Edible and poisonous fungi

Some of the best known types of fungi are the edible and the poisonous mushrooms. Many species are commercially raised, but others must be harvested from the wild. Agaricus bisporus, sold as button mushrooms when small or Portobello mushrooms when larger, are the most commonly eaten species, used in salads, soups, and many other dishes. Many Asian fungi are commercially grown and have gained in popularity in the West. They are often available fresh in grocery stores and markets, including straw mushrooms (Volvariella volvacea), oyster mushrooms (Pleurotus ostreatus), shiitakes (Lentinula edodes), and enokitake (Flammulina spp.).

Jestive i otrovne gljive

Neke od najpoznatijih vrsta gljiva su jestive i otrovne peurke. Mnoge vrste se komercijalno gaje, ali druge moraju da se beru u divljini. Agaricus bisporus, prodaju se kao domai ampinjoni kad su male ili kao krupne Portobelo peurke kada su vee, su najvie rasprostranjena jestiva vrsta peuraka, koja se koristi u salatama, supama i pripremi mnogih drugih jela. Mnoge Azijske gljive se komercijalno gaje i stekle su popularnost na Zapadu. esto su dostupne svee u prodavnicama i na pijacama, ukljuujui tobolanke (Volvariella volvacea), bukovae (Pleurotus ostreatus), itake (Lentinula edodes), i zimske panjevice (Flammulinaspp.).

ESSAY

Fungus classification and ecology Phylogeny and classification

Taxonomists have thought for a long time that fungi belong to the Plant Kingdom. That opinion was based on similarities in lifestyle. Fungi are just like plants sessile, they grow in soil and possess a cell wall which is absent in the Animal Kingdom. They are now classified in separate kingdom because of many studies that have found several different morphological, biochemical, and genetic features in the Fungi that separate this group from the other kingdoms.

Physiological and morphological traits

Like animals and unlike most plants fungi dont have the ability to synthesize organic carbon through chlorophyll. While plants have reserves of carbon in the form of starch, mushrooms store it in the form of glycogen. Fungal cell wall is mainly composed of chitin, which is present in insects and crustaceans while the plant cell wall builds cellulose. Unique feature of fungal cells are hyphae that together build fungal mycelium. Some fungi are composed of a single cell as a unicelular algae and protists. Unlike many plants, most fungi lack an efficient vascular system, such as the xylem and phloem for transporting water and nutrients. During evolution, some have formed mycelial cords which remind on plant roots. Characteristics because of which are plants and fungi more similar is presence of vacuoles in the cell, and a similar pathway in the biosynthesis of terpens using mevalonic acid and pyrophosphate as biochemical precursors; plants however use an additional terpene biosynthesis pathway in the chloroplasts that is obviously absent in fungi. One more characteristic present in fungi and absent from other eukaryotes, is the biosynthesis of the amino acid, L-lysine via the -aminoadipate pathway. Fungi, like plants produce some of secondary metabolites which are functioning as defensive compounds; however biochemical paths for synthesis of some compounds are different between fungi and plants.

Evolutionary history

The first organisms that had the characteristics typical of fungi date back 1,200 million years. Although they are included in botany curricula and textbooks, fungi are now considered more closely related to animals. For much of the Paleozoic, fungi were aquatic and consisted of consisted of organisms similar to the extant chytrids in having flagellumbearing spores. Fungi colonized the land long before the plants. All modern fungi are present by the Late Carboniferous (Pennsylvanian Epoch). For some time after the PermianTriassic extinction event a fungal spike originally thought to be an extraordinary abundance of fungal spores in sediments formed shortly after this event, suggested that fungi were the dominant life form during this period However, the relative proportion of fungal spores relative to spores formed by algal species is difficult to assess, the spike did not appear worldwide, and in many places it did not fall on the PermianTriassic boundary. Researches using molecular phylogenetics support a monophyletic origin of the Fungi. More recent analyzes usually do not support the older classifications based on experimental research. There is no accepted system, and there are constant name changes on higher level of organization. Fungal researchers are working hard to bring a unified and consistent nomenclature. Fungi can have multiple scientific names which depends on theirs life cycle and type of reproduction.

Cladogram
A cladogram describes the phylogenetic relationships between several groups of organisms, in a tree such as a diagram. The current classification od Fungi Kingdom recognizes seven phyla.

Taxonomic groups
Major divisions of fungi were done based on the characteristics of sexual reproduction. Current classification is on the: Chytridiomycota The Chytridiomycota are more familiar as chytrids. These fungi are present everywhere with a worldwide distribution. They produce zoospores that are actively moving with a single flagellum . Because of that they were classified as protists. Blastocladiomycota

Initially they were related to Chytridiomycota. This group includes fungi that are saprotrophs and parasites of all eukaryotic groups, and they sare using sporic meiosis. Neocallimastigomycota The Neocallimastigomycota were earlier placed in Chytridiomycota phylum. It is made of anaerobic organisms which live in digestive system of herbivores and in other terrestrial and aquatic environments. They dont have mitochondria and they form zoospores too. Glomeromycota Members of the Glomeromycota are fungi forming arbuscular mycorrhizae with higher plants. Only one species form zygospores, the other ones reproduce asexually. Ascomycota The Ascomycota, more familiar as sac fungi or ascomycetes, represent the largest taxonomy group. These fungi form meiotic spores called ascospores enclosed in a special structure called an ascus. This division includes morels, a few mushrooms and truffles, yeasts and many fungi living as saprotrophs, parasites, and mutualistic symbionts. The most important genera of filamentous ascomycetes include Aspergillus, Penicillium, Fusarium, and Claviceps. Because the products of meiosis are kept within the sac-like ascus, several ascomycetes have been used for researching principles of genetics and heredity. Basidiomycota Members of this group, commonly known as the club fungi or basidiomycetes, produce meiospores called basidiospores. Most common mushrooms belong to this group. For example, major pathogens of grains, like rust and smut fungi.

Phylogenetic relationships with other fungus-like organisms

Because of similarities in morphology and lifestyle, the slime molds (myxomycetes) and water molds (oomycetes) were classified in the kingdom Fungi. Unlike true fungi, however, the cell walls of these organisms have cellulose and dont have chitin. Neither water molds or slime molds are closely related to the true fungi, so taxonomists no longer classify them in the kingdom Fungi. Studies about them are still included in mycology textbooks and primary research literature.

Ecology
Even they aren't prominent, fungi are found everywhere on Earth and have an important role in ecosystems. Bacteria and fungi are the major decomposers in terrestrial and

some aquatic ecosystems, and play a critical role in the cycling of matter and food webs like saprotrophs and symbionts, degrading organic matter to inorganic molecules.

Symbiosis
Many fungi are found in symbiosis with organisms from almost all kingdoms. With plants Symbiosis between plants and fungi is very important for plant growth and persistence in many ecosystems. Plant species are dependent upon this relationship for survival. Symbiosis increases the plant's uptake of inorganic compounds, such as nitrate and phosphate from soils. Some fungal partners may mediate plant-to-plant transfer of carbohydrates and other nutrients. Such mycorrhizal communities are called "common mycorrhizal networks". With algae and cyanobacteria A symbiotic relationship between algae or cyanobacteria and fungi forms lichens in which individual photobiont cells are embedded in a tissue formed by the fungus. The photobiont supplies sugars and other carbohydrates, while the fungus provides minerals and water. A number of characteristics are common to most lichens including obtaining nutrients by photosynthesis, slow growth, small size, long life etc. With insects Several groups of ants use fungi as their primary food source, while ambrosia beetles cultivate various species of fungi in the bark of trees that they infest just like termites on the African savannah. As pathogens and parasites Many fungi are parasites on plants, animals (including humans), and other fungi. They can cause extensive damage and losses to agriculture and forestry. Some fungi are predators of nematodes using a constricting rings or adhesive nets. Fungi are the main cause of a variety of serious diseases in humans, several of which may be fatal if not treated properly. Some fungi can attack eyes, nails, hair, and especially skin and cause a variety of conditions, of which ringworms and athletes foot are common. Fungal spores are also a major cause of allergies and allergic reactions in some people.

Importance for human use

Human use of fungi for food preparation or preservation and other purposes is extensive and has a long history: yeasts are required for fermentation of beer, wine and bread, other fungal species are used in the production of soy sauce and tempeh. Mushroom farming and mushroom gathering are large industries in many countries. Many fungi are producers of antibiotics. The study of the historical uses and sociological impact of fungi is known as ethomycology. Fungi are also used extensively to produce industrial chemicals like citric, gluconic, lactic, and malic acids, antibiotics, and even to make stonewashed jeans. Fungi are also sources of industrial enzymes, such as lipases used in biological detergents, amylases, cellulases, invertases, proteases and xylanases. Many fungi produce biologically active compounds, several of which are toxic and are therefore called mycotoxins. Of particular relevance to humans are those mycotoxins that are produced by molds causing food spoilage and poisonous mushrooms. Some of the best known types of fungi are the edible and the poisonous mushrooms. Agaricus bisporus, sold as button mushrooms when small or Portobello mushrooms when larger, are the most commonly eaten species, used in salads, soups, and many other dishes.

References:
Fungus, retrieved in November, 2012 from http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fungi