total air to drop and warm total air to rise.The most complete mixing of total and room air occurs during isothermal conditions. Consequently, the location and type of outlet reduces the buoyancy effects and increases the travel of the total air
TYPICAL AIR DISTRIBUTION CHARACTERISTICS

The characteristics shown in (Figure 16, page B18), are principles obtained during heating and cooling in any type of system. The following figures will classify the outlets by location and air pattern. The magnitude of the stratification zones and gradients is representative of each type of outlet in a specific space and can be compared directly. During cooling, the slope of the gradient curve in the stratification zone for all outlets is nearly the same due to constant loading and construction.
B17
Supply Outlet Classifications (continued)

during heating when cool air is induced and mixed rapidly with primary air. This also will occur during cooling when warm air is induced and mixed with primary air. In addition to the outlet type and location, the action due to buoyancy effects is greatly dependent on the temperature differential between the supply air and the room air.
COOLING
HEATING
Inside wall
STEP 1 Primary air
Exposed wall
Outlet
STEP 2 Total air
Stratification
STEP 3 Natural convection currents and stratification zone Stratification
Stratification
STEP 4 Return intake
Stratification Intake Intake
Stratification
9' Ceiling 6' 4' Intake STEP 5 Room air Stratification Intake
Stratification
9' Ceiling 6' 4' Height
Average Room Vertical Temperatures Temperature Setpoint + 0 Temperature, F + 0 Temperature, F
Stratification
B18 B18
Figure 16.Characteristic of Non-isothermal Supply Jets in a Space
Supply Outlet Classifications (continued) Air has a tendency to scrub surfaces. A near perfect situation can be envisioned where the total air covers all of the walls and ceiling in a thin film. The occupied space would then be completely enclosed within an envelope of conditioned air. Since the total air within a confined space is affected by factors other than outlet conditions, it is not subject to a complete analytical treatment. However, air characteristics for cooling and heating within a free space can be estimated.

highest air motion in the space is in and near the primary and total air. The most uniform air motion is between the total air and stratification layer. The lowest air motion is in the stratification zone. The temperature gradient curves emphasize how some of the factors discussed are interrelated and how they affect the space temperature distribution. Where the air motion is uniform (between the total air and the stratification layer), the temperatures are approximately equal and uniform (as indicated by the almost vertical portion of the gradient). As the stratification layer is crossed, the temperatures in the neutral zone vary considerably. Gradients in the stratification zones show that the air is stratified in layers of increasing temperatures with an increase in space height. Since the stratification zone depends primarily on natural currents, it also must depend on the magnitude of the heating or cooling load, space construction and volume, the area of exposure, or the load (in the case of internal loading). The complete relationship is not fully understood, but many tests conducted in residences indicate that the gradient changes with indoor-outdoor temperature difference and from house to house. Consequently, the magnitudes of the temperature variations between levels will be smaller in mild climates than in severe climates, in spaces having exposed walls with greater resistance to heat flow, and with minimum internal loads. With no loading, temperature gradient curves would be vertical, indicating that all of the air temperatures in the conditioned space were equal to the control temperature.
STEP 3 - NATURAL CONVECTION CURRENTS

Natural convection currents are created by a buoyancy effect caused by the difference in temperature between the room air and the air in contact with a warm or cold surface. The air in contact with a warm surface will rise and the air in contact with a cold surface will fall. Convection currents are caused not only by the windows and walls, but also by internal loads such as people, lights, machines, etc. In most cases, natural convection currents will not only affect room air motion, but also play a major role in the comfort of a space. At todays lower supply air rates, natural convection may be the predominant variable in determining actual room air motion levels in the occupied zone. Results of tests have shown ankle level temperatures during heating may be 5F below room temperature and that velocities ranged from 15 to 30 fpm. (Figure 2) indicated that about 10% of the occupants would object to these conditions. Stratification layers as shown in (Figure 16) actually exist in many tests. A similar situation often occurs in practice as identified by a region where a layer of smoke will hang for some time. Whether a stratification layer actually exists is not important, but the concept of a stratification layer and stratification zone leads to a better understanding of air distribution. It should be noted that natural convection currents form a mixing zone between the stratification layer and the ceiling during cooling and between the stratification layer and the floor during heating.
CLASSIFICATION OF SUPPLY OUTLETS

HORIZONTAL AIR PROJECTION BELOW CEILING
Figures 17 and 18 show two outlets in this group that provide the most important characteristics. Figure 17 shows a spreading jet from a high side wall grille projecting air horizontally near the ceiling in a restricted space. Previous cooling curves in (Figures 10 through 15, pages B14-B16), showed different configurations and outlet locations with and without a ceiling and no far wall restriction. Additional data on grille patterns are shown in Grille Performance Tables.
STEP 4 - RETURN INTAKE

The return intake affects only the air motion within its immediate vicinity. Even natural convection currents possess enough energy to overcome the draw of the intake. This does not mean that the return location is not important, but only that it has little effect on the room air motion. Other return intake considerations will be discussed later.
STEP 5 - ROOM AIR

The room air diagram is completed when the remaining room air drifts back toward the primary and total air. The
B19


Side View
COOLING Stratification Setpoint Section A-A
Plan View
A
+ 0 Temperature, F
HEATING
High side wall
Stratification
Setpoint Stratification
Section A-A
+ 0 Temperature, F
Figure 17.Spreading Horizontal Air Projection at the Ceiling Level Total air will follow the wall down to floor level if its projection is sufficiently long. During heating, this will result in a smaller stratification zone and lower temperature differentials in the occupied zone. Room air motion will not be excessive unless total air extends part way into the room at the floor. The two airstreams project into and down the exposed corners.
Side View Plan View

A
COOLING
Section A-A
+ 0 Temperature, F
HEATING Outlet Setpoint
Plan
Ceiling
Stratification
Setpoint
Stratification
Section A-A
+ 0 Temperature, F
Figure 18. Circular Horizontal Air Projection at the Ceiling Level Greater spread of this pattern results in more uniform space temperatures during cooling than with those obtained with the two-jet pattern shown previously. The uniform temperatures from a circular pattern indicate that this pattern is most efficient for cooling in spaces such as open office areas. The slight overlap of the total air in the space helps generate very uniform temperatures. The influence of the natural currents on the total air reduces horizontal and overlap projection at the window during cooling and increases overlap projection during heating.
B20

CROSSFLOW PLAN VIEWS
CIRCULAR FLO W
CEILING DIFFUSERS ELEVATION VIEWS
SIDE WALL GRILLES
PLAN VIEWS
B
0 Deflection See Fig. 13
ELEVATION VIEWS 45 Deflection See Fig. 17
LINEAR TBD WITH SPREAD
PLAN VIEWS
ELEVATION VIEWS Low Flow Rate Short Throw High Flow Rate Long Throw
Figure 19.Some Specific Airflow Characteristics at High and Low Airflow Rates
HORIZONTAL, CIRCULAR AND CROSS FLOW PATTERNS

With ceiling diffusers, we must consider the different airflow patterns than with side wall outlets. Ceiling diffusers, except for linear diffusers, typically exhibit flow in one of two patterns: circular or cross flow. The diagrams in (Figure 19) show the main differences between circular and crossflow patterns. In general, a circular pattern has a shorter throw than a cross flow pattern. The vertical diagram shows that during cooling the circular pattern has a tendency to curl back from the end of the throw toward the diffuser.
This action reduces dumping and ensures that cool air remains near the ceiling, resulting in uniform temperatures throughout the space. A circular pattern has greater induction than a crossflow pattern. Cross flow patterns with longer throw and individual side jets react in a manner similar to side wall jets. Near the end of the throw, cross flow patterns will continue in the same direction away from the diffuser. The drop can also be dependent only on the airflow from each diffuser side. Both patterns are usually centered in equal spaces in large open areas. The longer throw of cross patterns can be used with greater change in airflow during VAV.
B21


The 0 deflection grille is a pattern followed by all single nonspreading patterns. The horizontal projection from diffusers and grilles has been used extensively in commercial applications. Perimeter heating may need special treatment over the conventional horizontal air discharge at the ceiling level, see page B23 for more information. The linear diffuser air pattern has a tendency to fold back like the circular pattern. This reaction results in less drop than expected during cooling from the linear diffusers as airflow is reduced.
Comparing the plan views of the circular and cross flow ceiling diffusers, the circular pattern has a much shorter throw than the cross flow for a given flow rate. The elevation views indicate that the circular supply jet at the end of its trajectory has a tendency to return to the diffuser being reinduced into the primary air. On the other hand, cross flow jet projection continues after the low terminal velocity just like the airflow from side wall registers at 0 deflection. During cooling, the circular recirculating airflow results in less drop than with cross flow jets. The wide spreading 45 deflection from the side wall grilles is very similar to one-half of the circular pattern.
For constant volume applications, select diffusers so that the T50/ L values are close to the midpoint of the recommended range for the specific outlet. This will result in maximum comfort for the occupants in the space. Mapping the throw for the space will indicate the constant airflow characteristics. Guidelines for selecting outlets with variable air volume systems are included in the ASHRAE Fundamentals Handbook (2009), Chapter 20, and Applications Handbook (2011), Chapter 57, and include: 1. Diffusers should be selected on the basis of both maximum and minimum (occupied) flow rates. VAV systems can vary the air delivered to the space, and diffusers need to be selected to provide an acceptable air distribution over that range. Minimum flows listed on building plans are often below that expected to be experienced when a space is occupied, so higher and more realistic flows should be used in these cases. 2. Outlets should be chosen for relatively small quantities of air. This has the effect of limiting the variation in throw to a minimum with the variation in flow rate from the outlet. In modular arrangements, this requirement may not increase the number of outlets required. 3. Consistent with satisfactory sound levels, the minimum outlet velocity which should occur with the minimum airflow should be approximately 500 fpm to maintain mixing at the diffuser. At maximum flow, the diffuser should be selected as loud as possible. This maximizes mixing at all points, and may help satisfy occupants where at high load (and high flows) when the space will be at its warmest, there is air coming into the space.
4. The maximum T50/ L or slightly higher can be used for VAV outlet selection for maximum airflow. Except for maximum load conditions, the VAV airflow will be less than the maximum. The optimum ADPI comfort can then generally be maintained with airflow rates from maximum to less than 70% of maximum. Test results indicate that long throw outlets will result in higher air movement in a space. Slight adjustments in the temperature control would affect the occupants more than the airflow change in the variable air volume system. The results indicate that problems are more likely to exist at high airflow rates. A simple rule to follow: Select the combination of outlets and maximum airflow rate to avoid high air velocities in the occupied space. Lower airflow rates will be acceptable. High air velocities occur when the total air enters the occupied zone. ASHRAE Research has shown that properly selected ceiling diffusers can provide an ADPI of 100% in open office areas over a broad range of loads and airflows, and provide Air Change Effectiveness rates of 100% at the same time.
Figure 20. Horizontal Discharge from Outlets or Near the Ceiling Applications Guidelines
B22 B22

VERTICAL DOWNWARD PROJECTION FROM CEILING
Figure 21 shows downward projection characteristics from ceiling diffusers with circular patterns (See TMRA diffusers). With a ceiling these diffusers project either a full horizontal circular pattern, as in (Figure 18, on page B20), or a fully formed vertical projection. Intermediate diffuser positions are not recommended as the airflow becomes unstable during normal operation. During cooling the air will often be projected to the floor. A stratification zone can be formed near the ceiling, which may result in nonuniform temperatures below the stratification layer. The size of the stratification zone will vary depending on the primary air and the natural heat sources in the space. With a constant heat source a VAV system that reduces the flow will allow a larger stratification zone to form. This type of distribution allows high level stratification where air must be introduced from the ceiling. Return intakes can be located between supply sources. This type of cooling can maintain constant temperatures around machinery by projection to the floor near the machines with the return over the machines. Projection may be obtained at low jet velocities with the machines located in a near equal temperature. Controlled heat loss over the machines can be controlled by projecting more or less air to the floor level, providing more air to the floor if the main heat source is at the floor level. During heating, the warm supply air demonstrates less projection, spread and buoyancy. The floor level becomes cooler and a stratification layer can form. Heat sources near the floor or the air projected all the way to the floor helps to reduce the neutral zone. Return intakes located at the floor in stratification zones will help. Figure 23 indicates a hemispherical vertical flow from the outlet. When mounted at the ceiling as indicated, a great amount of induction occurs at the ends of the diffuser near the ceiling. Special arrangements in the outlet must then be made so that the end pattern is maintained over the length of the room. Normally, the velocity pattern from this type of unit will produce shorter vertical projection than the laminar flow unit. Vertical projections from these diffusers will not be as stable as those obtained from a laminar flow diffuser since the air is spreading to a position outside the diffuser outline. This permits an obstruction directly below the diffuser to cause the airflow to increase toward the outside. An obstruction near the outside of the air jet will cause the airstream velocity to increase directly below the diffuser. (See the TriTec, VersaTec or RadiaTec Critical Environment Diffusers.)
Setpoint
COOLING Stratification
Stratification
Side View
+ 0 Temperature, F
HEATING
Setpoint Stratification Stratification
Side View
+ 0 Temperature, F
Figure 21.Downward Projection Characteristics from Ceiling Diffusers Figure 22 indicates a laminar flow outlet. This type of an outlet is the opposite of the turbulent flow derived from a conventional mixing diffuser. Laminar flow implies lines of equal velocity moving in a single direction; in this case, a vertical direction. A laminar flow outlet must have relatively uniform velocities over the whole face of the outlet, usually at relatively low velocity. When this is accomplished, the airflow below the outlet produces uniform velocities to the outlet. Air is only induced at the ceiling level, and consequently the pattern is uniform for some distance below the ceiling with almost the same velocity. Usual concepts of throw do not apply in this case. Laminar flow does not produce the normal mixing noticed with standard diffusers. The piston-like delivery of primary air is usually directed over a work area, hospital operating room, parts assembly, or clean rooms. (See the TLF Critical Environment Diffusers.)
LAMINAR FLO W
HEMISPHERICAL FLOW
Figure 22.Laminar Flow Diffusion Pattern
Figure 23.Hemispherical Flow Diffusion Pattern
B23


240 0
ESTIMATING DOWNWARD VERTICAL PROJECTION

Variations in vertical projection of a free jet (not entrained along a surface) can be estimated by utilizing (Figure 24). The chart on the right hand side of this diagram shows a vertical projection with varying temperature differentials during heating, a temperature differential of 20 during cooling and isothermal. The chart is used to estimate different projections with different temperature differentials. When air is entrained along a surface, as at a perimeter, the convection from the hot or cold surface will have a counter effect to the buoyancy of the jet, reducing the effect shown here. When an isothermal jet throw is known, throws corresponding to different temperature differentials can be obtained horizontally from the isothermal in the right column. The throw values are for a terminal velocity of 50 fpm. The chart is based on AD = 1 sq. ft.
TY
fpm fpm fpm

DOWNWARD VERTICAL PROJECTION, FT.
200
V ET
EL
I OC
fpm 1400 fpm 1200
1600
1000
fpm
800 fpm
600 fpm
400 fpm
300 fpm fpm 250 200 fpm
100 150 200 300 400 600 800 1000 1500 2000 3000 4000 5000
120 50 40 90 35 45 120 80 35 30 40 100 70 30 35 25 90 60 30 25 80 45 50 30 20 70 40 25 20 45 60 35 25 40 55 15 20 30 50 35 15 20 12 45 30 25 15 12 40 10 15 35 25 20 10 9 12 9 30 8 12 20 10 8 7 25 15 10 9 7 6 15 9 8 12 20 6 8 7 5 18 12 10 7 6 5 9 15 6 4 8 10 45 5 12 7 80 55 50 70 45 60 40 55 50 35 4 3 8
Flow Rate, cfm
10 20 30 40 50 20 0 COOLING HEATING ISOTHERMAL TEMP. DIFFERENTIAL
DIFFUSER APPLICATIONS ON EXPOSED DUCTS

A good horizontal circular pattern, when located below the ceiling, will first project upward toward the ceiling. This action is caused by a low pressure region being formed above the diffuser, allowing the higher pressure in the room to push the air up. It is also possible for these diffusers to adjust the air pattern so that air can come down in an intermediate vertical projection, rather than the full vertical projection as obtained from the ceiling location.
Figure 24.Downward Vertical Projection
50 fpm
Cross flow pattern diffusers are not capable of causing the airflow to go upward when set for a horizontal pattern because the air pressure between the jets is equal to that in the room and, therefore, no low pressure is developed above the diffusers. On the other hand, a cross flow pattern diffuser generally produces a better intermediate vertical projection than that of a circular pattern diffuser. Vertical projections from the cross flow jet pattern and with the velocities can be spread out almost uniformly from the center to the outside edges of these jets. A good diffuser for this application is the TDCA, with a 4-way pattern.
Figure 25. TMRA Mounted in Exposed Duct
12"
6" 3"
Ceiling
30" 16 30" 30
TDC with 9x9 neck, 4-way pattern and 240 cfm
B24
Figure 26.TDC, PSS and 250 Mounted in Exposed Duct

system will use larger air quantities at low temperature differentials and low discharge velocities. These applications can be used under seats in theaters, around walls to form a ring of air around a space with people, or internal loads forming the rising plume up to the ceiling returns. It should be remembered that temperatures and velocities will be relatively low and uniform in occupied zones. This distribution system has been used extensively in Europe and is being promoted on the basis of the reduced energy consumption realized by the availability of economizer in that climate. With displacement ventilation, the percentage of outside air may be reduced while meeting ASHRAE Standard 62s requirements. Note: Vertical jet floor diffusers, discussed later, which produce well mixed air in the occupied zone rather than displacement flow, do not qualify for this credit.
Return Setpoint
HORIZONTAL PROJECTION AT FLOOR LEVEL: DISPLACEMENT VENTILATION

Figure 27 matches the actual definition given for displacement ventilation. Defined as a low velocity, low temperature differential air distribution across the floor level, displacement ventilation utilizes natural convection currents within the space to cause air to rise and form a neutral zone above a stratification level. The stratification level usually occurs at a level where the room load and air loading match. Figure 28 shows heating and cooling from a spreading horizontal projection at floor level. This performance compares to previous outlet types and locations with heating and cooling loads. Statements accompanying Figure 28 were made in the 1950s and considered the heating and cooling conditions of the time. Today, a displacement
Stratification level Convection plume
Upper zone
Stratification
Lower zone Supply Heat/contaminant source 0 Temperature ,F
Figure 27.Schematic of Displacement Ventilation

Plan View Side View COOLING
Stratification Stratification Setpoint + 0 Temperature, F
Section A-A
HEATING
Setpoint Plan near floor Baseboard Stratification Section A-A Stratification + 0 Temperature, F
Figure 28. Horizontal Projection Spread at Floor Level Spreading horizontal projection at floor level permits considerable stratification at high levels during cooling while maintaining uniform temperatures in the occupied zone as indicated by characteristics given here. Although high velocities in the occupied zone preclude use of this type of distribution for comfort cooling, application to situations with high internal load where occupant comfort is not of primary concern should be considered.
B25


opposite wall. The room temperature above the stratification layer is relatively constant, but higher than desired. (Figure 30) is similar, except the natural convection currents from the work stations are causing a similar condition during cooling. During heating the natural currents oppose and may stop the projection and satisfy the space reducing the primary air until cooling is required. Figure 29 with spreading vertical jets located on an exposed wall shows that, during cooling, the primary air did not project as high as the nonspreading jet in (Figure 31). The spreading jet did a better job of reducing the stratification layer. This was also the case in (Figure 29) during heating.
Side Vie w
Stratification
VERTICAL UPWARD PROJECTION FROM FLOOR, LOW SIDE WALL AND SILL
Figure 29 shows conditions where the air is projected from the floor with a spreading jet. Natural convection currents and the buoyancy effect of the low velocity region of the jet causes the jet to drop into the room during cooling. A stratification zone forms above the natural convection currents. Temperatures are relatively uniform, except warmer in the neutral zone and cooler in the drop zone of the jet. During heating the warm primary air goes up and across the ceiling to join the descent of the natural currents on the cold
A
COOLING
Stratification
B
A Side View Floor diffuser
Section A-A
+ 0 Temperature, F
HEATING
Setpoint
Stratification Stratification
Section A-A
+ 0 Temperature, F
Figure 29.Spreading Upward Projection of Primary Air in the Stagnant Zone, Relatively Large Temperature Variations Occur
Side View COOLING
Stratification Stratification Setpoint
Side View
COOLING Stratification
HEATING
+ 0 Temperature, F
Stratification
Setpoint
Stratification
+ 0 Temperature, F
B26 B26
Figure 30. Upward Projection in a Work Station
Figure 31. Nonspreading Upward Projection
Setpoint
Supply Outlet Classifications (continued) When using floor or low level air distribution at the perimeter, stratification from the floor can be controlled by correctly applying the 150 fpm isothermal throw data. Complete stratification across the room can occur as shown in (Figure 29, page B26), where the spreading jets do not project to the ceiling. The stratification can be minimized by controlling the jet velocities and jet patterns. The vertical jet should be projected upwards to a terminal velocity of over 150 fpm above the occupied zone. For example, if a vertical throw is only 6 ft. to a terminal velocity of 150 fpm, stratification will occur above that level. The examples discussed above apply equally as well for outlets located in window sills, low side wall outlets projecting air up a wall, floor outlets near a wall or in the open, baseboard outlets, etc. Underfloor diffuser applications are being introduced into access floor facilities. These are primarily cooling and ventilation applications, and the jets are seldom attached to a surface as shown in (Figures 29 and 30, page B26). Instead, the diffuser is designed to have rapid induction and have throws which seldom exceed 5 or 6 ft. The temperature differential is usually less than 20F between the occupied zone and discharge used with a ceiling application. The return air temperature near the ceiling is 5F or more, warmer than the room, and the resultant supply-exhaust Dt is again 20F. When selected properly, floor diffusers directed upward as a free jet can result in well-mixed, uniform temperature zones from the floor to 6 ft. high, with a stratified region above. Underfloor air distribution is being proposed as a better way to satisfy indoor air quality and comfort. Work stations and task distribution can be considered also in this category. Clean ventilation air is distributed to the occupied spaces and contaminated air can be exhausted from the stratification zone overhead. The rules for proper ventilation and air diffusion are being investigated at this time to determine optimum configurations. ASHRAE has sponsored several tests with floor based diffusers used in this manner, and again, high levels of air distribution, comfort and Air Change Effectiveness (ACE) were observed. Note: The observed ACE from these tests was the same as properly designed ceiling systems, near a level of 1.0, or 100% mixing.

T 50 Heating
T 150
Figure 32.Heating with Outlet Located Near Perimeter Wall
T 150
T 50 T 50 Cooling
Figure 33.Cooling with Outlet Located Near Perimeter Wall Especially bad conditions are shown for overhead heating. Because this is a major concern, emphasis is placed on ceiling distribution in this section. Several main approaches have been utilized for the ceiling heating and cooling distribution. Winter cold air down drafts still exist at the perimeter and may affect persons or equipment. For example, sills tend to deflect cold air and project cold air horizontally into the room at that level. The cold air continues on to the floor level, and the warm air turns back up toward the ceiling. This action increases as the sill width increases. As the sill height increases so does the height of the stratification layer. Generally, 50% airflow to the window and 50% to the room is recommended. However, some adjustments to the flow are beneficial, so adjustable diffusers are preferred. When a 1 to 2 ft. soffit is above the window area, the method during heating using an outlet with fixed horizontal discharge across the ceiling toward the soffit will not work because the air spreads in the soffit and turns up at the bottom of the soffit to return to the outlet. One option is an infinitely adjustable pattern controller allowing the air to be directed at the glass just below the soffit. Vertical projection from below the window is another option. Mounting an auto-changeover heating/cooling plenum diffuser 12 to 18 in. from the soffit will optimize energy and occupant comfort during heating.
PERIMETER APPLICATIONS
In perimeter applications, concerns focus mainly on heating. However, it is also well understood that the air conditioning system must handle both heating and cooling. The heating concern is shown dramatically as the previous diagrams of the various classifications of outlets are reviewed. The floor level and low level distribution classification diagrams show that both heating and cooling the perimeter can be handled best from these locations. Economic reasons, however, favor heating and cooling from overhead. Each heating diagram shows low floor level temperatures with neutral zones of varying sizes from the floor up to some higher level.
B27
Perimeter Applications (continued)


B HEATING
A COOLING
T150
T150
Side View
50 fpm
T50
Figure 34.Vertical Projection of Heating and Cold Air at Window
Plan View
OUTLET LOCATED BACK FROM PERIMETER WALL

In (Figures 32 and 33, page B27), the outlet is located one to three feet back from the wall and directs a horizontal airstream directly into the wall. In this case it is designed to give isothermal throws as shown in the dark sections with T150 being several feet down from the ceiling and T50 near the floor level. The main result of this approach is to have the airstream hit the wall with enough velocity that it will spread on the wall to complete its projection. During heating (Figure 32), the T50 may, in some cases, break away and result in the warm airstream rising away from the wall. During cooling (Figure 33) the T50 may exceed the isothermal distance. The higher terminal velocities will be spread all along the wall base. Lesser velocities in the space during cooling are an advantage of this method and the turn-up point of the air during heating will usually be at a lower point.
Figure 35.Rolling a Room This method is only applicable for closed perimeter offices. The office walls are necessary to turn the air down to the floor and back across the floor towards the exposed wall. The most effective air pattern is shown in the plan view where the diffuser (usually a linear) has spreading airstreams. In some cases a vertical airstream can be added to aid in overcoming the window losses such as can be obtained with the N-1-DR plenum slots diffuser, for example. The end airstreams trajectory is best when projected just inside the opposite wall. With the N-1-D diffuser, the two horizontal jets separate, with the two parts going toward the center of the room, and project down to the floor and return across the floor toward the outlet. The other split jets turn to and spread on the side walls with air on the walls returning to the supply outlet. A high airflow and supply outlets are necessary for this to be effective. Note in (Figure 35) that the rolling air may not return to the bottom of the window. With too low an airflow rate, or too high a Dt, the rolling air path can start rising at the center of the room. The design T50 should be nearly 1 times the length of the room plus ceiling height.
OUTLET VERTICAL PROJECTION AT A WINDOW
Outlet vertical projection at a window is usually achieved using a linear diffuser, (Figure 34). In some cases the outlet is directed at a horizontal or angled deflection toward the wall. Long linears do not project warm air down as far as short linear sections. Double projection can then be controlled by a split pattern on a four foot unit with two feet into room and two feet to the wall. The initial projection based on isothermal T150 should be to about the four foot level. A coarse rule of thumb for the combined effect of glass induced convection currents and air projected down a glass wall is that throw is modified by approximately 1% per degree Dt; cold air T50 throw is increased, heating air T50 throw is decreased.
SOME PERIMETER CONSIDERATIONS

The ASHRAE Handbook Fundamentals recommends that temperature differentials between heated primary air and room air should not exceed 15 - 20F so buoyancy effects are minimized. This is a problem with many types of rooftop units specifically gas fired ones - and high airflows are required here to prevent stratification. The result with these systems is that heating is cycled and stratification is broken up. Another approach is to use a split system with a minimum constant volume of air to satisfy the perimeter windows or walls. A variable volume type system with a regular diffuser handles the additional cooling. The split system results in a more satisfactory comfort level for both cooling and heating. It can be used in a closed office or open plan arrangement.
ROLLING A ROOM
The two previous applications emphasized some vertical projection at the perimeter wall. When rolling the room, air is distributed away from the exposed wall as shown in (Figure 35).
B28 B28
AIR DIFFUSION PERFORMANCE INDEX

ADPI is a method of relating the space conditions of local traverse temperatures and velocities in the occupied zone to occupants thermal comfort. It is a one number comfort index for a space and relates comfort level similar to the way NC relates local conditions of sound to the occupants noise level comfort. Temperatures given in (Figure 36) represent the difference between local temperature tx and control temperatures tc, D tx = (tx - tc). Local velocities, Vx are given in fpm. Local effective draft temperatures, , are then defined by:

Equation 8:Effective draft temperature
= (tx - tc) - 0.07 (Vx - 30)
where: = effective temperature tx = local air temperatures, F tc = ambient temperature (average room temperature or control temperature, F) Vx = local air velocity, fpm ADPI is then the percentage of traverse points satisfying an Effective Draft Temperature between -3 and +2 at a velocity less than 70 fpm.
A F = Room Width Test Points 1 7 = Room Length Test Points

T50/L = 2 ADPI = 93
Data at 6' 6" High Point B,6
Tx - Tc fpm
.1 31 .1 39 0.0 27 .4 23 .1 31 .2 33 17 23 .1 29 .2 32 0.0 63 .1 .4 X .6 5842762731 X .8 X 0.0
18'
A 1.0 25 .7 36 .1 33 .7 21 .1 23 .2 52 22 31 .1 33 .1 25 .1 64 .5 .1 .9 6656623130 .2 2825272025 .1 2026262231 .1 2723262824 .1 2225232525 1.8 .2 .4 1.0 .4 .2 .6 1.3 .2 .4 .6 1.8 .4 1.0 1.0 1.0 1.5.5 1.3 1.9 A
Downward Moving Air Upward Moving Air Horizontal Moving Air Direction
.3 .9 1.6
0.0
1.3
1.1
1.0
.1 2521242436 0.0 2323182737
8.6
.6
.3
.3
.5
.6
.8
133/4'
D
.4 .1 .6 1.4
.2
3128292727
.1 2225272526
.4
.1 .5 1.4
.4 .4 7355126445342
X 1.5 1.5 X X 907649555742
.9
.7
.1 X
.4
1234567
1234567
6' 6" Height
5' Height
.2 29 0.0 26 .4 26 .5 34 .8 39 .3 30 20 25 37 33 33
.1 X .1
.3 8560492736 X .1 2718232540
.9.6 X .2 .4
1.4
.4
.4 25 0 25 .8 36 .9 25 .9 25 .7 37 25 35 32 34
.4.6.6.6 4044404127 .1 0 X .4 X 0 X
.9
1.9
.8
.4
.8
1.5
4149423728 0 .1 2633333241 .5 .4 2525252525 .4 .4 1.1 .5 .5 0 .8 .3 .3 .2 .1 .4
C .4 .2 4126283645 .2 .1
.1
.3
.6
.2 .1
.2
.3
.3 2521201937
.4
.1
.1
.1 1617181938
.1
.4
.4
.5
252525252525 .7 4546 .7 X 50 1.1 .5 565440 X .4 2
X X .8 .8 303030303030
.9
.8
.3
.4
1234567
1234567
2.5' Height
4" Height
Figure 36. Horizontal Projection Spread at Floor Level Test conditions: room, unit, and other factors The unit tested was a 6 x 24-inch louvered face ceiling diffuser, two-way blow, handling 300 cfm with a jet velocity of 700 fpm located in the center of the room. Temperature and velocity traverses were taken in the 4, 30, 60 and 78-inch levels of an 18 x 14 x 8.5-foot high test room. The throw to a terminal velocity of 50 fpm was about 15 feet. Other conditions: control temperature of 76.2BF, supply air temperature of 63.30BF, cooling load of 15.6 Btuh/sq. ft, t50 throw was 15 feet Dt = 13B. When E is calculated at every point, 93 percent of the points meet the ADPI criteria.
B29
ADPI-Air Diffusion Performance Index (continued)


Figure 37 shows isodrafts (lines of constant draft temperature) created by data taken from tests conducted using the ASHRAE Standard 113. This figure shows lines of constant draft temperature, or Isodrafts. In this case, nearly all points within six feet of the floor have draft temperatures between the -3 and +2 limits required for comfort (with the exception of two points at the floor), and represented an ADPI of 94%.
ADPI CAN BE OBTAINED BY MEASUREMENT OR THROUGH PREDICTION

The ASHRAE Standard 113 Method of Testing for room air distribution outlines the method for determining a repeatable air speed/temperature traverse for any space. The standard specifies measurement accuracy as well as measurement points and techniques.
250 cfm -19.8 Delta-T
Perforated Diffuser 24 X 24 X 8"

106
Draft Temperature
2.0 - 3.0 1.0 - 2.0 0.0 - 1.0 -1.0 - 0.0 -2.0 - -1.0 -3.0 - -2.0 -4.0 - -3.0
66
96
87
78
B
6' right 5' right 4' right 3' right 2' right 1' right Center 1' left 2' left 3' left 4' left 5' left
57
38
27
16
6 6' left
Distance from Floor
Distance From Diffuser
Figure 37. Room Isodrafts
ADPI
Jet tests for diffusers are based on isothermal conditions. However, in practice, this condition seldom occurs. Most commercial applications are during cooling. Tests conducted at Kansas State University resulted in the development of a method to utilize and understand a means of designing diffuser applications for cooling while utilizing isothermal jet data. The parallelogram shown earlier in (Figure 3, page B6), represents the Air Diffusion Performance Index. ADPI can be related to isothermal flow of 50 fpm (T50). The Kansas State tests developed a range of ADPI curves for a number of grille types. An example of these is shown in (Figure 38). The characteristic length (L) in conjunction with T50 demonstrates expected ADPI relationships for a number of Titus outlets, as shown earlier on (Figure 5, page B8).
100 80 60 40 20 0 1. 3 0 0.5 1.0 1.5 2. 0 2.0
SYMBOL
BTUH/SQ. FT. 0 20 40 60 80
2.5
3.0
3.5
T50/L
B30
Figure 38.ADPI vs. T50/L for High Side Wall Grilles (from Kansas State University tests)
ADPI-Air Diffusion Performance Index (continued) With this grille, the maximum ADPI for comfort occurs at T50/L = 1.5. Similar curves can be drawn for almost all diffusers except the maximum ADPIs are different and depend on the diffuser. Some T50/L curves for a number of diffusers are shown in (Figure 5, page B8). The maximum ADPI is nearly the same for all diffusers at a given load. A reasonable range of T50/L is shown for all diffuser types.

This range allows a selection of outlet sizes to satisfy the T50 requirement. Maximum ADPI and comfort level decrease with increasing loads. This graph only shows the curves for loads of 20 and 40 Btuh/sq. ft. because they represent the outlet selections with one cfm/sq. ft. and two cfm/sq. ft. with the common design temperature differential of 20F. T50/L ranges for maximum ADPI are given for Titus outlets in Table 6.
Slot Diffusers ML, TBD, LL1, LL2, Flowbar 0.5-3.3 0.3-2.0 Light Troffers (Note 1) LTT, LPT 1.0-5.0
Table 6.Throw Values for Various Titus Outlets. Recommended T50/L Range for PAS: .1-1-8
Throw Ratio at Terminal Velocity T50 / L T100 / L Side Wall, Grilles 1.3-2.0 Ceiling Diffusers PAS, TMR, TMRA, TMS 0.6-1.2 PSS, TDC, 250 1.0-2.0 Sill Grilles (Note 2) 0.7-1.7
Notes: 1. L = Module distance plus 2 ft down from ceiling. 2. L = 20 ft (Use this as the distance from the wall).
JET CALCULATIONS
The following questions about jets can be answered by using (Figures 39 and 40, page B32). 1. What is the temperature differential of the total air jet? 2. How much short circuiting will occur? 3. What is the induction ratio? 4. What is the diameter of the total air jet?
Short Circuiting
% = D tx / D to x 100 % short circuiting shown in (Figure 39) is based on energy. % short circuiting could also be on mass, using the induction ratio: % short circuiting = (1/ind. ratio) x 1,000
Example Given:
4,000 cfm primary air (Qo) 2.0 square foot grille (Ao) 400 fpm terminal velocity (Vx) D to = 30F
Nomenclature
Find: 1. Induction ratio (Qx/Qo) 2. Total airflow rate (Qx) 3. Diameter of total air jet (Dx) Calculate: Vo = 4,000 cfm / 2 sq. ft. = 2,000 fpm Solution:From Figure 40 1. Induction ratio = 10 2. Total air = 40,000 cfm, at C = 2 3. Diameter of total air = 23 ft., at C = 2 Diameter of total air jet can also be calculated: Dx = 2.3 (Vo / Vx) (Ao) where C = 2.0 Dx = 1.9 (Vo / Vx) ( Ao) where C = 1.4
Ao Outlet effective area, sq. ft. C Coefficient of entrainment C = 2.0 for circular jets (grilles) C = 1.4 for long slots Dx Diameter, ft., of total air jet at distance X from outlet Qo Primary airflow rate from outlet, cfm Qx Total airflow rate at distance X from outlet, cfm to Temperature differential between primary and room air temperatures tx Temperature differential between total and room air temperature at distance X from outlet Vo Average effective outlet velocity, fpm Vx Centerline terminal velocity at a distance X from center of outlet, fpm
B31
ADPI-Air Diffusion Performance Index (continued)


Induction Ratio, Q /x Q
O
% Short Circuiting,
5000 4000 3000 2000 1500 1000 800 600 500
0 t O5
tx /
7
tO
5 3 2 2
5000 4000 3000 2000 1500 1000 800 600 500
50
33
25
17 13 10
28 42 5.8 8.4 11.214 4 6 8 12 16 20

f 40 p m 0
21 28 30 40
42 56 60 80
84 120
fpm
50 40 0 fp 0 m
fpm
V oc ity Ve l
X50
ity
Outlet Jet Velocity V
Outlet Velocity V
Te rm in al Ve 30 lo c 0
30
20 0
rm in
50 VX
fp
50 VX
fp
20
10
Te
10
al
,0 0 80 0 c 00 fm
10
15
20
VX
tX
60 40
42 28 21 14
F Below or Above Ambient
Diameter of Total Air, Ft.
le
tA
1.0
tx
16
20
re
0.
4 3
Pr
im
ar
C= 1.4 2.0 81 100 65 49 32 24 80 60 40
Ai
rQ
10
00
50
cf
10
40 30
30 20
10
10 4 2
60 100
2
5
20
40
30
Ft
.5
10
Figure 39.Temperature Differential and Short Circuiting
Figure 40. Induction Ratio, Total Air and Total Air Diameter
INDUSTRIAL APPLICATIONS
The primary concern in the design and application of equipment for the industrial environment is to maintain efficiency, health and safety rather than comfort. Industrial ventilation is the control of heat released from process equipment to which the usual comfort cooling methods cannot be applied economically.
THERMAL STANDARDS FOR INDUSTRIAL WORK AREAS

In the industrial environment the simple thermal comfort standards are not practical. The design engineer should make a complete analysis of the heat problem. The analysis will include a study of heat stress level, physical fitness of the worker, heat exposure periods, etc. A detailed discussion of thermal standards for the industrial environment can be found in ASHRAE Fundamentals Handbook and ASHRAE Applications Handbook. When designing an industrial heating, cooling or ventilating system, it is recommended that the above material be reviewed. As an overview, the following is a summary of some of the problems and solutions the designer should consider when addressing industrial applications.
Industrial environments are distinguished as being hot-dry or warm-moist. In a hot-dry environment the only heat produced is sensible and radiant. An exposed worker will experience an increase in the heat load. Because the load is sensible, the heat loss of the occupant through sweating and the rate of cooling by evaporation is not reduced. Hot furnaces, forges, metal extruding, rolling mills and glass forming machines are examples of some hot-dry environments. The warm-moist environment heat load is mainly latent heat from a wet process. An exposed worker may not experience any rise in the heat load but his heat loss by evaporation of sweat will be reduced significantly. Examples of warm-moist environments are textile mills, laundries, dye houses, etc. The warm-moist working environment is considered the more hazardous of the two.
CONTROL OF HEAT EXPOSURES BY ISOLATING THE SOURCE

Insulation, location of equipment, covering water tanks and drains, etc., can reduce the magnitude of heat exposure at the source. Exhaust hoods can be used to capture heat rising from hot processes.
B32 B32
QX
=C O QO VX
ut
Total Air Q X, 1000 cfm
60
00
00
20
40
cf
VO
C= 2 1.4 100 70 80 56
00
= .8
tO
20 15 10
Industrial Applications (continued) Where there are hot objects such as furnaces, molten material, or hot ingots, the major heat load is in the form of radiant heat. Radiant heat can be reduced by lowering the surface temperatures of the hot objects by insulation, water cooling or shielding.

provide a method for estimating the impingement air temperature by using induction ratio. 3. Air Direction:The air should be directed to the front and torso of the body. The tolerance of people to air motion, temperature and humidity varies with the season and person. Therefore, allowances should be made so that the direction and velocity of the air can be readily adjusted. 4. Outlet Location:For low level ventilation, the outlets should be located at about the 10 ft. level. For spot cooling, the outlets should be located close to the worker (7 ft. level) to minimize induction of the warm air in the space into the cooling jet. Jet Calculations shown in (Figure 40) should be consulted when induction ratios are of importance. 5. Outlet Velocity:Outlet velocities up to 5000 fpm can be used if required. It should be noted that as the velocity increases so does the sound level, induction ratio and pressure requirements. The most frequent selections are made between 1000 and 2000 fpm outlet velocity. 6. Discharge Volume:For spot cooling, the discharge volume usually ranges between 1500 and 5000 cfm or more, depending on the heat load. The air volume per outlet for general ventilation may exceed 10,000 cfm, depending on the work area, heat load, etc. Large air volumes are required when remote outlets are used to ensure adequate relief because of induction. 7. Direction Control:Direction control is required for any of the following reasons: Up in winter, down for summer Directing air from one work station to another Directing it away from the product or process Adjusting for workers individual comfort 8. Volume Control:Volume control is required for seasonal adjustments, adjusting impingement velocities, or adjusting workers comfort. Volume control can be obtained either by manual dampers or variable volume terminals that contain volume regulations. The advantage of using variable volume terminals is that they simplify balancing of the system and assure that the system balance is not upset when an outlet is adjusted.
GENERAL VENTILATION
General ventilation is the sweeping of an area with relatively large quantities of air to provide control of the space temperature, humidity, air motion and air purity.
LOCAL RELIEF
Local relief is the delivery of air directly to the worker In sufficient quantities and velocities to cool the worker by convection and sweat evaporation. Local relief can be obtained through general ventilation or local area spot cooling ventilation. General ventilation (low level or displacement ventilation) delivers air at the 8 to 12 ft. level and displaces warm air rising from equipment, lights and people. Low level ventilation is for large work areas with high, uniform populations. These systems target ventilation in the occupied zone of the space. No attempt to relieve conditions in the upper levels of the building is made. Local area or spot-cooling ventilation is an option when it is impractical and wasteful to treat the entire area. In this application, cooling and ventilation is brought to the worker in a small, defined area. This can be accomplished by: 1. Providing a complete ventilated enclosure around the worker. 2. Supply air at a low level and over a small area so that the work area is ventilated. 3. Spot-cool with a high velocity airstream directed at the worker.
GUIDELINES FOR LOCAL AREA OR SPOT COOLING VENTILATION:

Table 7. Air Impingement Velocity
Activity Light Medium High Level 50 - 75 200 1,000 - 4,000 (continuous exposure) (intermittent exposure) Target Velocities (fpm)
OUTLET SELECTIONS
1. Grilles.Titus core models 271, 272, 111, 112, 121, 122, 131 and 132 are recommended for industrial use. Models JFA features a set of gang operated louvers, pole operated and specifically designed for industrial use. The Drum Louver (DL Series) and Turbofuser are especially well suited to high capacity, long throw. 2. Ceiling Diffusers.Model XC-310 is circular, pole operated. It is designed for long-throw applications in factories, warehouses, convention halls, coliseums, and shopping malls. The diffuser has an optional face operated adjustment to transition from vertical to horizontal discharge. The TMR and TMRA adjustable model are available in both steel and aluminum construction. These high capacity units offer another option for industrial applications.
1. Air Impingement Velocity: This value can be obtained using (Figure 41, on page B34). It should be remembered that the terminal velocities listed are the centerline velocities, and the average velocities of the jet will be much less. Jet calculations (Figure 40, page B32) show the diameter of the total air jet when the average velocity is one-half the centerline velocity. 2. Air Temperature:The relief air temperature should be less than the skin temperature if convective cooling is to be accomplished. It is recommended that the air impingement temperature be 80F if convective cooling is to occur. Jet Calculations as shown in (Figure 40)
B33
Industrial Applications (continued)


determines the maximum size the grille can be for a given throw and no deflection (2.3 square feet max). Cfm/outlet - From the throw and 4th zone intercept vertically down to the terminal velocity in (Figure 41) determines the cfm/outlet (3,000 cfm in this case). Grille Size - Any grille up to the maximum size can be used. (Figure 42) is then used to size the grille, based on sound and pressure requirements. Based on this, a 1.5 square feet unit is selected to keep NC levels < 60. This results in the final selection (Pt = 0.30, 20 grilles). 2. 0 Deflection Zone 3 (Maximum Induction) Grille Core Area - Example 3:The intercept of the throw and 2nd/3rd zone lines in (Figure 41) determines the maximum size the grille can be (9 square feet max) for a given throw and no deflection. cfm/outlet - From the throw and zone intercept vertically down to the terminal velocity in (Figure 41) determines the cfm/outlet (6,000 cfm in this case). Grille Size - Any grille up to the maximum size can be used. (Figure 42) is then used to size the grille, based on sound and pressure requirements. Based on this, a 9 square feet unit is seen to be very quiet (NC 29). This results in the final selection (Pt = 0.027, 10 grilles).
3. Return Grilles.Heavy duty core models 30R and 33R are constructed from heavy gauge steel for industrial applications. 4. Options and Accessories.Below is a list of common options and accessories that can be used to meet specific application requirements. Debris and insect screens are available to attach to the front or back of grilles. Screens are used to keep debris, lint, insects, birds, etc., from entering the duct system. Concealed fasteners and tamper proof screws for security. Security grilles for heavy industrial use. Stainless steel construction for corrosive environments. Filter grilles.
Example:General ventilation requirements:
200 fpm terminal velocity 60,000 cfm 50 ft. throw NC 65 maximum Use #132 core Determine number and size of grilles. Four solution paths are shown in (Figures 41 and 42). 1. 0 Deflection, Zone 4 (Minimum Induction) Grille Core Area - Example 1:The intercept of the throw and 4th zone lines in (Figure 41)
Deflection 400 300 GENERAL VENTILATION: Selections should be made in the 3rd and 4th zones. SPOT COOLING: Selections should be made in the 2nd or 3rd zones. A selection in the 3rd zone will provide maximum protection. 0
Deflection 45 22 1/2 200 3 2 0 150 2 4 0 100 1 6 0 75 3 & 4 50 40 30 2nd Zone 25 20 15 120 80 64 48 40 32 24 20 10 7.5 5 4 2.5 1 2
500 fpm Terminal Velocity 400 fpm 300 fpm 200 fpm 100 fpm 50 fpm
200
3rd Zone
.0 5.0 6.0 8.0 10 .0 15 .0 20 .0 30
100
50 .0 60
50 Throw, Ft.
1 & 2
2.3 ft 2
3. 0
4.
20 15 10
Ft 2 .
.6 .8 1.5
.0
40
.0
10
4th Zone
.0
80
0.0
16 12 8
1.0
2.
A c =
5
.1
.4
.5
Throw, Ft.
.1
.15
.2
.3
1.5
2.4
100000 80000 60000
10
20
30
40 50 60
80 100
200
300 400 500 600 800 1000
2000
3000 4000
6000
10000
20000 30000 40000
B34
Flow Rate, cfm/outlet
Figure 41.Grille Selection Chart for Industrial Applications
Industrial Applications (continued)

be for a given throw and 45 deflection (55 ft. 2 max). cfm/outlet - From the throw and 4th zone intercept vertically down to the terminal velocity in (Figure 41) determines the cfm/outlet (30,000 cfm in this case). Grille Size - Any grille up to the maximum size can be used. Figure 42 is then used to size the grille, based on sound and pressure requirements. Based on this, a 55 ft. 2 unit is seen to keep NC levels < 30. This results in the final selection (Pt = 0.039, 2 grilles).
3. 0 Deflection Zone 4 (Minimum Induction) Grille Core Area - Example 2:The intercept of the throw and 2nd/3rd zone lines in (Figure 41), page B35 determines the maximum size the grille can be (9 ft. 2 max) for a given throw and 45 deflection. cfm/outlet - from the throw and 4th zone intercept vertically down to the terminal velocity in (Figure 41, page B34) determines the max cfm/outlet (12,000 cfm in this case). Grille Size - Any grille up to the maximum size can be used. Figure 42 is then used to size the grille, based on sound and pressure requirements. Based on this, a 7 ft. 2 unit is seen to keep NC levels < 60. This results in the final selection (Pt = 0.40, 5 grilles). 4. 45 Deflection Zone 3 (Maximum Induction) Grille Core Area - Example 4:The intercept of the throw and 2nd/3rd zone lines in (Figure 41, page B35) determines the maximum size the grille can
.0 40 .0
0.
.0
.0
.0
10
80
60
50
80, 60,
15
.0
100,
30
20
.0
About Figures 41 and 42: Pressure:All pressures are in inches of water. Throw:Throw turning lines are shown for terminal velocities of 50, 100, 200, 300, 400 and 500 fpm.
Flow Rate, cfm (in thousands)
40, 30,
r Th
20, 15,
8, 6,
Deflection settings:The deflection settings refer to the horizontal deflection shown in the product performance pages for the AeroBlade series of grilles. The throw for the 20 upward vertical deflection should be taken as that for a 0 setting. The total pressure should be taken as that shown for a 22.5 setting. General applications:For general applications, selections should be made in the 3rd and 4th zones. Spot cooling:Selections should be made in the 2nd and 3rd zones, since the induction of the room air into the main airstream is at a minimum in these zones.
4, 3, 1
70
80
1.
AC (ft.2)
Sound:The NC values are based on a room absorption of 10 dB, re 10-12 watts and a singe register with degrees deflection setting. For deflection setting of 22.5 add 1 NC. For deflection setting of 45 increase the sound levels by 7 NC. Corrections for multiple outlets are shown in the Grille performance tables.
10,
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
ow
8.
10
.0
2,
50
800 .040 .049 .083
30
1,
Velocity, fpm Pv 0 Pt 45 Pt
500 .016 .019 .033
600 .022 .027 .047
40
1,000 .063 .076 .130
1,500 .141 .172 .294
N
2,000 .25 .30 .52
60
3,000 .56 .68 1.17
4,000 1.0 1.2 2.1
5,000 1.6 1.9 3.25
Figure 42.Typical Sound and Pressure Drop for Grilles
B35

OTHER GRILLE AND DIFFUSER APPLICATION FACTORS

Takeoff Loss -TP ), In. of Water Takeoff Loss (SPU(SP -TP ), In. U N of Water N
0.20 0.20 0.15 0.15 0.10 0.10 0.08 0.07 0.08 0.06 0.07 0.05 0.06 0.05 0.04 0.04 0.03 0.03 0.02 0.02 0.015 0.015 0.01
300 0.01 300 400 500 600 800 1000 1500 2000 Arrangement I Arrangement II Arrangement I Arrangement II
The outlet total pressure (TPN) in inches of water as given in the Selection Tables, is the sum of the static and velocity pressures in the supply duct at 1 duct diameters ahead of the outlet. The velocity pressure is the pressure corresponding to the duct velocity. The outlet static pressure then equals the total pressure minus the velocity pressure, and it is actually measured at the above duct position per ASHRAE Standard 70. The duct static pressure required upstream from a take-off to deliver the required quantity of air through an outlet with various accessories may be obtained with the take-off loss from (Figure 43). The duct static pressure equals the takeoff loss plus the outlet total pressure. SPU = take-off Loss + TPN Figure 43a data applies in applications with grilles and other diffusers with AG dampers and AG extractors. When an equalizing grid (EG) is placed at the take-off and followed by an AG-75 damper, the pressure difference in (Figure 43a) will be between the values given for Arrangements I and II. Arrangement I shows a typical damper installation. Arrangement II shows an extractor at the duct take-off, no damper.
V = 0u = 0.8 .8 1.0
1 1 .0 .5
1.0
Diffuser (VN) fpm 400 500 Neck 600 Velocity 800 1000 1500 2000 Diffuser Neck Velocity (VN) fpm
VU SP VU U SPU AG-75 TPN & VN TPN & VN
VU SP VU U SPU Diffuser Total Pressure AG-75 Diffuser Total Pressure TPN & VN TPN & VN AG 45, 65, or EG AG 45, 65, or EG
AIRFLOW MEASUREMENTS
Airflow factors, obtained with the same test setup used for outlet pressures, as well as procedures for field testing Titus grilles and diffusers, may be provided by your Titus representative. Factors can be developed for a number of common anemometers and hoods. Since the factors have been developed for a minimum number of velocity readings, the method and positions given for taking these readings should be checked carefully for each outlet type.
Arrangment I Arrangement I Arrangment II Arrangement II
Figures 43a and 43b.Inlet Effects
DUCTS FOR LINEAR DIFFUSERS

End fed linear diffusers with inactive sections may be utilized in the air distribution design. A take-off from a main duct trunk may be attached to the linear plenum at an inactive section. The air will then be split to supply two active lengths on either side of the inactive length.
VELOCITY DISTRIBUTION FROM LINEAR DIFFUSERS

Table 8. Airstream Discharge Angle
Ratio of Slot Area/Duct Area Angle of Discharge 0.4 15 0.75 25 1 35 1.5 40
EXPANSION AND CONTRACTION OF ALUMINUM LINEAR GRILLES

The expansion and contraction of the aluminum linear grilles due to temperature differences are shown in (Figure 44, page B37). For most normal applications, the slight clearance which occurs when linear grilles are butted together is sufficient to take care of the expansion and contraction of the diffusers. The alignment strips furnished with the diffusers make it easy to allow this slight clearance and still maintain alignment.
When a linear diffuser receives its air supply from one end only, the ratio of the area of the slot to the area of the duct is important. The airstream will leave at angles which depend on this ratio, as shown above: A discharge angle of 0 along the whole face will be assured by including a set of Titus straightening blades behind the face vanes or bars.
B36 B36
1.0
1.5
1.5 0.8 0.8
PRESSURE MEASUREMENTS
1.5
Other Grille and Diffuser Application Factors (continued)

2 1/2 80 TEMPERATURE DIFFERENTIAL 70 2 60 1 1/2 50 40 1 30 20 1/2 10 0 CHANGE OF LENGTH IN INCHES
CHANGE OF LENGTH IN INCHES
1/4
80 70 60 50
3/16
1/ 8
40 30
1/16
20 10
10 12 14 1 6 6 8 LENGTH OF GRILLE IN FEET
18 20
TEMPERATURE DIFFERENTIAL
20
40 60 80 100 120 140 160 180 200 LENGTH OF GRILLE IN FEET
Figure 44.Thermal Expansion and Contraction of Aluminum Linear Grilles
INSTALLATION ACOUSTICS
INSTALLATION ISSUES
There are several installation issues which must be considered when installing different types of air outlets and inlets. These are both acoustical and structural. Additional acoustical guidance can be found in the separate section on acoustics.
1. The minimum add for an ideal (gentile 90) flexible duct connection = 1 NC. 2. The worst case add, with a kinked inlet connection (Figure 46, page B38) = 7 - 9 NC. 3. Air distribution pattern can be greatly affected. 4. A 90 bend and flex adds 0.07 - 0.1 in. Ps., @700 fpm inlet velocity. 5. Results were not the same for all diffuser types.
STRUCTURAL ISSUES
When very large units are selected, sufficient structural support must be provided to prevent sagging or distortion of the unit. For example, for a 96 x 96 return air grille, if high airfows are required, the pressure may cause some distortion of the face. In another example, larger ceiling diffusers should have secondary support, such as restraining cables to prevent injury in case the unit is dislodged from the ceiling.
MULTIPLE DIFFUSERS
When a number of similar diffusers are located in a single space, an observer (within 10) may hear more than one diffuser, and the apparent noise level will increase. As a rule, doubling the number of equal noise sources adds 3 NC. For Example: 1. Two diffusers adds 3 NC. 2. Four diffusers, equidistant from the observer, adds 6 NC. 3. Eight diffusers, equidistant (unlikely), adds 9 NC.
INSTALLATION EFFECTS
Catalog data is based on ASHRAE Standard 70, which requires several diameters of straight duct at the approach to the diffuser. Field installations seldom, if ever, allow these ideal conditions.
BALANCING DAMPERS
A wide open damper can add 3 NC, 10% pressure drop, depending on the type of damper and diffuser. When adjusted to less than full open (otherwise why have one installed?), the NC add will depend on ratio of catalog to actual total pressure drop across the diffuser Table 2, page B8.
DIRECT DUCT CONNECTIONS

When a diffuser is connected directly to a duct, the duct velocity can create unwanted effects in the diffuser. Regions with localized high velocities (Figure 45, page B38) can create higher than predicted noise levels, as much as 12 NC higher than catalog levels.
COMBINING EFFECTS
If we combine all the above effects, we can see that: 1. Typical 90 flex inlet will probably add 5 NC. 2. In the middle of four diffusers with equal flow rates, add 6 NC. 3. If the total pressure in the supply duct is 150% of the diffusers required total pressure, add 4-5 NC.
FLEXIBLE DUCT CONNECTIONS

A number of tests have been conducted to evaluate the effects of flexible duct inlets. The effect of flexible ducts at the inlet to diffusers include increased pressure drop, increased sound levels, and nonuniform air distribution from the unit. The tests showed that the effect of different inlet configurations varied for different types of diffusers. In general, however:
B37
Other Grille and Diffuser Application Factors (continued)

GUIDELINES
Use equalizing grids on direct diffuser connections. Locate balancing dampers at branch take-off. Keep flexible duct bends as gentle as possible. Remember - flex is a great attenuator of upstream noise sources. Keep duct velocities as low as possible - but oversizing can result in higher thermal loss. With VAV systems, highest flow only happens when at full load. Occupants may need to hear diffusers at full load to be assured system is operating. Noisy diffusers work better at mixing air than quiet ones. Oversized diffusers may have excessive drop at low flows, and work even less effectively in overhead heating conditions.
B
Basis of Manufacturers Ratings Sound Levels Same as Manufacturers Rating with Equalizing Grid Sound Levels Up To 12 dB Higher With No Equalizing Grid
Figure 45.Equalizing Grid Effects (from ASHRAE Handbook; Atlanta, GA)
AIRFLOW
D 8
AIRFLOW
D 2
Sound Levels Same As Manufacturers Ratings
Sound Levels 12 to 15 dB Higher Than Manufacturers Ratings
Figure 46.Flexible Duct Inlet Effects (from ASHRAE Handbook; Atlanta, GA)
B38 B38
Acoustical Applications and Factors

Air terminals are the most noise sensitive of all HVAC products since they are almost always mounted in or directly over occupied spaces. They usually determine the residual background noise level from 125 Hz to 2,000 Hz. The term Air Terminals has historically been used to describe a number of devices which control airflows into occupied spaces at the zone (or individual temperature control area) level. There are two types: those that control the amount of airflow to a temperature zone (Air Control Units, ACUs, or more commonly Boxes), and those that distribute or collect the flow of air (Grilles & Diffusers, GRDs). On some occasions, the two functions are combined. As these two elements are the final components in many built-up air delivery systems and those closest to the building occupants, both are critical components in the acoustical design of a space. There is also a critical interplay between acoustics and the primary function of these devices; providing a proper quantity of well mixed air to the building occupants. Before discussing types of devices, we must have an understanding of some issues regarding sound levels in occupied spaces. The sound level in an occupied space can be measured directly with a sound level meter, or estimated from published sound power after accounting for room volume and other acoustical factors. Sound level meters measure the sound pressure level at the microphone location. Estimation techniques calculate sound pressure level at a specified point in an occupied space. Measured sound pressure levels in frequency bands can then be plotted and analyzed, and compared with established criteria for room sound levels. Sound power cannot be measured directly, (except using special Acoustic Intensity techniques), and is a measure of the acoustical energy created by a source. It is normally determined in special facilities and reported for devices under stated conditions. Sound Power Level (Lw) values

for Air Terminal devices are usually reported as the sound power level in each of several octave bands with center frequencies as shown in Table 11. Sound Power Levels are given in decibels (dB) referenced to a base power in watts, typically 10-12 watts. Sound power levels can also be reported for full or 1/3 octave bands, but usually as full octave bands, unless pure tones (narrow bands significantly louder than adjacent adjacent bands) are present.
NOISE CRITERIA (NC)

Sound Pressure Levels (Lp) are measured directly by sound level meters at one or more points in a room. They reference a pressure rather than a power. A products estimated Sound Pressure Level (Lp) performance curve is obtained by subtracting space (or other appropriate) sound attenuation effects from the unit sound power (Lw). Currently, most Air Outlet and Inlets (GRDs) sound performance is reported by subtracting a 10 dB attenuation from all octave band sound power levels, and determining the NC rating. This room effect approximates a 3,000 cu. ft. room, 10 ft. from the source for VAV boxes, which peak in lower frequencies, and a 2,500 cu. ft. room 7 ft. from a diffuser, which typically peaks @ 1000 Hz. (This is defined in the AHRI Standard 885 space effect calculation described later in this section). NC curves were developed to represent lines of equal hearing perception in all bands and at varying sound levels. Most air terminal products are currently specified and reported as single number NC ratings.
B
ACOUSTICAL APPLICATIONS AND FACTORS
Table 11.Octave Band Designations Center Frequency Band Designation 63 1 125 2 250 3 500 1000 2000 4000 8000 4 5 6 7 8
B39
NC - Noise Criteria (continued)


NC rating given is NC-30 since this is the highest point tangent to an NC curve
80
70
NC-70 Sound Power
60
NC-60
50
dB
40
NC-50 Sound Power less 10 dB in each band NC-40
30
NC-30
In this example, the outlet Lp spectrum does not exceed the NC curve of 30 in any of the eight octave bands and is thus referred to as meeting an NC-30 criteria and specification. It should be noted that while this spectra meets NC-30, if the critical band resulted in an NC-33, most building occupants would not be able to discern the difference.
B
20
Approximate Threshold of human hearing
NC-20
10
63
125
250
500
1K
2K
4K
8K
Mid - Frequency, Hz
Figure 127.Typical NC Graph for a Diffuser The use of a 10 dB room effect as used in this example, while in common practice and accepted for Table 12. Space Effect (AHRI 885 and ASHRAE) many years, is not as accurate a prediction as is possible using newer techniques. The Room Hz 63 125 250 500 1000 2000 4000 8000 ASHRAE Handbook and AHRI Standard 885 present an equation for determining the Volume Band 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 space effect based on both room volume @ 5ft -4 -5 -6 -7 -7 -8 -9 -10 and the distance from the observer to a 2000 CuFt @ 10ft -7 -8 -9 -10 -11 -11 -12 -13 point sound source. SpaceEffect = (25) - 10 Log (ft.) - 5 Log (cu. ft.) - 3 Log (Hz) Where: ft. = Distance from observer to source cu. ft. = Room volume Hz = Octave band center frequency This yields a range of deductions which differ in each octave band, as shown in Table 12. @ 15ft @ 5ft 2500 CuFt @ 10ft @ 15ft @ 5ft 3000 CuFt @ 10ft @ 15ft @ 5ft 5000 CuFt @ 10ft @ 15ft -9 -4 -7 -9 -5 -8 -10 -6 -9 -11 -10 -5 -8 -10 -6 -9 -10 -7 -10 -12 -10 -6 -9 -11 -7 -10 -11 -8 -11 -12 -11 -7 -10 -12 -7 -10 -12 -9 -12 -13 -12 -8 -11 -13 -8 -11 -13 -9 -12 -14 -13 -9 -12 -14 -9 -12 -14 -10 -13 -15 -14 -10 -13 -15 -10 -13 -15 -11 -14 -16 -15 -11 -14 -15 -11 -14 -16 -12 -15 -17
The 10 dB room effect which has been traditionally used for diffuser sound ratings, which typically peak in the 5th band, can be considered to be equivalent to a room about 2,500 cu. ft. in size, with the observer located about 7 ft. from the source. With VAV terminals, which peak in lower bands, the 10 dB room size is larger, or the distance is greater.
B40
NC ratings have been common in specifications for a number of years, with an NC-35 being the most common requirement. While NC is a great improvement over previous single number ratings, including Sones, Bels, and dBA requirements, it gives little indication of the quality of the sound. A more comprehensive method, RC, has been proposed; while a good analysis tool, RC is a very poor design tool.
ROOM CRITERIA (RC)

Room Criteria (RC) is based on ASHRAE sponsored studies of preference and requirements for speech privacy, along with ratings for Acoustical Quality. RC ratings contain both a numerical value and a letter Quality rating. The RC numerical rating is simply the arithmetic average of the sound pressure level in the 500, 1,000 and 2,000 Hz octave bands, which is the speech interference level (SIL). These are the frequencies that affect speech communication privacy and impairment. Studies show that an RC between 35 and 45 will usually provide speech privacy in open-plan offices, while a value below 35 does not. Above RC-45, the sound is likely to interfere with speech communication. In addition to the numerical SIL portion of the RC method, there is a Quality portion of the RC rating which involves an analysis of potential low and high frequency annoyance. The goals of acoustical quality are described in Table 13. Recommended NC and RC goals for various space applications, given in the current ASHRAE Handbook, are shown in the table to the right.

Table 13. ASHRAE Defined Acoustic Quality Not too quiet Not too loud Dont destroy acoustic privacy Avoid hearing damage Dont interfere with speech No rumble, No hiss No identifiable machinery sounds, No time modulation No feel able wall vibration
Not to annoying
Not to be felt
Table 14.NC/RC Guidelines
Space Occupancy
Private residence Apartments Hotels/Motels Individual rooms or suites Halls, corridors, lobbies Service / support areas Offices Executive Conference Rooms Private Open plan areas Public circulation Hospitals and clinics Private rooms Wards Operating rooms Laboratories Corridors Public areas Churches Schools Lecture and classrooms Open-plan classrooms
RC
RC 25-30(N) RC 30-35(N) RC 30-35(N) RC 35-40(N) RC 40-45(N) RC 25-30(N) RC 25-30(N) RC 30-35(N) RC 35-40(N) RC 40-45(N) RC 25-30(N) RC 30-35(N) RC 25-30(N) RC 35-40(N) RC 30-35(N) RC 35-40(N) RC 30-35(N) RC 25-30(N) RC 35-40(N)
NC
NC 25-30 NC 30-35 NC 30-35 NC 35-40 NC 40-45 NC 25-30 NC 25-30 NC 30-35 NC 35-40 NC 40-45 NC 25-30 NC 30-35 NC 25-30 NC 35-40 NC 30-35 NC 35-40 NC 30-35 NC 25-30 NC 35-40
B
B41
Room Criteria (continued)


90 80
70
Octave Band Sound Pressure Level, dB re 20
The Four Quality letter designations currently in use are: R Rumble H Hiss V Vibration (acoustically induced) N Neutral These letters are determined by analyzing the low and high frequency spectra compared to a line drawn with a -5 dB slope per band through the numerical RC point @ 1,000 Hz. This establishes the SIL (Speech Interference Level) line. Lines of -5 dB slope create the RC chart, shown in (Figure 128). Also shown in (Figure 128) are areas of rumble (B) and vibration (A), as well as a threshold of audibility. Note that the RC chart goes well below the 63 Hz lower cutoff of the NC chart, as these low frequency sound levels have been discovered to be a major source of discomfort to occupants. If the sound spectrum being analyzed exceeds a line drawn parallel to the SIL line plus 3 dB in the higher frequencies (> 2,000 Hz), the hiss roof, then it is declared to be Hissy and gets an H designation.
A B
Region A: High probability that noise induced vibration levels in light wall and ceiling structures will be noticeable. Rattling of lightweight light fixtures, doors, and windows should be anticipated. Region B: moderate probability that noise induced vibration will be noticeable in lightweight fixtures, doors, and windows.
Micropascals
60 50 40
RC
C
30
50 45 40 35 30 25
250 1K 4K
B
20 10
Threshold of Audibility
16
63
Octave Band Center Frequency, Hz

Adapted from 1989 ASHRAE Fundementals Handbook - Atlanta, GA
Figure 128.Room Criteria (RC) Curves
90 80 70 60 50 40
C
Measured data is outside the reference region by >3 dB, above the 1000 Hz octave band, therefore the noise is likely to be interpreted as "hissy."
Octave Band Sound Pressure Level
30
20
10 16
PSIL = (35+36+34) / 3 = 35
RC-35(H)
63
250
1K
4K

Adapted from 1989 ASHRAE Fundementals Handbook - Atlanta, GA
B42
Figure 129.Hissy Spectrum
Room Criteria (continued)

If the plotted spectra exceed a +5 dB Rumble roof in the lower frequencies, it gets an R (Rumble) Rating. Finally, if the sound spectrum enters the A or B zones in the very low frequencies shown on the RC graphs, it warrants a V for possible wall or furniture vibration induced by acoustical energy in low frequencies. The B region may be characterized as Be Careful where one may have complaints, but the A region is Awful, and complaints should be expected. This is an example of an RV spectrum. When room sound levels are analyzed using RC curves, air diffusers tend to give the same ratings as they do in an NC analysis. Boxes, on the other hand, which are typically predominant in lower frequency sound and often characterized as Roar (250-500 Hz), often yield RC values lower than NC, but with an R classification.
80 90 80 70 60 50 40
A B
Even though the PSIL is only 33 dB, the noise spectrum falls within regions A & B indicating a high probability of moise-induced
Octave Band Sound Pressure Level
C
30 20
vibration in lights, ceilings, air diffusers, and return air grilles.
PSIL= (38+32+29) / 3 = 33
10 16 63 250 1K 4K
RC-33(RV)
AIR TERMINAL SOUND ISSUES

Sound is an important design criterion in the application of air terminals. In the context of the total building environment, comfort cannot be achieved with excessive sound or noise levels. By definition, sound is a change in pressure for a medium, such as air. This change in pressure involves a radiation of energy. Energy is used in the generation of sound and this energy is radiated from a source. All sound has a source and travels down a path to a receiver. Air terminals are one source of sound in a mechanical system. The path for sound emanating from the air terminal is through the plenum or down the duct into the conditioned space where it reaches the occupant or receiver. Mechanical system designers should not be concerned so much with sound, but rather with noise. Noise can be thought of as unwanted or excessive sound. Good design practice dictates that a designer establish the acceptable noise for the occupied space and then determine the selection criteria for the mechanical system components. In any application, both radiated and discharge sound should be considered. Radiated sound breaks out from the terminal casing or induction port and travels through the plenum and ceiling to enter the occupied space. Discharge sound travels out the discharge of the terminal through the duct work and outlet to enter the occupied space.
B
Figure 130.Rumble and Induced Vibration (RV) Spectrum
D C
Sound Power L w
C = Casing Radiated and Induction Inlet D = Discharge Sound O = Outlet Generated Sound
Figure 131.Typical Sound Sources for Fan Terminal System
B43
AHRI STANDARD 885


RADIATED SOUND POWER LEVELS
To determine the maximum allowable radiated sound power levels for a project, the attenuation from the ceiling/space effect must be added to the desired room sound pressure for each octave band.
AHRI Standard 885, Procedure for Estimating Occupied Space Sound Levels in the Application of Air Terminal and Air Outlets, provides the most current application factors for converting rated sound power to a predicted room sound pressure level. This standard is the basis by which most air terminal manufacturers convert sound power, as measured in reverberant rooms per ASHRAE Standard 130 and rated in accordance with AHRI Standard 880, to a predicted room sound pressure level. The standard provides a number of equations and tables available elsewhere, but puts them all in one document, and includes some unique tables as well. It also includes examples and diagrams to make the process easier to use. The most important of those are included here.
CEILING/SPACE EFFECT
AHRI Standard 885 combines the effect of the absorption of the ceiling tile, plenum absorption and room absorption into the Ceiling/Space Effect. Experience has shown that the Sound Transmission Class (STC) rating for ceiling tiles, which is based on a two room pair test, is not well correlated with observed data for a noise source located above a ceiling. The AHRI Standard 885 Ceiling/Space Effect table D14 Table 16 is derived from a number of manufacturers observations and is only found in the AHRI Standard. This table assumes that the plenum space is at least 3 ft. deep, is over 30 ft. wide or lined with insulation and that there are no penetrations directly under the unit. From the AHRI Standard, the following attenuation values, or transfer functions, should be used for the Ceiling/Space Effect: LW RAD = where: LW RAD LP S P/C Env = = = = = LP + S + P/C + Env Radiated Sound Power Level Sound Pressure Level Space Effect Plenum/Ceiling Effect Environmental Effect
ENVIRONMENTAL ADJUSTMENT FACTOR

In order to use the AHRI 885 Standard, sound power must be corrected for differences between reverberant room and free field calibrations when AHRI 880 sound power is the base. This Environmental Adjustment Factor is listed in AHRI Standard 885. According to AHRI Standard 885, an Environmental Adjustment Factor must be applied to manufacturers data if the sound power data has been taken under a free field RSS (reference sound source). According to AHRI, this is necessary because at low frequencies, all real occupied spaces behave acoustically more like reverberant rooms than open spaces (free field). In other words, manufacturers sound power data which is based on ILG/ RSS with a free field calibration must be adjusted to match actual operating conditions found in the field. This applies to Titus and other participants in the AHRI Standard 880 Certification program. For data rated per AHRI Standard 880, the environmental adjustment factor must be subtracted from the manufacturers sound power level data in order to use the adjustments provided in AHRI Standard 885. Table 15.Environmental Adjustment Factor Octave Band Env Factor 2 2 3 1 4 0 5 0 6 0 7 0 8 0
B
Table 16.Ceiling/Space Effect (Table D14, AHRI Standard 885) Frequency Octave Band Mineral Fiber Tile Ceiling Glass Fiber Tile Ceiling Solid Gypsum Board 125 2 16 16 23 250 3 18 15 27 500 4 20 17 27 1K 5 26 17 29 2K 6 31 18 29 4K 7 36 19 30
Once the Ceiling/Space Effect has been determined, they are added to the sound pressure level to determine the maximum acceptable sound power levels. This must be done for each octave band.
B44
DISCHARGE SOUND POWER LEVELS

Discharge sound (sometimes called airborne sound) is the sound that travels down the duct and discharges into the room along with the conditioned air. The procedure for determining the maximum acceptable discharge sound power levels requires the addition of the space effect, end reflection, duct insertion, flow division (or branch power division) and elbow and tees to the maximum acceptable room sound pressure levels. If more than one outlet supplies air to a room, separate evaluations should occur for each discharge path. This is done for each octave band. Space Effect.The discharge sound space effect is determined in the same manner as the radiated sound space effect. The sound source in this case might be the outlet (i.e., grille or diffuser) supplying air to the space, or may be sound from an upstream noise source (damper or fan) which passes through the outlets, or a sum of both Table 12. End Reflection.When the area across the airstream expands suddenly as the duct work terminates or ends at the outlet to the occupied space, a significant amount of low frequency sound is reflected back into the duct work. This is called end reflection. The amount of end reflection varies based on the inlet size and type of duct. Table 17.End Reflection dB (Table D13, AHRI Standard 885) Eq. Dia. or Duct Width 6 8 10 12 16 24 Octave Band 1 18 16 14 12 10 7 2 12 10 8 7 5 3 3 7 5 4 3 2 1 4 3 2 1 1 1 0 5 1 1 0 0 0 0 6 0 0 0 0 0 0 7 0 0 0 0 0 0 8 0 0 0 0 0 0

Table 18.Round 1-inch Lined Spiral Duct, dB / ft. (Table D7, AHRI Standard 885) Duct Diameter 6 12 24 48 2 0.59 0.46 0.25 0 3 0.93 0.81 0.57 0.18 Octave Band 4 5 1.53 1.45 1.28 0.63 2.17 2.18 1.71 0.26 6 2.31 1.91 1.24 0.34 7 2.04 1.48 0.85 0.45
Table 19.Rectangular, 1-inch Lined Duct, dB / ft. (Table D8, AHRI Standard 885) Duct Dimension 6 x 6 12 x 12 24 x 24 48 x 48 2 0.6 0.4 0.2 0.1 3 1.5 0.8 0.5 0.3 Octave Band 4 5 2.7 1.9 1.4 1 5.8 4 2.8 2 6 7.4 4.1 2.2 1.2 7 4.3 2.8 1.8 1.2
Table 20.Flexible Duct Insertion Loss, dB (Table D9, AHRI Standard 885) Duct Diameter Inches 4 Duct Length Feet 10 5 3 10 5 5 3 10 6 5 3 10 8 5 3 10 10 5 3 10 12 5 3 10 14 5 3 10 16 5 3 Insertion Loss, dB Octave Bands 2 9 6 4 9 5 4 9 5 4 9 5 3 8 4 3 7 3 2 5 2 1 3 1 0 3 9 5 4 12 7 5 15 9 6 18 10 7 19 11 7 17 9 6 13 7 4 7 2 0 4 27 16 12 28 17 13 28 18 13 29 18 14 28 18 14 26 16 12 23 14 10 19 11 8 5 32 23 19 32 22 18 32 21 16 31 19 14 30 17 11 28 15 9 25 13 8 23 11 7 6 38 27 23 37 25 21 35 24 19 32 21 16 29 18 13 26 15 11 23 13 9 20 11 8 7 24 18 15 23 16 13 22 15 11 20 12 8 18 9 6 15 7 4 12 6 4 8 5 4
B
Duct Insertion Loss. The addition of lined duct work results in significant attenuation of higher frequency sound. The amount of attenuation varies with duct size and lining thickness. AHRI Standard 885 contains several tables helpful in determining the appropriate attenuation values. Each section of duct work inserted downstream of the terminal must be evaluated. For example, one might have separate duct insertion attenuation values for straight lined discharge duct, branch duct (if lined) and flex duct from the branch to the outlet. The AHRI Standard, as well as the ASHRAE Handbook, provide tables of insertion loss per foot of duct based on inside duct dimensions. While lined duct factors are available in both ASHRAE and AHRI documents, flexible duct insertion loss data is available only from manufacturers or as found in the AHRI Standard 885. Table 20 is the flexible duct insertion loss data from AHRI Standard 885. Two tables are provided here for rectangular and round lined duct from the AHRI Standard.
B45
Discharge Sound Power Levels (continued)


Once all of the attenuation factors have been determined, they are added to the sound pressure level to determine the maximum acceptable sound power levels. This must be done for each octave band, and again the Environmental Adjustment factor must be added. 30 5 40 4 50 3 60 1 LW DIS = LP + S + ER + I + D + T/E + Env = = = = = = = = Discharge Sound Power Level Sound Pressure Level Space Effect End Reflection Duct Insertion Flow Division Tee/Elbow Environmental Factor
Flow Division.When the airstream is divided, the sound carried in each downstream branch is less than the sound upstream of the branch take-off. This shows the percent of total airflow carried by the branch. The appropriate level of attenuation can then be determined from Table 21. Table 21.Duct Splits, dB % of Total Air Flow Attenuation 5 31 10 10 15 8 20 7
Elbows and Tees.A certain amount of attenuation of higher frequency sound is gained when an airstream enters an elbow or tee duct connection. If the elbow is round and unlined, the attenuation is considered by AHRI Standard 885 to be negligible. Attenuation of rectangular tees is determined by treating the tee as two elbows placed side by side.
where: LW DIS LP S ER I D T/E Env
Approximate Attenuation of 90 Elbows without Turning Vanes
B
Table 22.Lined Rectangular, dB (Table D12, AHRI Standard 885) Duct Width 5-10 11-20 21-40 41-80 Octave Band 2 0 1 6 6 3 0 6 6 11 4 1 6 11 10 5 6 11 10 10 6 11 10 10 10 7 10 10 10 10
Table 23.Circular with Lining Ahead or Behind Elbow, dB (Table D10, AHRI Standard 885) Duct Width 5-10 11-20 21-40 41-80 Octave Band 2 0 1 2 2 3 0 2 2 3 4 1 2 3 3 5 2 3 3 3 6 3 3 3 3 7 3 3 3 3
ACCEPTABLE TOTAL SOUND IN A SPACE

Once the Radiated and Discharge sound pressure paths and effects are known, the resulting room sound level can be evaluated. Other factors may play a part in determining the final room sound levels. All these factors must be included to achieve an accurate prediction or analysis. The results may be very complex. In the example here, many paths are shown. In practice, only a couple are significant, but changes in designs may make a one time insignificant path become predominant. For example, should duct lining be eliminated and no flex duct employed, discharge sound may be much more important than radiated, the usual acoustical problem. Poor duct design may cause duct breakout to be the highest sound heard in the space.
Sound Pressure L p
1 2 3 = Casing Radiated & Inlet = Duct Breakout = Distribution Duct Breakout = Flex Duct Breakout = Discharge = Outlet Generated Sound
2 1
4 5 6
4 5 6
B46
Figure 132. Fan Powered Terminal or Induction Terminal - Summary Calculation, The AHRI Standard 885 Standard provides Sound Sources and Paths guidance on all the possible paths. Not shown here is background sound, which is often at an NC-30 or greater in occupied spaces.
Acceptable Total Sound in a Space (continued) All the sound paths must be combined to predict the room sound level. When combining path elements, the math is done using log addition, not algebraically. Logarithmic (log) addition requires taking the antilog of the dB in each band, adding them together, then taking the log of the answer. While this sounds complicated, (Figure 133) here shows an easier way of estimating the result. More importantly, most people cannot differentiate between two sources which differ by less than 3 dB. If the background sound is an NC-35, and the device in question is predicted at an NC-35, it is likely that the space will be at an NC-38 (although this is dependent on which octave bands are critical), but most people cannot hear the difference. In a similar manner, sound from VAV boxes and diffusers combine to create the room sound pressure level. Since they peak in different bands, however, they often complement each other. In many cases, a Series Fan Terminal will be predicted to have an NC-30 in a space, but when combined with an NC-40 diffuser, will result in a room sound pressure level of NC-40, which is optimum for providing speech privacy in open plan spaces.

Correction To Be Added To Higher Value (dB)
3 2.5 2 1.5 1 0.5 0 0 2 4 6 8 10
To Add Two Decibel Values:
80 dB + 74 dB
154 dB (Incorrect)
Difference in Values: 6 dB From Chart: Add 1.0 dB to higher Value
80 dB + 1 dB
Difference In Decibels Between Two Values Being Added (dB)
81 dB
(Correct)
Figure 133.Decibel Addition Example (Incoherent Sound)
B
>3D
Lined Sheet Metal Plenum (Max velocity 1,000 fpm)
VAV Unit
4' Min.
Maximize Height Above Ceiling
Flexible Connectors For Fan Powered Units Ceiling
Flexible Ducts To Diffusers
Figure 134.Quiet VAV and Fan Terminal Recommended Installation
B47
Acoustical Applications & Factors (continued)


Engineers can minimize the sound contribution of air terminals to an occupied space through good design practice. Whenever possible, terminals should be located over areas less sensitive to noise. This includes corridors, copy rooms, storage rooms, etc. Quiet air terminals facilitate the location of terminals over unoccupied space as with these units larger zones are possible resulting in fewer terminals. This also reduces first cost and improves energy efficiency. The use of lined duct work or manufacturers attenuators downstream of air terminals can help attenuate higher frequency discharge sound. Flexible duct (used with moderation) is also an excellent attenuation element. Sound will be reduced when appropriate fan speed controllers are used to reduce fan rpm rather than using mechanical devices to restrict airflow. This form of motor control is often more energy efficient. The air terminal and the return air grille location should be separated as far as possible. Radiated sound can travel directly from the terminal through the return air grille without the benefit of ceiling attenuation. Designing systems to operate at low supply air static pressure will reduce the generated sound level. This will also provide more energy efficient operation and allow the central fan to be downsized. Sharp edges and transitions in the duct design should be minimized to reduce turbulent airflow and its resulting sound contribution.
MAXIMUM SOUND POWER LEVELS FOR MANUFACTURERS DATA

A proper specification for acoustical performance in a space will limit the maximum sound generation for a product. This should be based on the desired resultant sound in the space and accepted and clearly stated sound path attenuations/ reductions. AHRI Standard 885 provides a consistent method for accomplishing this task.
Example:
B
A designer wants to achieve RC 40N for an open office to achieve an acceptable level of speech privacy. The office has a 9 ft. ceiling and a volume of 3,000 ft.3. The terminal will be located over the occupied space with 5 ft. of lined duct on the discharge.The lined discharge duct is 14 x 14 outside with one inch of insulation (12 x 12 internal cross section). This duct branches into an unlined trunk duct with two runs of lined flex duct taking off to the outlet. The flex duct is 6 ft. long and 8 in diameter. The terminal will supply 600 cfm with each diffuser taking 300 cfm. The ceiling is made of -inch mineral fiber tile with a 35 lb. ft.3 density. The diffuser is selected to provide an NC 40(N) at design flow.
DESIRED ROOM SOUND PRESSURE LEVELS

From AHRI Standard 885 the appropriate sound pressure levels for an RC 40 can be determined. Since a Neutral Spectrum is desired, the Rumble Roof and Hiss Roof can be added to the spectra and still result in a neutral designation. The resultant maximum room sound pressure spectra are: Table 24. Maximum LP for (RC 40N), dB Octave Band LP (RC 40N) Rumble Roof Hiss Roof Max Room Sound Pressure 2 55 5 0 60 3 50 5 0 55 4 45 0 0 45 5 40 0 0 40 6 35 0 0 35 7 30 0 3 33
Figure 135. Sound Design Guidelines
B48
Acoustical Applications & Factors (continued)

RADIATED SOUND POWER LEVEL SPECIFICATIONS

The ceiling/space effect may be determined from Table 16, page B80. Octave Band Mineral Fiber Tile 35#/Ft3 2 16 3 18 4 20 5 26 6 31 7 36 Octave Band End Reflection 2 10 3 5 4 2 5 1 6 0 7 0
Duct insertion for 5 ft. of 8-inch lined flex duct can be taken from Table 20, page B81. Octave Band Flex Insertion Loss 2 5 3 10 4 18 5 19 6 21 7 12
The maximum acceptable radiated sound power levels are determined by adding all the factors, including the environmental factor. For example, in the 2nd band: LW RAD 2 = 55 (LP) + 16 (C/S) + 2 (Env) = 73 (Octave band 2. LW in bands 3-7 is calculated in a similar manner.) For all bands, the following table results in a maximum allowed sound power, per AHRI Standard 880, to achieve an RC 40N: Table 25. Allowed Sound Power Maximums (AHRI Standard 880) Octave Band Lp (RC 40N) C/S (Table 16) Env Effect (Table 15) Lw 2 60 16 2 78 3 55 18 1 74 4 45 20 0 65 5 40 26 0 66 6 35 31 0 66 7 33 36 0 69
No insertion value will be gained from the unlined trunk duct. Flow division based on a 50 percent split (300 cfm / 600 cfm) can be taken from Table 21, page B46. Octave Band Flow Division 2 3 3 3 4 3 5 3 6 3 7 3
The rectangular tee attenuation can be taken from Table 23, page B46. Octave Band Tee Attenuation 2 0 3 0 4 1 5 2 6 3 7 3
B
7 33 0 13 0 12 3 3 14 78
Duct insertion for the 5 ft. of rectangular discharge duct can be taken from the AHRI Standard 885, or from Table 19, page B45 in this case. Octave Band Duct Ins. Loss Octave Band LP (RC 40N) Env Effect (Table 15) Space (Table 12) End Ref (Table 17) FLEX (Table 20) Flow Div (Table 21) Elbow & Tee (Table 23) Rect Duct (Table 19) Lw 2 2 2 60 2 9 10 5 3 0 2 91 3 4 4 10 3 55 1 10 5 10 3 0 4 88 4 45 0 10 2 18 3 1 10 89 5 20 5 40 0 11 1 19 3 2 20 96 6 21 6 35 0 12 0 21 3 3 21 95 7 14
For this specification to be compared evenly against all manufacturers, the environmental adjustment factor for manufacturers using a free field calibration Reference Sound Source (RSS), as required in AHRI Standard 880, has been subtracted from the appropriate manufacturers data or added to the maximum acceptable sound power levels. If data is tested in another method, the appropriateness of the environmental factor must be understood and properly applied.
DISCHARGE SOUND POWER LEVEL SPECIFICATIONS

The room absorption is determined by the space effect table. With a 10 ft. ceiling and the terminal located a few feet away from the receiver and a room volume of 3,000 ft.3. The effect varies with the octave band. The space effect will be obtained from Table 12, page B40.
Octave Band Space Effect
2 9
3 10
4 10
5 11
6 12
7 13
End reflection is based on Table 17, page B45, and an 8-inch duct connection.
As with radiated sound, the environmental adjustment factor for manufacturers using a free field calibration RSS, as required in AHRI Standard 880, has been subtracted from the appropriate manufacturers data or added to the maximum acceptable sound power levels. If data is tested in another method, the appropriateness of the environmental factor must be understood and properly applied.
B49
Discharge Sound Power Level Specifications (continued)


RC 40 Lp (RC40N) Rumble Roof Hiss Roof Env Effect Space End Ref Flex Flow Div Elbow & Tee Rect Duct
Discharge Attenuation Elements
dB
125
250
500
1K
2K
4K
B
Figure 136. Fan Powered Terminal or Induction Terminal - Summary Calculation, Sound Sources and Paths It can be seen that discharge sound is not likely to be a problem, especially in the mid-frequencies. If duct lining is eliminated, however, the maximum allowable power is reduced by the duct insertion loss data on the previous page. If flex duct is disallowed, the maximum sound power allowed is further decreased by flex insertion loss. This can result in the following requirement for the unit: Octave Band No Lining/Flex 2 83 3 74 4 61 5 56 6 53 7 52
The room sound pressure level requirements should be based on the resultant desired acoustical environment. As the only attenuation element for diffusers is the room effect, this should be the primary attenuation path. Diffusers, moreover, have typically been tested in the same facilities as VAV terminals, with the same reference sound source, and therefore the AHRI Standard 885 Environmental Effect must be included as well. The following is a proposed procedure for determining the Diffuser NC requirement based on an RC analysis: Steps: 1. Determine the desired RC level for the space. This is the sound pressure level requirement in the 5th band. 2. Determine the room effect in the 5th (1,000 Hz) band, based on room volume and distance to the diffuser from the observer. Add this to the RC number. 3. Subtract 10 dB from the result in Step 2. This is the required diffuser NC.
In many cases, this is a borderline acceptable case for many unit sizes and flow rates, especially in smaller rooms with RC 35N requirements. Flexible duct can be included as a solution to discharge noise in these cases.
DIFFUSER SPECIFICATIONS
Diffusers are commonly specified and reported in NC, rather than RC. In most cases, there is no difference between NC and RC for diffusers as they usually peak in the 500-2,000 Hz region, and the resultant numerical specification is the same for both NC and RC. Diffuser NC ratings commonly subtract 10 dB from measured sound power levels in all bands to account for room attenuation. As described earlier, this will be a valid assumption for a number of combinations of room volume and distance to the source. While an ideal specification will be based on octave band sound levels, these are seldom available for diffusers, and so the NC rating must be used. For a close approximation of diffuser sound power when only NC is known, one can assume that the sound power for the diffuser in the 5th octave band (1,000 Hz) is equal to the reported NC plus 10 dB, the 4th band (500 Hz) is 3 greater than this, and the 6th band (2000 Hz) is 5 less. This will be suitable for most applications.
B50
Diffuser Specifications (continued)

Example: The open office from the previous example is
used here. The room is large and speech privacy is desired, requiring an RC 40N specification. Steps: 1. From AHRI Standard 885 the appropriate sound pressure levels for an RC 40 can be determined. In the 5th band the RC is = to the sound pressure level requirement, 40 dB. 2. The room absorption is determined from the space effect equation. With a 10 ft. ceiling and the terminal located a few feet away from the receiver, the distance variable will equal 10 ft. The volume of the room is 3,000 ft.3. The frequency varies with the octave band. The space effect in the 5th band will be obtained from Table 12, page B76, and is = 11 dB. 40 + 11 = 51 dB. 3. Subtract 10dB = the diffusers NC requirement, or NC 41.
As the estimated room sound pressure level exceeds the rumble roof in the 2nd band, this unit must be classified RC 29 (R). If an RC 35 (N) diffuser is also supplied, however, the sound from it must be added to the terminals to get the room total sound level. Using the procedure described under Diffuser Specification, we can estimate the sound power level of an NC-35 diffuser: Octave Band Diffuser Pwl Space Effect (Table 12) Env Effect (Table 15) Estimated Diffuser Spl 9 2 10 1 2 3 4 48 10 0 38 5 45 11 0 34 6 40 12 0 28 13 0 7
When these are added, the resulting spectra is: Octave Band Diffuser Pwl Terminal Spl 53 53 45 45 Log Sum 2 3 4 38 39 41 5 34 31 36 6 28 19 29 9 9 7
DETERMINING COMPLIANCE TO A SPECIFICATION

When determining if a unit will meet a specification, it may be necessary to conduct a total room sound evaluation with multiple sound sources and multiple paths. These are added using logarithmic addition to determine total sound level. Once all path elements are identified, the noncritical paths can be determined using (Figure 133), page B83. Paths which are 10 dB or more below the loudest, in any given band, can usually be ignored. VAV terminals, if evaluated by themselves, often result in an R classification because of the high mid-frequency absorption provided by lined and flexible duct. The diffuser, however, can overcome this apparent Rumble spectra by filling in the resultant sound with its high frequency sound generation. This results in an N rating, as required. Using the estimated sound power procedure from the Diffuser Specification section above, the diffusers contribution can be added (using log addition) to the VAV boxes sound pressure level, and a resultant sound pressure level classification developed. Example: A project engineer desires a space sound pressure level of RC 35(N) for a private office. He has selected a Titus TQS Fan Terminal, size 5-12, at 1500 cfm, with a design inlet pressure of 1 in. static pressure. From the sound tables for the product, the sound power levels for this unit and the reduction factors as in the previous example are shown above: Octave Band Unit Pwl C/S (Table 16) Env Effect (Table 15) Estimated Room Spl 2 71 16 2 53 3 64 18 1 45 4 59 20 0 39 5 57 26 0 31 6 50 31 0 19 7 45 36 0 9
The RC = (41 + 36 + 29)/3 = 35. The rumble roof for this spectra is therefore Octave Band Rumble Roof 2 55 3 50 4 40
B
B51
Therefore the sound pressure level in the space is an RC 35 (N). This works because diffusers and VAV terminals seldom peak in the same frequencies, with diffusers being critical in the speech bands (500-2,000 Hz) and boxes producing the most sound in the 125-250 Hz region. When these two sounds combine in the space, they often complement each other, producing a full spectrum of sound and resulting in an N rating.
References

ANSI S1.31 Precision Methods for the Determination of Sound Power Levels of Broadband Noise Sources in Reverberant Rooms. This tells how to take the acoustic measurements in ASHRAE Standard 70.

ASHRAE Handbook of Equipment ASHRAE Handbook of Fundamentals ASHRAE Handbook of Systems ASHRAE Standard 55-2010, Thermal Comfort Conditions, American Society of Heating, Refrigerating and Air-Conditioning Engineers, Inc., 2010. Bauman F., Et Al, Air Movement, Ventilation, and Comfort in a Partitioned Office Space, ASHRAE Transactions, Vol. 98, Pt. 1, 1992. Int-Hout, D., Thermal Comfort Calculations/A Computer Model, ASHRAE Transactions, Vol. 96, Pt. 1, 1990. Koestel, A., Computing Temperature and Velocities in Vertical Jets of Hot or Cold Air, ASHRAE Transactions, Vol. 60, p. 385, 1954. Miller, P.L. and Nash, R.T., A Further Analysis of Room Air Distribution Performance, ASHRAE Transactions, 1972.
AHRI STANDARDS
AHRI Standards are typically developed for rating purposes. When an appropriate method of test does not exist, then AHRI Standardwill develop one. Otherwise, by agreement, they will reference an ASHRAE Standard method of test. AHRI STANDARD 880 The purpose of this standard is to establish definitions and classification: requirements for testing and rating; specifications, literature and advertising requirements; and conformance for air terminals. Appendix A is the method of test, which is expected to be replaced by ASHRAE Standard 130. AHRI STANDARD 885 This standard gives sound transmission losses through ceilings, effects of plenum, loss through ducts and all consideration of the sound paths to the space. With many items that affect the final sound, it gives a procedure to estimate what the space sound levels will be. AHRI Standard 885 Procedure for Estimating Occupied Space Sound Levels in the Application of Air Terminals and Air Outlets This standard gives sound transmission losses through ceilings, effects of plenum, loss through ducts and all consideration of the sound paths to the pace. With many items that affect the final sound, it gives a procedure to estimate what the space sound levels will be. This standard is unique among acoustical standards in that it provides the most current available acoustical application data for boxes and diffusers. Most of the data comes form ASHRAE sources, but some parts are unique to this standard, including a flexible duct attenuation table and a combined ceiling/plenum attenuation table. Unique and important AHRI Standard885 elements are listed in the Paths section of this manual. AHRI STANDARD 890 The Air Conditioning and Refrigeration Institute has recently developed a Certification Standard for Diffusers. It references the ASHRAE-70 Standard for the test method and specifies rating points and procedures. No diffusers are currently certified under this standard.
Nevins, Ralph C., Air Diffusion Dynamics, Theory, Design and Application, 1976. Straub, H.E., Principles of Room Air Distribution, Heating, Piping & Air Conditioning, April 1969. Straub, H.E., What You Should Know About Room Air Distribution, Heating, Piping and Air Conditioning, January 1962. Straub, H.E., Room Air Distribution with a Variable Volume System, presented at ASHRAEs Annual Meeting, 1969.
ACOUSTICS
Gregerson, Setting Sounder Standards for Acoustical Performance, Building Design and Construction, p.58-60, April, 1992. Int-Hout, D., Total Environmental Quality, ASHRAE Transactions, Vol. 99, Pt. 1, 1993. Int-Hout, D., The Use of Manufacturers Acoustical Data, ASHRAE Transactions, Vol. 90, Pt. 2, 1986.
ANSI STANDARDS
REFERENCES
ANSI S12.32, Precision Methods for the Determination of Sound Power Levels of Broadband Noise Sources in Reverberant Rooms. This standard tells how to take the acoustic measurements in reverberant rooms, and is referenced as the method of test in both AHRI 880 and ASHRAE 130. Other ANSI standards referenced in this catalog are as follows: ANSI/ASHRAE 70 Method of testing for rating the performance of air outlets and inlets, Isothermal and cooling. Similar to ADC1062: GRD 84. It only shows the mounting for acoustical testing, referencing the following acoustical standard.
ASHRAE STANDARDS
ASHRAE has developed, or is developing, consensus standards for testing both boxes and air outlets and inlets (GRDs). ASHRAE strives to provide current relevant testing standards which represent the best known data and methods available as consensus standards. ASHRAE Standards are submitted to American National Standards Institute (ANSI) and are usually adopted as ANSI standards as well. When applicable ANSI standards are available for part of ASHRAE Standards for both Boxes (130) and diffusers (70).
B52 B52
References (continued)

ISO 7730 Thermal comfort using the PMV/PPD single number rating.
ASHRAE 62 Ventilation of Acceptable Indoor Air Quality. The purpose of this standard is to specify minimum ventilation rates and indoor air quality that will be acceptable to human occupants and are intended to avoid adverse health effects. This standard also specifies that energy conservation should be promoted and that comfort conditions should be maintained. Therefore the next two standards are listed to implement these requirements. ASHRAE/IES STANDARD 90.1 Energy Efficient Design of New Buildings Except Low Rise Residential Buildings. ANSI/ASHRAE 55 Thermal Environmental COnditions for Human Occupancy. ASHRAE 113 Method of Testing for Room Air Distribution. This is a definitive method to determine ADPI in a space.
OTHER STANDARDS
ADC 1062 One of the original of standards dealing with testing and certifying registers, diffusers, dampers and terminals. Tests including pressures, throw, velocity and sound under isothermal conditions are included. Also included is a cooling test to correlate isothermal throw with room conditions as a room velocity. It tells how to set up, take readings, determine the number of readings and sizes to test, analyze, interpolate and report. The ADC 1062 Test Code has been supplanted by ASHRAE, ARI, ANSI and ISO procedures. At present, there are no ADC certified products or Certified Laboratories in the US.
ISO STANDARDS
ISO Standards are developed through a combination of committee members from several countries. One country is designated the Secretariat and is the lead in developing the standards assigned. The USA was the Secretariat for the two ISO Standards related to Boxes and GRDs. Other ISO Standards referenced in this catalog are as follows: ISO 5219 Air distribution and air diffusion. Laboratory aerodynamic testing and rating of air terminal devices. This was for GRDs. ISO 5220 Air distribution and air diffusion. Aerodynamic testing and rating of constant and variable dual or single duct boxes and single duct units. This standard is not in use at present in the U.S. It is very similar, however, to ASHRAE 130 and the AHRI 880, Appendix A procedures. ISO 5135 Acoustics. Determination of sound power levels of noise from air terminal devices, high/low velocity/ pressure assemblies, dampers, and valves by measurement in a reverberation room. All of the diagrams and methods shown in the ADC standards are shown in this standard.
REFERENCES
ISO 3741 Acoustics. Determination of sound power levels of noise sources, and precision methods for broadband sources in reverberation rooms. This explains actual measurements for the configurations given in ISO 5135. ISO 7244 Air distribution and air diffusion. Aerodynamic testing of dampers and valves.
B53
Glossary

Sound Power -The energy released as acoustic energy by a device. It is measured indirectly by one of several methods. It is reported as dB (the log base 10 of the value) referenced to a base power level, typically 10-12 watts. It is reported by frequency, typically in octave bands, although sometimes in 1/3 octave bands. Sound Pressure -The directly measurable fluctuation in pressure, heard as sound. The sound pressure is reported in dB (the log base 10 of the value), referenced to a pressure 0.0001 microbars. It is reported by frequency, typically in octave bands, although sometimes in 1/3 octave bands. Space Effect -The calculated attenuation of a space which is different in each frequency band, and is a function of room volume and distance from the source. Terminals (Boxes) -Devices which vary the flow through a duct with a moveable damper. They typically have a control device to vary the flow in response to a control signal. In some cases, the term terminals can also mean boxes and GRDs. In those cases, Boxes are referred to as Air Control Devices (ACDs). The terminology is inconsistent throughout the industry.
Breakout - Sound which passes through the walls of a duct or device and is passed directly to an observer. Casing Radiated Sound - A type of Breakout Sound which passes through the walls of a device. In some cases, it includes induction port radiated sound as well. dBA - A single number rating of a broadband spectrum. Typically used to rate outdoor noise levels. Not practical for use in rating indoor sound levels as it bears little relevance to occupants needs. Discharge Sound -Airborne sound which is transmitted through ductwork from a noise source to an observer. End Reflection -The reduction in sound, typically in low frequencies only, resulting from a rapid change in the shape or size of a duct or a duct termination. Environmental Adjustment Factor (Environmental Effect) - A correction required to accurately use data obtained in accordance with AHRI Standard 880, it corrects for a calibration difference between the Free Field calibration of the Reference Sound Source and the reverberant field in which it is used. GRD - Grilles, Registers and Diffusers.A grille is typically a device which directs air out of a duct nearly the same size as the opening. A register is a grille with a damper. A diffuser is usually different in size than the supply duct, and usually changes the direction of the air while mixing it with room air. These definitions are not always used as indicated. Incoherent Sound - Sound which is broadband and contains no repeating fluctuations. Induction Port Radiated Sound - That sound which passes out from the induction port of a VAV device. In practice it is impossible to differentiate from Casing Radiated sound, and is reported as a combined value under Casing Radiated sound levels. Insertion Loss -The reduction in sound resulting from inserting an attenuation device, such as a section of lined duct. The difference before and after the insertion of such a device is the insertion loss. Multiple Outlet Effect -When an airstream is split, the sound traveling in the duct is also reduced, typically in proportion to the percent of airflow in each duct. The amount of reduction must be calculated logarithmically, not arithmetically, however. Pure Tone -A sound spectrum which is very concentrated in a narrow band.
GLOSSARY
B54
Radiated Sound -Sound which travels from the source to the observer in a direct path, outside ductwork. Room Effect -Typically a 10 dB reduction in all bands, this is the assumed value for attenuation of a room. In practice, it is reasonable for diffusers which peak in the mid-frequencies, but not necessarily for VAV terminals, which peak in lower frequencies.
Engineering Guidelines Index

A ADC 1062........................................................................... B13 ADPI................................................................................... B29 ADPI Range for Outlets, Table...................................... B9, B31 ADPI Relationships for a Number of Outlets, Figure.......... B21 ADPI Selection Procedure.................................................... B7 Air Duct Arrangements - Take-off Pressure........................ B36 Air Velocity and Comfort...................................................... B7 Ambient Temperature........................................................... B6 ANSI Standards.................................................................. B52 AHRI Standards.................................................................. B52 ASHARE 70-2006............................................................... B52 ASHRAE Standards............................................................ B52 B Basic Principles of Air Distribution...................................... B5 Buoyancy Effect............................................................ B8, B14 C Ceiling Height, Maximum Air Quantity.............................. B17 Characteristics of Nonisothermal Supply Jets........... B13, B18 Circular Flow Pattern.......................................................... B20 Classification of Supply Outlets......................................... B19 Coanda Effect (Surface Effect)........................................... B12 Comfort................................................................................. B5 Comfort - Ankle Region, chart.............................................. B5 Comfort - Neck Region, chart............................................... B5 Comfort - Neck Region showing ADPI, chart....................... B5 Comfort Guidelines............................................................... B7 Comfort Index vs. Throw Ratio, table........................... B9, B31 Controls Classified by Power Source.................................. B41 Controls Reaction to Duct Pressure................................... B41 Control Operation............................................................... B43 Convection Currents........................................................... B19 Cross Flow Pattern............................................................. B21 D Diffuser Applications on Exposed Ducts............................ B24 Discharge Velocity...................................................... B10, B33 Displacement Ventilation................................................... B25 Drop from Side Wall Outlets....................................... B14B16 Dry Bulb Termperature......................................................... B5 E Effective Draft Temperature, equation.................................. B6 Effects of Dampers on NC............................................ B7, B35 Effect of Flexible Duct Connections on NC........................ B37 Estimating Downward Vertical Projection.......................... B24 Expansion and Contraction of Aluminum Linear Grilles..... B36 Expansion of Primary Air Jet, figure.................................. B10 Exposed Ducts.................................................................... B24

F Factors that influence Space Comfort.................................. B5 Fangers Comfort Index........................................................ B7 Five Steps to Analysis of Outlet Selection and Application.................................................................. B17 Flow Pattern - Circular....................................................... B21 Flow Pattern - Cross........................................................... B21 Flow Pattern - Horizontal.................................................... B21 Four Zones of Expansion.................................................... B10 G General Ventilation............................................................. Gradients............................................................................ Guidelines for Application of Horizontal Discharge from Outlets in or near the Ceiling............................................. Guidelines for Industrial Applications................................ Guidelines for Selecting Outlets for Horizontal Discharge Pattern VAV Systems......................................... H Hemispherical Flow Pattern............................................... Horizontal Flow Pattern...................................................... Horizontal Projection below Ceiling................................... Horizontal Projection from Floor Level............................... I Induction Rate.................................................................... Industrial Applications....................................................... Industrial Applications - Grille Selection............................ Industrial Applications - Outlet Selection.......................... Industrial Applications - Thermal Standards...................... ISO...................................................................................... Isothermal Data.................................................................. Isothermal Envelope (Isovel).............................................. Isothermal Jets................................................................... Isothermal Jet Characteristics........................................... Isothermal Jet Theory........................................................ B33 B19 B22 B32 B17 B23 B12 B14 B29 B11 B32 B34 B33 B32 B52 B10 B30 B10 B10 B13
J Jet Expansion, figure.......................................................... B10 Jet Expansion - Four Zones, figure..................................... B11 Jet Velocity vs. Temperature Rise...................................... B32 L Laminar Flow Pattern......................................................... B23 Local Relief......................................................................... B33 Local Temperature................................................................ B6 M Maintaining Comfort............................................................ B5 Mapping Supply Jets........................................................... B8 Maximum Air Quantities for Ceiling Height, table............. B17 Multiple Outlets and NC..................................................... B43
B55
INDEX
Engineering Guidelines Index (continued)

N Natural Convection Currents.............................................. B19 Non-Isothermal Jets........................................................... B13 Non-Isothermal Jet Throw and Drop.......................... B13B16 O Outlet Classifications - Supply........................................... B19 Outlet Location and Selection.............................................. B7 Outlet NC Level and Space NC........................................... B39 P Perimeter Applcations........................................................ B27 Predicted Mean Vote (PMV)................................................. B7 Predicted Percentage of Dissatisfied................................... B7 Procedure for Determining Throw Data.............................. B13 R Recommended ADPI Ranges for Outlets...................... B9, B31 Relative Humidity................................................................. B5 Return Intake...................................................................... B19 Rolling a Room................................................................... B28 S Selecting Outlets and Applications...................................... B7 Selection by ADPI................................................................. B8 Selection by Comfort Criteria............................................... B8 Selection by Noise Criteria................................................... B7 Selection by Supply Jets Performance Mapping................. B8 Short Circuiting.................................................................. B31 Spot Cooling....................................................................... B33 Stratification....................................................................... B19 Stratification Layers and Zones.......................................... B18 Supply Outlet Classifications.............................................. B17 Supply Outlet Typical Characteristics................................. B17 Surface Effect (Coanda Effect)........................................... B12 T T150, T100, T50............................................................ B9, B13 Temperature Rise of Supply Jet, equation........................... B8 Terminal Velocity................................................................ B10 Total Air.............................................................................. B17 Typical Air Distribution Characteristics.............................. B17 V Vertical Downward Projection from Ceiling....................... B24 Vertical Upward Projection from Floor, Low Side Wall, or Sill......................................................... B26 Z Zone Four, equation............................................................ Zone One, equation............................................................ Zone Three, equation.......................................................... Zone Two, equation............................................................
INDEX
B11 B10 B10 B10
B56 B56

GRD Guidelines

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engineering guidelines - grilles & diffusers

Engineering Guidelines - GRD

grilles & diffusers

Table of Contents (continued)

Engineering Guidelines - GRD

acoustical applications & factors

Engineering Guidelines - GRD

Grilles and Diffusers

Engineering Guidelines - GRD

Local Air Velocity, FPM

Local Air Temp. minus Ambient Temp. (TX - TA)

Figure 1.Comfort Chart - Neck Region

Local Air Temp. minus Ambient Temp. (TX - TA)

GRILLES AND DIFFUSERS

Basic Principles of Air Distribution (continued)

Engineering Guidelines - GRD

COMFORT: A FUNCTION OF ROOM AIR VELOCITY

Equation 1:Effective draft temperature

GRILLES AND DIFFUSERS

Local Air Temp. minus Ambient , F (tX - tC)

Basic Principles of Air Distribution (continued)

Engineering Guidelines - GRD

FANGERS COMFORT INDEX

OUTLET LOCATION AND SELECTION

Partial Pressure, Millibars

METHOD I.SELECTION BY NOISE CRITERIA (NC)

0.3 Executive Clerical

Figure 4.PMV Chart

GRILLES AND DIFFUSERS

GENERAL COMFORT GUIDELINES

Outlet Location and Selection (continued)

Engineering Guidelines - GRD

METHOD II.SELECTION BY SUPPLY JETS MAPPING

METHOD III.SELECTION BY COMFORT CRITERIA - ADPI

Equation 2:Temperature change of supply jet

80 12 Two Slot Diffuser

GRILLES AND DIFFUSERS

60 High Sidewall Round Ceiling Diffusers

= 20 BTUH/Sq.Ft . = 40 BTUH/Sq.Ft . 0.5 1.0 1.5 2.0

Figure 5. Throw vs. Characteristic Room Length

Engineering Guidelines - GRD

ADPI SELECTION PROCEDURE

GRILLES AND DIFFUSERS

ISOTHERMAL AIR JETS

Engineering Guidelines - GRD

Induced room air gentle movement

Greatest possible source of drafts

Figure 6.Expansion of primary air jet

JET CHARACTERISTICS: FOUR ZONES OF EXPANSION

Equation 4: Second zone velocity

GRILLES AND DIFFUSERS

Equation 3: First zone velocity

Equation: 4A: Second zone throw X =

Engineering Guidelines - GRD

Equation 5: Third zone velocity Vo Vx =

where K3 = third zone constant

150 fpm 100 fpm

Zone III 50 fpm

ROOM AIR INDUCTION RATE FOR AN OUTLET

Equation 6: Fourth zone velocity Vx Vo =

Equation 6A: Fourth zone throw X =

Equation 7: Room air induction equation Qx V Induction ratio = = C o x Qo Vo