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technical book

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Garioni Navals technical notebooks have been studied to offer a useful tool for the technical offices and for the users of steam, pressurized water and thermal oil. We obviously do not have the presumption to want to teach how things should be done. We just want to put at disposal of those people that wish to increase their knowledge in this sector, or find new information, our experience matured in many years of study and hard work. We warmly hope that what is written in these "technical books" will allow every reader to be able to work with ease and serenity and to avoid, where possible, to fall in errors that others, previously, have unintentionally committed in order to arrive to a certain knowledge level of the Termotecnics sector. This series of notebooks will be published in two editions, one in Italian and the other in English. We thought, with the purpose to avoid any possible confusion, that it was more practical and technically more appropriate, not to mix the two languages. The collection is dedicated to all those people whom have contributed, and that are still contributing, to GARIONI NAVALS development and growth. If you are interested to receive all the issues, please apply compiling in each part the enclosed form, by Internet through our web site www.garioninaval.com or by e-mail at GARIONINAVAL@compuserve.com

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Steam, a traditional but at the same time modern and efficient instrument, is practically irreplaceable regarding petrochemical, chemical, paper, dyeing, pharmaceutical, food, canning, rubber and plastic industries etc. It is also indispensable in the civil sector for sterilising in hospitals and clinics, it is used as a preference in canteens and laundries and in air conditioning plants (on industrial level, where it is often used for heating). Again it has a wide and irreplaceable use in generating power using turbines, pumps and alternators in large heating plants and onboard ships. Wherever there is a need to produce, pump and utilise both thermal energy and pressure, steam is the ideal solution. What advantages does it have and which are the reasons for this? Above all, steam can be produced fairly easily and comes from water which, at least in relation to the present or near future global production needs of steam, is luckily still available in large quantities and at economically advantageous conditions, apart from the fact that in steam plants continuos recycling is applied and recovery can be almost one hundred per cent. Steam has a very high ponderal heat content which means tubes and user units having to support a light load, which also means movable equipment with excellent exchange coefficient, compact and economic. Steam circulates naturally without requiring accelerators, temperatures can be high at quite low pressures which means a relatively safe means and fairly easy to deal with. Temperature or pressure regulations can be carried out using simple twoway valves; above all it has the advantage of being extremely flexible meaning that it adapts well to later variations and changes, not like other fluids such as water, superheated water, diathermic oil, etc.. Of course the above mentioned becomes more valid concerning steam plants which have been rationally designed and constructed, above all regarding recovering energy. This automatically leads to the fact that trained technicians with a good knowledge of the subject should be called in because, although steam is not so complex as other fluids, a good theoretical preparation and practical know-how are required.

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gas burners
Burners with rated thermal capacity up to 100 kw (860000 kcal/H)
1 Cutoff cock 2 anti-vibration coupling 3 gas pressure inlet 4 gas filter 5 gas pressure regulator 6 minimum gas pressure pressure gauge 7 class A safety electrovalve 8 gas delivery regulator 9 air regulation lock 10 air ventilator 11 safety air pressure gauge 12 air pressure inlet 13 combustion head 14 protection grid

a) supplier charge

b) customer charge

Burners with rated thermal capacity up to 100 kw (860000 kcal/H)

1 Cutoff cock 2 anti-vibration coupling 3 gas pressure inlet 4 gas filter 5 gas pressure regulator 6 minimum gas pressure pressure gauge 7 class A safety electrovalve 8 gas delivery regulator 9 air regulation lock 10 air ventilator 11 safety air pressure gauge 12 air pressure inlet 13 combustion head 14 protection grid

a) supplier charge

b) customer charge

Burners with rated thermal capacity up to 100 kw (860000 kcal/H)

1 Cutoff cock 2 anti-vibration coupling 3 gas pressure inlet 4 gas filter 5 gas pressure regulator 6 minimum gas pressure pressure gauge 7 class A safety electrovalve 8 gas delivery regulator 9 air regulation lock 10 air ventilator 11 safety air pressure gauge 12 air pressure inlet 13 combustion head 14 protection grid

a) supplier charge

b) customer charge

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NATURAL GAS PIPES

METHANE GAS delivery in m3/h (density 0.6) for a maximum load loss of 5 mm. Methane 8000 cal/ m3. Calculation of straight sections. Each curve or branch must be calculated as 0.5 m extra.

Distance from meter to boiler mt

1/2 3/4 1 11/4 11/2 16,6 22,2 27,9 36,6 41,5 copper 18x1 copper 22x1 copper 28x1 copper 35x1 copper 42x1

2 53,8

21/2 69,6

3 81,8

4 104

Capacity in m3/h (calories burned with P.C.I cal/mc) 4 9 16,9 11,4 9 35,5 24 50 102 69 203 313 551

2 4 6 8 10 15 20 25 30 40 50 60 80 100

(32.000) (21.600) (32.000) (14.400) (12.800) (10.400) (8.800) (7.200) (7.000) (5.900) (5.200) (4.700) (4.000) (3.500)

(72.000) (48.000) (72.000) (32.800) (28.800) (22.400) (19.600) (16.800) (15.200) (12.800) (11.200) (10.400) (8.800) (7.800)

(135.000) (91.200) (72.000) (61.600) (53.600) (42.400) (36.000) (32.000) (28.800) (24.000) (21.600) (19.200) (16.000) (14.400)

(284.000) (192.000) (152.000) (128.000) (112.000) (88.000) (76.800) (67.200) (60.800) (51.000) (45.600) (40.000) (32.000) (30.400)

(400.000) (270.000) (216.000) (182.400) (160.000) (128.000) (108.800) (95.000) (86.400) (72.000) (64.000) (56.000) (48.000) (43.000)

(816.000) (552.000) (432.000) (372.000) (328.000) (256.000) (220.000) (192.000) (176.000) (144.000) (128.000) (112.000) (96.000) (88.000)

(1.624.000) (2.504.000) (4.408.000) (1.112.000) (1.712.000) (3.120.000) (880.000) (752.000) (656.000) (520.000) (440.000) (392.000) (352.000) (236.000) (364.000) (232.000) (200.000) (176.000)

2,7 2,1

33,8 27

139

214

390

4,8

19

54

110 94

(1.368.000) (2.544.000) (1.168.000) (2.200.000) (1.024.000) (1.968.000) (816.000) (688.000) (608.000) (544.000) (368.000) (408.000) (368.000) (312.000) (272.000)

171

318

1,8 1,6 1,3 1,1 0,9

3,6 3,6 2,8

7,7 6,7 5,3

16 14 11

22,8 20 16

46,5 41 32

146

275

82 65

128 102 86

246 195

(1.560.000) (1.392.000) (1.248.000) (1.136.000) (984.000) (880.000) (800.000) (696.000) (520.000)

2,45 2,1

4,5 4

9,6

13,6

27,6 24

55

174

8,4

11,9

49

76

156

0,88 0,74 0,66 0,59 0,5

1,9 1,6 1,4 1,3 1,1

3,6 3

7,6

10,8 9

22

44

68

142

6,4

18

37

58

123

2,72 2,4 2

5,7 5

16

33

51 46

110

14

29

100 87

12

25

39

0,44

0,98

1,8

3,8

5,4

11

22

34

65

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COPPER TUBES
Virtual length in meters copper 12x10 copper 14x12 copper 16x14 copper 18x16 copper 22x20 copper 28x25

Delivery in M3/h (calories burned with P.C.I cal/mc)

(4.800) (3.280)

5 10

0,6

(10.000) (6.800)

1,25

(17.600) (12.000)

2,2

(22.400) (15.200)

2,8

(32.800) (20.000)

4,1

(67.200) (43.200)

8,4

0,41

0,85

1,5

1,9

2,5

5,4

Pressure drops calculation for big natural gas pipeline

1,2 x Q2 x L D5

Diameter

D 5 values

P =

DN25 DN32 DN40 DN50 DN65 DN80 DN100 DN125 DN150 DN200 DN250

1 1 1/4 1 1/2 2 2 1/2 3 4 5 6 8 10

169 656 1.386 4.181 15.414 34.439 146.253 408.394 1.058.443 3.997.331 12.298.388

Where: P= Pressure drop in mm.H2O L = pipe length in m Q = gas capacity in Nmc/h D = internal pipe diameter in mm. Example Methane line L=100 m, required capacity 6.000.000 Kcal/h Piping DN 150 Gas capacity 750 Nmc/h
2 P= 1,2 x (750) x 100 = 63 mm.c.a. (160,3)5

Example: Natural gas piping 200 m far from the beginning to the burner. Gas capacity : 750 Nmc/h Gas pressure at the gas train 1.500 mm H2O. Admitted gas pressure drop at the end of piping not more than 150 mm H2O.

D5 = 1,2 x Q2 x L 150

D5 = 1,2 x (750)2 x 200 = 900.000 P

From the table we find the D5 value closer to the calculated one , that is 1.058.443 Corresponding to a 6 pipe.

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LIQUID PROPANE GAS TUBES

Initial pressure 1,5 ate 37.1
Iron _ Efficiency Copper18 x 11 Capacity kcal Kg / h Lt / h Nmc /h 55 110 27,5 605.000 38,5 77 19,2 422.000 31,8 63,6 15,9 349.000 27,3 54,6 13,6 299.000 24,2 48,4 12,1 266.000 22,2 44,4 11,1 244.000 19,2 38,4 9,6 211.000 17,2 34,4 8,6 189.000 15,8 31,6 7,9 173.000 13,7 27,4 6,8 150.000 12,1 24,2 6 133.000 Iron _ Copper 22 x 1 Capacity Kg / h Lt / h Nmc / h 82 66 57,7 51,8 47 40,8 36,2 33,1 28,8 25,7 164 132 115 103 94 81 72 66 57 50 41 33 28,8 26 23,5 20,4 18 16,5 14,3 12,5 Iron _ 1 Copper 28 x 1,5 Capacity Kg / h Lt / h Nmc / h

Distance in M
5 10 15 20 25 30 40 50 60 80 100

Efficiency kcal

Efficiency kcal

902.000 726.000 633.000 572.000 517.000 448.000 396.000 363.000 314.000 275.000

100 89 82 71 63 57,7 50 44,2

200 178 164 142 126 115 100 88,4

50 44,5 41 35,5 31,5 28,8 25 22

1.100.000 979.000 902.000 781.000 693.000 633.000 550.000 486.000

1 lt GPL = 0.5 Kg 1 lt GPL = 0.25 m3

Kcal/Kg = ~ 11.000 Kcal/m3 = ~ 22.000 Kcal/lt = ~ 5.500 Example: Line pressure: 1.5 ate Tube length: 60 m Calories required: 220,000 Kcal/h The choice falls on a 3/4 iron or 22 x 1 copper tube

1 Kg GPL = 2 lt 1 Kg GPL = 0.5 m3

1 lt GPL = 2 Kg 1 lt GPL = 4 lt

LPG

PIPES DIMENSIONING

Pressure 300 mm H2O

Iron _ copper14 x 1 Capacity N mc/h 1,5 1,3 1,1 0,9 0,78 0,69 0,62 0,55 0,46 Kcal 33.000 28.000 24.000 19.800 17.000 15.000 13.600 12.000 10.000 Iron _ copper18 x 1 Capacity N mc/h 3,2 2,8 2,6 2,0 1,7 1,5 1,4 1,2 1,0 Kcal 70.400 61.600 57.000 44.000 37.400 33.000 30.800 26.400 22.000 Iron 1 copper 22 x 1 Capacity N mc/h 6,1 5,2 4,7 3,8 3,2 2,9 2,6 2,2 2 1,8 1,5 Kcal 134.000 114.000 103.000 83.000 70.000 63.000 57.000 48.000 44.000 39.000 33.000 Iron 1_ copper 35 x 1,5 Capacity N mc/h 12 10,6 9,5 7,6 5,7 5,4 5,1 4,5 3,8 3,5 3 Kcal 264.000 233.000 209.000 167.000 140.000 125.000 112.000 99.000 83.000 77.000 66.000 Iron 1_ copper 42 x 1,5 Capacity N mc/h 19 16,4 14,5 11,5 9,8 8,7 8 6,8 6,1 5,5 4,6 Kcal 418.000 360.000 319.000 253.000 215.000 191.000 176.000 149.000 134.000 121.000 101.000 Iron 2 copper 54 x 1,5 Capacity N mc/h 35 30 27 21,5 18,4 16,1 14,7 12,5 11,1 10 8,6 Kcal 770.000 660.000 594.000 473.000 404.000 354.000 323.000 275.000 244.000 220.000 189.000

Distance in M
6 8 10 15 20 25 30 40 50 60 80

1 lt GPL = 0.5 Kg 3 1 lt GPL = 0.25 m

1 Kg GPL = 2 lt 1 Kg GPL = 0.5 m3

1 lt GPL = 2 Kg 1 lt GPL = 4 lt

Kcal/Kg = ~ 11.000 Kcal/m3 = ~ 22.000 Kcal/lt = ~ 5.500

Example: Line pressure: 300 mm H2O. Tube length: 60 m Calories required: 220,000 Kcal/h The choice falls on a 2 iron or 54 x 1.5 copper tube

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stacks
How they are classified
Forced draft Induced draft Balanced draft Draft with pressurized boiler

NATURAL

DRAFT STACKS

In the combustion process the fuel must be fed with a suitable quantity of air. In the old generators the air entered the combustion chamber drawn in by the vacuum created. In order to create this vacuum the combustion products leaving the boiler must exit into the atmosphere at a height higher than the boiler itself through a passage called a stack. In this way the static pressure in the combustion chamber is equal to the weight of the atmospheric column present at the mouth of the stack (p.s.a.) minus the weight of the column of hot gas contained in the stack (p.s.f) and therefore less than the one present at the boiler air inlet resulting only from the weight of cold air (p.s.a.). This difference in pressure defined as draft is the transfer of an external gaseous mass towards the boiler, to the combustion chamber and evacuation stack. This process is known as NATURAL DRAFT. Draft will increase in proportion to the height of the stack and the difference in temperature between the fumes and the air feed. Good efficiency of the system depends on: - high stacks with perfect insulation. - boiler combustion chamber perfectly sealed without infiltration from outside. - high temperature of gases expelled from the stack. The use of re-generators and heat exchangers lowers the final temperature of hot gases, increases the loss of air load and makes the natural draft effect difficult if not impossible.

FORCED

DRAFT STACKS

The use of a fan which pushes the air and combustion gases forward is forced draft. Forced draft This is achieved by installing a ventilator at the bottom of the stack which extracts the fumes from the boiler and forces them up the stack. The ventilator must have particular characteristics as the impeller must support high temperatures and resist corrosion due to acid

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components which form according to the type of fuel (sulfur dioxide). A shut-off placed at the bottom of the stack and in the ventilator intake helps to regulate roughly the delivery of gas. The efficiency of this system is hindered if the combustion chamber is not perfectly sealed towards the external. Induced draft This is achieved by installing a fan externally to the stack which aspirates a part of the fumes expelled by the boiler and then forces them up the stack itself using an accelerator which could be an injector. The part of the fumes blown into the stack by the fan forces the remaining column of hot gasses towards the exit of the stack at high speed while at the same time a vacuum is created in the section aspired by the fan thus creating a forced draft in the combustion chamber. The efficiency of this system is impaired if the combustion chamber is not perfectly sealed towards the external.

In order to achieve a good combustion process the boiler makers adjust the fan head so as to create a slight vacuum in the combustion chamber (5 10 mm H2o) that is the suction fan has a higher head than the pusher fan.

Pressurized boiler draft It can be said that in recent years the introduction of pressurized combustion boilers has eliminated the majority of boilers using the systems described above. In fact in order to eliminate all the drawbacks caused by a very precarious draft a pressurized combustion boiler was designed which incorporates the pusher fan which imparts the necessary head or pressure on the fuel air aspirated from outside in order to overcome all the load losses of the air-fumes-stack circuit. Advantages: Limited size of boiler, less absorbed electric power, lower running and maintenance costs.

Balanced or compensated draft This is achieved by using two fans; one which forces the fuel air in the boiler, the other which aspirates the combustion products and forces them up the stack.
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The fan which emits the fuel air into the boiler is called the pusher fan whereas the one that forces the combustion products is the suction fan.

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CHOOSING
Stack draft

THE SIZE OF THE STACK

CHOOSING

THE SIZE OF STACKS FOR SOLID AND

LIQUID FUELS

(antismog law dated 13 July 1966) Boilers under vacuum with natural draft stack Net surface of fumes stack (cm2) Calories burned by boiler S= Q Coefficient: for solid fuel = 0.03 h for liquid fuel H = Working height of stack. (not to be confused with height of construction H of stack). - The resulting sections must be increased by: 50% where lignite is used 25% where long - flaming steam coal is used 10% for every 500 m above sea level. S= Q= K=

This is the possibility the fumes stack has of eliminating all the combustion products of a boiler without forming counter pressures. Remember the stacks must be: completely airtight with smooth internal surfaces. appropriately insulated to avoid fumes cooling too much. the connection between the boiler and the stack must be as short as possible, avoiding bends and long horizontal sections. T= h= draft of the stack in mm column of water working height of stack (net of bends and sub horizontal sections) s.a.w. = specific air weight s.f.w. = specific fumes weight corresponds to the average temperature taken inside the stack.

T = h x (p.s.a - p.s.f.)
Specific weight of air s.a.w.
Air temperature C -5 0 5
(at a pressure of 760 mmHg)

- The use of prefabricated elements with commercial cross sections higher than 30% or lower by as much as 10% of the value resulting from the calculation formula can be adopted. - The minimum cross section must in no case be less than 220 cm2. - In the case of stacks with cross sections which are not circular, the ratio between the sides must not be higher than 1.5. - Triangular shaped cross sections are not admitted.

10

15

20

25

30

p.s.a. (Kg/m3) 1,317 1,293 1,27

1,247 1,226 1,205 1,185 1,165

Specific weight of fumes

Exhaust gas temperature C 160 180 200

(at a pressure of 760 mmHg)

The workable height h of the stack is calculated from the height of the construction H less: 0.5 m for each change of direction (C) 1 m for each meter in length of the sub horizontal conduit (L) 1 m for each millimeter of load loss of the boiler (p) As a rule it can be accepted that the load losses on the fumes side for boilers under vacuum are: 2 mm for boilers up to 160,000 Kcal/h 3 mm for boilers up to 320,000 Kcal/h 4 mm for higher capacity boilers

220

240

260

280

300

p.s.f. (Kg/m3) 0,848

0,81 0,776 0,774 0,715 0,688 0,664 0,64

Example: external temperature: 5C; fumes temperature: 180 C; working height of stack: 10 m

T = 10 x (1.27 0.81) = 10 x 0.46 = 4.6 mm

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Heght h of stack calculation: h = H (c x 0.5 + L + P)

The cross section of the stacks is:

S = 0.008 x Q 9

Example: for the same boiler as before with the same system we will have: h = 15 - (2x0,5+2) h = 15 - (1+2) h = 12 m

S = 0,008 x 300.000 = 693 cm3 (market size 12 30x25 cm)

Example:

300,000 Kcal boiler (p= 3 mm) Height of construction H = 15 m N 2 curves (c) Horizontal section: 2 m (L) Fuel: Diesel K = 0.024

LIQUID

FUEL

TABLE FOR CROSS SECTIONS OF STACKS CONNECTED TO BOILERS UNDER ASPIRATIONS

Chimney high calculated in m Section Boiler burn capacity

h h h h

= H (c x 0.5 + L + p) = 15 (2 x 0.5 + 2 + 3) = 15 (1 + 2 + 3 ) h = 15 6 =9m S=K x Q h S = 0.024 x 300,000 = 2400 cm2 9 That is a stack is needed with a net cross section of : 49x49 cm The market measurement closest to this is: 50 x 50 cm This example reaffirms the difference between height of construction H (15) and calculated usable height h (9 m), still a source of misunderstanding in the choice of stacks. Pressurized fuel boilers Pressurizing of the burner removes the problem of load loss on the boiler fumes side (p) therefore height h in calculating the stack is: h = H (c x 0.5 + L) The K coefficient drops to: 0.008

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LIQUID

FUEL

TABLE FOR CROSS SECTIONS OF STACKS CONNECTED TO PRESSURIZED BOILERS

Chimney high calculated in m Section

Boiler burn capacity

Example: Pressurized boiler. Calories burned: 325,000/h Stack calculated h height : 7 m The result is a stack with internal dimensions 30 x 40 cm

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GASEOUS TABLE

FUELS

FOR CROSS SECTIONS OF STACKS CONNECTED TO PRESSURIZED BOILERS

CHIMNEY HIGH CALCULATED H < 10 m 10m< H <20m THERMAL CAPACITY Kcal/h Up to: Up to: Up to: H> 20 m

Cylindrical section
Internal diameter cm Internal section cm 2

Rectangular or square sections

Internal section cm 2

30.000 40.000 50.000 70.000 100.000 140.000 176.000 228.000 283.000 358.000 435.000 512.000 607.000 704.000 808.000 920.000 1.039.000 1.164.000 1.297.000 1.437.000

30.000 40.000 60.000 105.000 155.000 200.000 245.000 320.000 407.000 503.000 708.000 724.000 849.000 985.000 1.131.000 1.287.000 1.453.000 1.628.000 1.814.000 2.010.000

40.000 60.000 80.000 125.000 180.000 239.000 308.000 402.000 509.000 628.000 760.000 904.000 1.062.000 1.231.000 1.413.000 1.608.000 1.816.000 2.035.000 2.268.000 3.013.000

11 13 14 17 20 24 28 32 36 40 44 48 52 56 60 64 68 72 76 80

95 123 154 226 314 452 616 804 1.018 1.257 1.520 1.809 2.124 2.463 2.827 3.217 3.632 4.071 4.536 5.026

105 135 169 249 345 497 678 884 1.120 1.383 1.672 1.990 2.336 2.709 3.109 3.539 3.995 4.478 4.990 5.529

For higher consumption a circular cross section must be used: -3.5 cm2 per ogni 1,000 Kcal/h per H < 10 m -2.5 cm2 per ogni 1,000 Kcal/h per H compreso fra 10 e 20 m -2 cm2 per ogni 1,000 Kcal/h per H >20 m

The cross section of a rectangular stack must be at least the same as the cross section of the corresponding cylindrical pipe increased by 10%.

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Rapid calculation of dimensions of manifolds

pipe

DN

external mm

internal mm

Sez. area interna cmq

Rapid calculation of dimensions of manifolds

Boilers installed in parallel

D (cm) = Total surface of the outlet pipes +50% 0.785

N 1 3 tube N 1 1/2 tube N 1 2 tube N 1 3 tube sum the sections of the output tubes VR= check valve

Example: Input: Output:

1 1/2 = 14.2 cm2 2 3 Increased by 50% Total = 22.8 cm2 = 52.4 cm2 89.4 cm2 44.7 134.1 cm2

Each boiler has to be provided with a steam outlet valve. When two or more boilers have to deliver steam to the same line, each of one has to be able to work independently from the others and concerning the delivery, and concerning the feeding. If the boilers rated pressure are different one to the other, than it is necessary to install safety valves trimmed at the lower pressure. For instance, if two boilers are tested at 10 one and at 12 the second, both safety valves have to be trimmed at 10 bar. It is also strongly suggested ,above all for boilers producing more than 1000 kg/h of steam, to install check valves on the outlet lines after the steam outlet valve.

D (cm) =

134,1 = 13 cm (130 mm) 0.785

The diameter chosen is the same as or slightly greater than the one corresponding to the external dia. in the table. In our case a 5 dia. manifold is chosen with an external diameter of 139.7 mm.

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boiler room
All boilers room have to be realised with: 1. Doors operable from inside to outside 2. To be used only for the boilers management. This means that no one but the boilers responsible can enter the boiler room. One display panel indicating this rule has to be fitted on the outside boilers room wall. 3. All existing rooms above and under the boiler room cannot be lived permanently by people with the exception for : a) Boilers with pressure lower than 10 bar, if the water volume per M of heated surface do not exceed 50 b) All steam boilers with pressure below 6 bar c) All steam boiler with a pressure between 6 and 10 bar having the pressure multiplied per the water volume < than 30.000

P = 6-10 bar PxV 30.000

4. A minimum high of 1.8 m have to be free over the highest part of the boiler 5. All sewing of the boiler have to be easily accessible

P 10ate

Water volume = < 50 litres m2 surface

6. Steam accumulators have to be installed (if possible) outside the boiler room

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1) Minimum boilers room dimensions have to be : a Minimum 1,5 mt on the boilers front side, after the burner.

2) Minimum 1,8 mt from the boiler top side and the roof.

b) Minimum 0,6/0,8 mt. between the boiler and the wall or between boiler and boiler.

3) All boilers blow down have to be connected to the sewer.

c) Minimum 0,8 mt between the boilers back side ant the wall.

4) Safety valve discharge have to be conveyed outside and separately. 5) All chimneys have to be openable for inspection. 6) Fuel tanks bigger than 300 lt. Are not allowed inside the boiler room.

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control, calibration, protection, feed and safety equipments

1) Manometer 2) Safety valve 3) Level indicator 4) Calibration pressure switch 5) Stop pressure switch with manual reset 6) Level adjuster 7) Safety level adjustment with block 8) Feed equipment 9) Feed group 10) Discharge group
Absolute pressure (kg/cm) Pressure gauge scale (kg/cm)

b) A 3-way stop cock must be applied equipped with an appendix. c) With a flat disk dia. 40 mm and 4 mm thick. (control check) 2) SAFETY VALVE Le valvole di sicurezza si distinguono in 3 categorie: Safety valves fall into 3 categories: a) Qualified valves are those valves where the assigned value of the discharge coefficient K, has been controlled under test conditions before representatives of a body.

1) MANOMETER The manometer is an instrument for measuring and indicating the relative internal pressure of the boiler. Each boiler must be equipped with a manometer with Mpascal, Kgcm2 or bar graduated scale and the range must reach a pressure reading not less than 1and a quarter times but not higher than double the rated pressure or the calibration setting of the safety devices. In the case of manometers with unified scales according to TAB. UNI 4663, the range may be set based on the settings indicated in the table. The rated pressure on the manometers must be printed in red. a) The manometer should be equipped with a s i p h o n coil tube, where the steam, on coming into contact with the manometer sensor will condense.

b) Qualified valves with tested lift up are those valves where the assigned value of the discharge coefficient K, has been controlled simply by checking the action of the stop plug.

c) Non qualified or ordinary valves are those which have not undergone testing and for which the value of the discharge coefficient has been set at 0.05 at random (very penalizing).

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Each steam boiler must be equipped with at least 2 safety disk valves, each of which is able and armed so as to discharge the steam when the maximum working pressure has been reached.

DE = inlet diameter DU = outlet diameter

USUAL

DIMENSIONS OF SAFETY VALVES USED BY MANUFACTURERS

DE 25 32 40 50 65 80 100

DU 40 50 65 80 100 125 150

Pressure calibration of safety valves = rated boiler pressure. (Kg/cm2) Safety valves discharge capacity = maximum production of steam of the boiler at continual load (Kg/h) divided between the two valves. Example: Steam boiler.

b) The discharge tube must be realised so as to avoid the formation of condensation. We strongly advise against using the discharge outlet placed in the valve body as a discharge for condensation

rated pressure: 12Kg/cm2. steam capacity: 4,000 Kg/h

Two safety valves having the following characteristics should be chosen: - calibration pressure = 12 Kg/cm2 - discharge capacity 2,000 Kg/h Safety valves discharge tube installed on steam boilers bigger than 1000 Kg/h have to be piped outdoor. Recommendations for realising discharge pipes: a) We recommend installing the discharge tube with a diameter slightly larger than the diameter of the exit flange of the safety valve.

To secure strongly at the wall the discharging pipes of the safety valves

The shorter possible

Drainage

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c) The discharge tube must be well anchored and supported so that the forces created by the sudden and violent discharge of steam do not unload on the safety valve. d) If several safety valves are connected to one discharge tube this must have an internal cross section equal to the sum of the exit cross sections of the valves. Example: Total cross-section of the 2 valves 22.8 + 22.8 = 45.6 cm . A 3 tube with an internal cross section of 52.4 cm should be used.
2 2

Example: steam boiler. Find the dimensions of the safety valve at the capacity of 3000 Kg/h with a discharge pressure of 12 ate. Q = 3000 Kg/h K1 = 0.66 C = 0.639 P1 = 14.21 Kg/cm3 V1 = 0.141 m3/Kg

A=

3000 = 6,9 cmq 0,9 x 0,66 x 113,8 x 0,639 x 14,21 0,141

The choice falls on a safety valve with a passage cross-section equal to or slightly greater than the value found. In the manufacturers catalogue there could be a valve with useful area of 8 cm2, with 32 mm dia. passage and DN40 input flanged connections x DN65 output. Safety valves calculation of deliver y of saturated water vapour (D.M. 21.05.74) 3) LEVEL INDICATOR Each boiler must have not less than 2 water level indicator devices, one of which must be made of glass. The other indicator may be made up of 2 test valves. The visible height of the indicator level must nit be less than 150 mm, of which not more than 40 mm must be below the minimum level of the boiler. There must always be a plate bearing the wording MINIMUM LEVEL

Q = A x 0,9 x K1 x 113,8 x C x

P1 V1

A=

Q 0,9 x K1 x 113,8 x C x

P1 V1

Q = valve discharge capacity (Kg/h) A = passage area (cm2) 0.9 = reduction coefficient K1 = discharge coefficient 113.8 = numeric constant C = expansion coefficient P1 = discharge pressure + 10% +1,013 (Kg/cm2) V1 = steam specific volume at P1 (m2/kg) 4) CALIBRATION PRESSURE SWITCH In the case of ordinary type safety valves 0.9 a K1 = 0.05 is assumed In the case of qualified type valves the value used for the discharge coefficient is the one calculated during the qualification tests by ISPESL which usually varies, depending on the type of valve, from 0.2 to 0.9 (K1). Equipment needed to check the boiler pressure and keep it within the set maximum and minimum pressure limits. This role is achieved using pressure switches equipped with differentiated calibration of operating levels.

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R = adjustment knob pressure value D = adjustment knob differential value

This pressure switch operates by opening the boiler power electric circuit. A device holds the electric contact permanently blocked in the open position. The electric power circuit can only be reset manually by the operator once the cause for the breakdown has been removed.

Example: boiler with rated pressure of 12 bar operating pressure: 9 bar control level of pressure switch : 9 bar differentiated level set: 1 bar less This means that when the pressure reaches 9 bar the pressure switch will switch off the burner and will switch it on again when the pressure drops to 8 bar (9-1). As a rule for fuel oil and diesel where certain capacities are exceeded(over 300,000 cal/h) the burner is equipped with 2 nozzles (2 phases) where each one guarantees half of the fuel delivery. In this case there will be two pressure switches, set at different pressures and each one connected to one phase of the burner.

Pressare 12bar

6) LEVEL ADJUSTER (LEVEL GAUGE) Automatic equipment for maintaining the water level in the boiler within a set range. The regulator controls the start of the feed pump when the level in the boiler reaches the set minimum and stops it when the maximum level set has been reached. Float regulating system. Sensor made up of a float which moves with the level of the water in the boiler. The float is connected to a rod movement which moves mercury filled spheres which open or close the electric contacts. 7) SAFETY LEVEL REGULATOR WITH STOP

PSH= on-off regulation pressure switch

Level regulator with electrodes. Equipment which takes advantage of the electric conductivity of water, made up of three electrodes or sensors. When sensors 1 and 2 are out of the water the feed pump is actuated thus covering first sensor 2 and then sensor 1. At this point the pump stops. If for some reason the level drops below sensor 3 the burner is automatically switched off. In the electric sequence apparatus the stop control is actuated which will not allow the burner to start unless it is reset manually after the cause has been removed.

PSL= first step regulation pressure switch PSH= second step regulation pressure switch
Control panel

5) STOP PRESSURE SWITCH WITH MANUAL RESET Equipment having a safety role which intervenes in the case of breakdown of control pressure switch. It is set at a higher pressure than the control pressure switch but lower than the rated pressure of the boiler.

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8) FEED WATER PUMP (1)

Every steam boiler needs one or two feed water pumps (depending from the regional law)

Feed water pump capacity

Maximum boilers steam production

Feed water pump capacity in % Fire tube steam boilers Natural circulation water tube boilers 200% 130% 115% 105% 110% 100%

up to 1 T/h Fire tube steam boilers more than 1 T/h up to 5 T/h more than 5 T/h up to 50 T/h more than 50 T/h up to 100 T/h Natural circulation water tube boilers up to 1 T/h more than 1 T/h

200% 160% 125% 160% 100% 100%

Example Fire tube steam boiler. Rated pressure 8 bar . Maximum steam production 1000 Kg/h. Piping pressure drop 1,3 bar Pump head 0,5 bar Pump dimensioning: Head = ( 8+1,3+0,5) + 5% = 10,3 bar (103 m.) We may so assume that the head is within 1,25 and 1,3 the rated pressure, while the capacity have to be the 200 % of the steam production.

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9) FEED WATER GROUP It is composed from : pump, check valve and water valve

on-off valve check valve water pump

10) BLOW DOWN It is used to blow down totally or partially the boiler. It is composed by one special fast blow down valve and from a onoff valve

on-off valve fast blow down valve

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steam use
PHYSICAL CHARACTERISTIC
Pressure Temperature Specific volume

OF

SATURATED STEAM
Latent heat Kcal/kg Total heat Kcal/kg

Sensibile heat Kcal/kg

Heating systems is using the latent heat, for example:

Steam production 1000 kg/h 10ate Sensibile heat 186,8 KCAL/KG + Latent heat 478 KCAL/KG + Total heat 186,8 KCAL/KG +

Heat exchanger
Given 478,0 KCAL/KG

Condensate capacity 1000 kg /h Sensible heat 186,8 KCAL/KG Total heat 186,8 KCAL/KG
Condensate, when at atmospheric pressure ( 0 bar) will be at 100C and will produce 86;8 Kcal/h as re-steaming

Usually, in the steam heating process, the most important is the latent heat Comparing the latent heat of the steam at 1 and at 10 bar we have: Latent heat at 1 bar 526 kcal/h Latent heat at 10 bar 478 kcal/h This means that 1 Kg of steam at 1 ate give 48 Kcal more than the one could give at 10 bar.

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Air heaters R = efficiency of the utility = Utilised heat Total given heat Steam

Considering two installations, one at 10 ate, and one at 1 ate, both with condensate discharged into atmosphere and not reused 10 ate Steam R 1 ate steam R = 478 = 72% 664

Q= V x t x Cs L

Condensate Q = steam capacity kg/h V = volume of air to be heated Nm_/h t = temperature increase C (t2 t1) Cs = air specific heat (0,3 kcal/m_/C L = steam latent heat kcal/kg Exemple: air heater with air capacity of 6000 Nmc/h, inlet temperature T1 15C, outlet temperature T2 65C. Steam available 5bar (498 kcal/kg) Q = 6000 x (65 15) x 0,3 = 180 kg/h 498

526 = = 81% 646

It is clear theta efficiency at 1 ate is 9% higher than at 10 ate. If the same example is recovering and using all condensate at 100C with a heat content of 100 kcal. 10 bar steam R = 1 bar steam R = 478 664-100 526 646-100 = 85% = 81%

In this case the higher efficiency is the one of 10 ate of 11 %.

Heat exchangers

Practical examples
Unit heater
Steam

Steam

Condensate

Q=

W L

If Kcal are already known we will have: Q= W L

Condensate

Q = steam capacity kg/h W = required heat from the air heater L = used steam latent heat Exemple: air heater of the capacity of 25.000 kcal/h using 3 bar steam latent heat is 509kcal/kg

Q = steam capacity kg/h W = heat required by the heat exchanger kcal/h L = latent heat of the used steam Exemple: heat exchanger of the capacity of 150.000 kcal/h using steam at 2 bar (517/kcal/kg) Q = 150.000 = 290 kg/h of steam at 3 bar 517

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When the yield data or calories available, but the characteristics of delivery, temperature at input and in fluid plus its specific heat, are known following formula can be used:

required are not the fluid such as: output and kind of or can be had, the

Calculation coil surface for rapid exchanger

Steam

Q=

Cs x F x t L Condensate

Q = Steam consumed (Kg/h) Cs = Specific heat of the fluid too be heated (water = 1. Oil = 0.5) F = Delivery of fluid to be heated (Kg/h) t = Increase in temperature of fluid to be heated. ( t 2 t1) (C) L = Latent heat of the steam used (cal/Kg)

S=

Q K x tm

S = coil surface m2 Q = calories kcal/h K = transmission coefficient kcal/m2/C tm = Average logarithmic difference of temperature between the two fluids C
VALUES OF K - Coils transmission coefficient From Steam Through
Steel Cooper

Steam

To
Water

K
900 1200

Condensate Example: Water to be heated Cs = 1. Water delivery = 4,000 l/h. Temperature input water (t1) = 15C Temperature water in output (t 2) = 60C. t = t 2 t1 = 45C Steam at a pressure of 4 bar is used whose latent heat is 503 cal/Kg. Q = 1 x 4000 x 45 = 357 kg/h 503 Example: Fuel oil Cs = 0.5. Oil delivery: 4,000 Kg/h. Temperature input oil = 45 (t1) Temperature oil in output 90C (t 2). Dt = t 2 t1 = 45C Steam at a pressure of 4 bar is used whose latent heat is 503 cal/Kg. Q = 0,5 x 4000 x 45 = 178 kg/h 503

tm = A trustworthy rough calculation (without having to consult the log. Tables) and with steam up to 6 ate is: t1 t3 = t5 t2 t4 = t6 t5 + t6 tm = 2 Example: Calories required: 100,000 cal/h, copper coil, modular adjustment steam available: 3 ate t1 = 143C. Condense temperature t 2 = 100C Steam vaporisation heat: 3 ate = 510 Kcal/Kg Water temperature t3 = 60C Water temperature t4 = 70C tm = S= (143 70) + (100 80) = 46,5C 2 100.000 = 1,79m2 1200 x 46,5

If the coil is manufactured in a copper pipe 16x1 which surface is of 0,05 m_/m linear, we will need (formula Metri = Metres) Metres = 1,79 = 35,8 m 0,05

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Surface treatment tanks

Temperature of the surrounding environment C Water mark superficial temperature 40C 590 408 294 189 / 60C 851 654 527 408 189 80C 1169 944 794 654 408 100C 1529 1280 1107 944 654

For horizontal even surfaces dispersing towards the top, multiply per 1,3. For horizontal surfaces dispersing towards the bottom, multiply per 0,65. If the surfaces are insulated, the tables data must be reduced of 25%.

Steam

Condensate

- 15C 0C 10C 20C 40C

Heat loss from walls (Q2) Usually the tank heat requirement is calculated then the choice of size of coil is made. Calculation of heat requirement with initial heating starting from cold. The heat required is given taking into consideration the following items: 1) Heat needed to raise the temperature of the liquid from the starting temperature to working temp. Q1 2) Compensation for heat loss from walls to the environment Q2 3) Compensation for heat loss from surface of the liquid to the environment. Q3 4) Heat absorption of treated materials immersed in the tank. Q4 Example: Hot water contained in the tank = 60C Environment temperature Ta = 10C Loss of calories = 527 kcal/m2 Vertical wall surfaces in contact with water: 2 (3 x 1,7) + 2 (2 x 1,7) = 17 m2 x 527 = 8.959 kcal/h Bottom surface: 2 x 3 = 6 m2 x 527 x 0,65 = 2.055 kcal/h Q2 = 11.014 kcal/h

Raising of temperature of the liquid Q1 Q1= Cs x P x t H

Inserire immagine vedi Ita

P = Weight of liquid (Kg or l) Cs = Specific heat of liquid (for water = 1) Q1 = P x Cs x Dt t = Thermal head of liquid between starting and final temperature (C) H = Pre-heating time (usually 3 4 hours) Loss of heat from liquid surface (Q2)
WATER SURFACE TEMPERATURE IN C

Example: 10,200 l water t1 = 10C t2 = 60C Dt = 50C Preheating time = 3 hours

r ai

d ee sp

/s 1m V=

V=

/s 2m

/s 3m V=

/s 4m V=

MO

VIN

AI

Q1 =

1 x 10200 x 10 3

170.000 kcal/h

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Example: With a surface temperature of the uncovered water surface of 60C and the surrounding air still we have a loss of 3,000 cal/h/m2. With the same surface temperature but with the air moving at 4 m/sec (aspiration hood) the loss rises to 7500 cal/h/m2. The tank evaporating surface is 6 m_ (3 x 2); with an overhanging exhauster hood we will have a dispersion of 6 m_ x 7.500 = 45.000 Kcal/h Therefore Q3 = 6 x 7500 = 45.000 kcal/h

PRACTICAL VALUES OF THE K TRANSMISSION COEFFICIENT BETWEEN FLUIDS THROUGH METALS (not countercurrent) FROM BY Lead Stainless inox Steam Cast iron Iron Copper Water AT K 250 580 780 900 1000

Heat absorbed by the material treated (Q3) It is usually accepted that the final temperature of the material reaches the temperature of the liquid it is immersed in. Q4 = P x Cs x t P = Weight of material (Kg) Cs = Specific heat of material (kcal/kg/C) t = Increase in temperature of the material to be heated (C) Example: Block of steel weighing 200 Kg, the specific heat of which is 0.12, to be raised to 10C. Dt = 50C Q4 = 200 x 0,12 x 50 = 1.200 kcal/h Calculation of the surface of the heating coil Q5 Once the maximum heat required has been set, which in our case is: Q1 + Q2 + Q3 + Q4 = Q5 The coil surface can be calculated using the following formula: Q5 S= K ( Ts TL) Q5 = Total calories needed (cal/h) K = Overall heat transmission coefficient between steam tube wall heating liquid. (cal/h/m2/C) Ts = Average temperature of heating surfaces (C) TL = Average temperature of heating liquid (C) S = Coil exchange surface (M2)

Making reference to the above examples we will have: Q5 = 170.000 + 11.014 + 45.000 + 1.200 = 227.214 kcal/h Considering: average water temperature 60C steam temperature at 4 ate = 152C steel coil K = 900 S= 227.214 900 ( 152 60) 2,7m2

Using a steel pipe 11/4, with a linear external surface of 0,152m_/m, we have to use 2,7/0,152 = 18 linear meters to create the coil. With steam at 4 ate which its latent heat is 503 kcal/kg, in order to satisfy these needs, the consumption will be as follow:

Q=

227.214 503

452 kg/h

This value refers to a pressure start-up which preheating is 3 hours, the maintenance will reduce about 1/4 of maximum value.

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STEAM LINES DIMENSIONING DIAGRAM

ST

EA

SP

ED

PIPE DIAMETER

se

in mm

RELATIVE STEAM PRESSURE in Kg/cm 2

/h Kg TY CI PA A C
STEAM TEMPERATURE IN C

M EA ST

Example: Steam pressure 3,5 bar. Capacity 1000 kg/h Fixed velocity 25 m/s Diameter pipe : 80 mm

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STEAM LINES DIMENSIONING DIAGRAM

LOSS OF HEAD IN KG/CM PER 100 METERS

INT ERN AL

Example: Steam pressure 3,5 bar. Capacity 1000 kg/h Diameter pipe : 80 mm Pressure drop: 0,3 bar on length: 100 m

ST E

AM

CA

PA

CIT

Y K g/h

PIPE DIA ME TER

in m

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Steam delivery through holes or nozzles

Example: Steam pipes with 11 bar pressare and hole or nozzle of 5 mm diameter. Steam capacity for each hole (nozzle) = 80 Kg/h.

Steam capacity in Kg/h

FOR

12,5 O

Steam pressure in bar (Kg/cm 2)

STEAM DELIVERY THROUGH HOLES OR NOZZLES (capacity in kg/h)

Example: DN 50 (2) tube. At a pressure of 4 bar, with speed of 25 min/sec, delivery will be 450 Kg/h

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breakdowns, steam leaks

boiler bursts
Reference is made to the classical event of a boiler bursting due to excess pressure, breakdowns, defects in construction or errors in running (e.g. lack of water) which have caused the formation of areas with less resistance resulting in the sheet metal bursting and the instant release of enormous quantities of potential energy contained in the boiler. With saturated steam each pressure corresponds to a certain temperature of the water. In an open container water usually boils at 100 C whereas in a closed container (boiler) it boils at the temperature which corresponds to the pressure reached. At 1 atmosphere water boils at 120C At 5 atmospheres water boils at 158 C At 10 atmospheres water boils at 183C In a boiler which produces steam at 10 ate there is a mass of water at a temperature of 183C. If for the above reasons a large hole forms in the boiler, the pressure would drop instantly from 10 ate to atmospheric pressure. At the same time the temperature of the water would drop from 183C to 100C, the boiling temperature of water at atmospheric pressure. In this way 183 100 = 83 calories for each kilogram of water held in the boiler would be released; these calories would cause part of the water itself to evaporate. As in order to evaporate one Kg of water at 100C, 539 calories (639-100) are needed, with 83 calories 0.154 kilograms (83:539) will evaporate, that is to say about 150 Kg of steam for each m3 of water contained in the boiler will be produced. As a kilogram of steam at atmospheric pressure occupies the volume of about 1725 litres, each litre of water (equal to 1 Kg) which evaporates from the boiler on the boiler bursting immediately tends to occupy the volume of 1725 litres.

GARIONI NAVAL srl

V.le dei Caduti 3 - 25030 CASTELMELLA (Bs) - Italy phone +39 030 2681541 - fax +39 030 2680910 G A R I O N I N AVA L @ G A R I O N I N AVA L . c o m w w w. g a r i o n i n a v a l . c o m
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SPEED m/s

steam

compressed air

water

thermal oil

CAPACITIES mc/h
NAME FAMILY
NAME

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index
GAS BURNERS
NATURAL GAS PIPES COPPER TUBES PRESSURE DROPS CALCULATION LIQUID PROPANE GAS TUBES LPG PIPES DIMENSIONING 4 5 6 6 7 7 8 8 8 8 10 10 11/13 14 15
FOR BIG NATURAL

GAS PIPELINE

STACKS
HOW THEY ARE CLASSIFIED NATURAL DRAFT STACKS FORCED DRAFT STACKS CHOOSING THE SIZE OF THE STACK CHOOSING THE SIZE OF THE STACK LIQUID FUEL - TABLES BOILERS INSTALLED IN PARALLEL

FOR SOLID AND LIQUID

FUELS

BOILER ROOM CONTROL,CALIBRATION, PROTECTION, FEED AND SAFETY EQUIPMENTS

MANOMETER SAFEETY VALVE LEVEL INDICATOR CALIBRATION PRESSURE SWITCH STOP PRESSURE SWITCH WITH MANUAL RESET LEVEL ADJUSTER (LEVEL GAUGE) SAFETY LEVEL REGULATOR WITH STOP FEED WATER PUMP FEED WATER GROUP BLOW DOWN

17 17 17 19 19 20 20 20 21 22 22 23 23 24/27 28/29 30 31

STEAM USE
PHISICAL CHARACTERISTICS OF SATURATED STEAM PRATICAL EXAMPLES STEAM LINES DIMENSIONING DIAGRAM STEAM DELIVERY THROUGH HOLES OR NOZZLES

BREAKDOWNS STEAM LEAKS