APUSHISTORY

TheOutlinetoEndAllOutlines

TABLEOFCONTENTS
PAGE3EARLYSETTLEMENTS(chapter1) PAGE6COLONIALEXPANSION(chapter2) PAGE10COLONIALSOCIETYANDCULTURE(chapter3) PAGE13BEGINNINGSOFREBELLION(chapter4) PAGE16REVOLUTIONARYWAR(chapter5) PAGE20NEWREPUBLIC(chapter6) PAGE25JEFFERSONIANERA(chapter7) PAGE28ERAOFGOODFEELINGS(chapter8) PAGE32JACKSONIANERA(chapter9) PAGE34EARLYINDUSTRIALISM(chapter10) PAGE35OLDSOUTH(chapter11) PAGE37ANTEBELLUMSOCIETY(chapter12) PAGE39WESTERNEXPANSION(chapter13) PAGE42CIVILWAR(chapter14) PAGE45RECONSTRUCTION(chapter15) PAGE48FARWEST(chapter16) PAGE51INDUSTRIALISM(chapter17) PAGE54GROWTHOFCITIES(chapter18)

PAGE56POSTRECONSTRUCTIONPOLITICS(chapter19) PAGE58IMPERIALISM(chapter20) PAGE60PROGRESSIVISM(chapter21) PAGE63REFORM(chapter22) PAGE65WORLDWARI(chapter23) PAGE68ROARINGTWENTIES(chapter24) PAGE71GREATDEPRESSION(chapter25) PAGE73NEWDEAL(chapter26) PAGE76PREWWIIFOREIGNAFFAIRS(chapter27) PAGE79WORLDWARII(chapter28) PAGE83COLDWAR(chapter29) PAGE87POSTWWIISOCIETY(chapter30) PAGE89NEWLIBERALISM(chapter31) PAGE91NIXONIANERA(chapter32) PAGE95REAGANERA(chapter33) PAGE97GLOBALIZATION(chapter34) PAGE98APPENDIXA:SUPREMECOURTCASES PAGE101APPENDIXB:CONSTITUTIONALAMENDMENTS

WrittenbyMarkFallati,AlexMabie,IliOdouard,NoamRadcliffe

EARLYSETTLEMENTS(chapter1)
CULTURE
NorthAmerica Smallsettlements:MostNativeAmericansinthe1490slivedinsmallgroupsofafew hundred.Sometribeswerenomadic,liketheSiouxandPawnee. Largersocieties:ThePueblosinthesouthwestandtheWoodlandsintheeastwere examplesofmorecomplextribes.Thesesocietiessupportedthemselvesbyhunting, fishing,andfarming. CentralandSouthAmericas ItisestimatedthatmoreNativeAmericanslivedinthisregionthaninNorthAmerica. Mayas,Aztecs,andIncasruledoversophisticatedsocieties.Theywerescientificallyand economicallykeengroups. Europe ImprovementsinTechnology:TheaftermathoftheRenaissancepromptedarebirthin scienceandtechnology.Therewerevariousinventionscoupledwithadvancesin shipbuildingandmapmaking. ReligiousConflict CatholicvictoryinSpain:IsabellaandFerdinandunifiedSpainindefeating Musliminvaders.TheywouldsoonsponsorColumbusvoyagetotheNewWorld. ProtestantrevoltinnorthernEurope:TheProtestantReformationaddeda religiousmotiveforexplorationandcolonization. ExpandingTrade:EuropeankingdomscompetedfortradewithAsiaandAfrica.Afew consideredtravelingtoAsiaacrosstheAtlanticinhopesofshorteningthetrip. DevelopingNationStates:In15thcenturyEurope,monarchsgrewpowerfulenoughto buildnationstates.Thesemonarchsneededtradetobringinrevenue.

EARLYEXPLORATIONS
ChristopherColumbus ColumbuslandedintheBahamasinOctober1492.Hediedin1506,stillunderthe impressionthathehadfoundawesternroutetoAsia. Exchanges Whenputintocontactwithoneanother,EuropeansandNativesaffectedeachother significantly.TheNativesintroducedEuropeanstoplantsandfoods.Theyalsoinfectedthe explorerswithsyphilis.Europeansbroughttheirownanimalsandcropsalongwithguns, germs,anddiseases.MillionsofNativessoondiedfromsmallpoxandmeasles. DividingtheNewWorld ThePopearbitratedthedivisionoftheNewWorldbetweenSpainandPortugal. SpanishExplorationandConquest Spanishexplorersandconquistadorswereresponsiblefortheircountrysinitialdominance intheNewWorld. EnglishClaims JohnCabotsvoyagetoNewfoundland1497markedthefirstofEnglandsclaimstothenew World.Ingeneralhowever,Englandwasslowtoexploreandsettle.In1587,SirWalter RaleightriedtoestablishasettlementatRoanokeIsland,butitfailed. FrenchClaims In1524,FrancesponsoredGiovannideVerrazanoinhopesoffindinganorthwestpassage

throughAmericatoAsia.HeendedupinnewYork.Francewasslowtocolonize,like England.ThefirstsettlementwasatQuebec,establishedin1608. DutchClaims In1609,HenryHudsonsailedupa(Hudson)riverandclaimedthesurroundingareaasNew Amsterdam.TheDutchWestIndiaCompany,ajointstockcompany,tookcontroloverthe regionforprofit.

EARLYENGLISHANDSPANISHSETTLEMENTS
Background Intheearly1600s,Englandwasinapositiontocolonize.Theyhadastrongnavyanda depressedeconomythatinstilledhopefornewfinancialopportunitiesintheNewWorld amongthepeople.Tofoundthenewcolonies,theEnglishsetupjointstockcompanies, inwhichpeopleofmoderatemeanspooledtheirsavingsandsupportedthetradingventures inwhichtheyenvisionedpotentialforprofit. Jamestown KingJamesIcharteredtheVirginiaCompanythatestablishedJamestownin1607. Earlyproblems:ThefirstsettlerssufferedfromIndianattacks,starvation,and disease.Thesettlementsswampylocationwaspronetomalariaoutbreaks.The menwerentusedtophysicallabortheycouldntfarm,theyjustwantedgold. Obviously,then,foodwasscarce. Tobaccoprosperity:CaptainJohnSmithsforcefulleadershipcoupledwithJohn RolfesdevelopmentofatobaccoindustryhelpedJamestownsurvive.Rolfeandhis wife,Pocahontas,grewanewkindoftobaccothateveryonelikedinEurope.That said,Jamestownstobaccoplantationsrequiredalargelaborforce.Initially,the VirginiaCompanypreferredtousedindenturedservants,whowouldworkfora certainnumberofyearsinexchangeforfreetransportationtothecolony.In1619, severalAfricansarrivedatthecolonyandbecameenslaved. Transitiontoaroyalcolony:Despiteitsstrongtobaccoindustry,theVirginia Companyfellintodebt.Thecompanyscharterwasrevokedin1624.KingJamesI tookdirectcontroloverthecolony. Florida SpanishestablishedapermanentsettlementatSt.Augustinein1565. NewMexico InNewMexico,PueblosrevoltedasaresultofSpanisheffortstoChristianizetheNatives. Thesettlersweredrivenfromtheareauntilthe1700s. Texas AftertheyweredrivenfromNewMexico,theSpanishestablishsettlementsinTexas. California TheSpanishestablishedpermanentsettlementsatSanDiegoin1769andSanFrancisco in1776.

PURITANCOLONIES
Background Religiousincentive,notprofit,wasthedrivingforcebehindthesettlementofPlymouthand MassachusettsBay.EnglishProtestants,influencedbyJohnCalvin,settledbothofthese colonies.AlthoughtheAnglicanChurchwasProtestantinname,manyfeltasthoughit resembledtheRomanCatholicChurch.DuringthereignofKingJamesI,manywantedto

purifytheirchruchofthisCatholicinfluence.Henceforth,Puritanismwasborn. PlymouthColony AgroupofPuritansknowsasSeparatistswantedtoorganizeacompletelyseparate churchintheirnewcolony.TheydidntwanttosimplyreformtheChurchofEngland.After migratingtoHollandandfindingeconomichardship,thePilgrimssetsailforVirginiaonthe Mayflowerin1620.MostpassengerswereSeparatists. Earlyhardships:Afterlandingnorthoftheirdestination,thePilgrimssettledonthe Massachusettscoast.ThefirstwinterinPlymouthkilledhalfofthesettlers.Soonafter, however,friendlyNativeshelpedthenewarrivalsadapttotheland.Together,they celebratedThanksgivingin1621.ThecolonygrewslowlyunderMilesStandishandWilliam Bradford.Theyeconomizedfish,furs,andlumber. MassachusettsBayColony AnewgroupofPuritans,whowerentSeparatists,leftEnglandafterCharlesIhadtaken overanddeniedthemreligiousfreedom.Theyobtainedaroyalcharterforthe MassachusettsBayCompanyin1629.JohnWinthropledagroupofPuritanstoMassBay Colonyin1630inwhatbecameknownastheGreatMigration. Politics MajorityruleinPlymouth:PilgrimsontheMayflowersignedtheMayflowerCompactin 1620toformacolonialselfgovernmentandanearlyformofawrittenconstitution. Jamestown:In1619,VirginiacolonistsorganizedtheHouseofBurgesses,thefirst representativeassembly. Massachusetts:AllmalemembersofthePuritanChurchhadtherighttoparticipatein annualelections. Limitednatureofcolonialdemocracy:Thecolonieswerepartiallydemocratic,but manywereexcludedfromthepoliticalprocess.Onlymalepropertyownerscouldvotefor representatives.Governorsruledautocratically.

NATIVEAMERICANS
Background VarioussettlerstreatedIndiansindifferentways.TheSpanishconqueredandruledthe Aztecs,Mayas,andIncas.TheEnglishpushedthetribestheyencounteredinland.French generallybefriendedtheNativesforeconomicandmilitaryadvantages.MostEuropeans consideredtheNativesinferior.Theircolonizationbroughtaboutthespreadofdisease,war, andsubjugationoftheNatives. SpanishPolicy Spainusedwar,enslavement,anddiseasetoconquerNativeAmericans.Spanishmen intermarriedwiththeNativesandAfricanssincetherewerentalotofwomenfromSpain.A rigidclasssystemdevelopedwithinthehighlyorganizedempireSpainhadestablished. EnglishPolicy EnglishandNativesinitiallygotalonginMassachusetts.TheIndianstaughtthesettlers farmingandhuntingtechniques.Theytradedtoolsandweapons.Thepeacesoondissolved intoconflict,however,sincetheEnglishviewedtheNativesassavages. FrenchPolicy Frenchsoughttocontrolthefurtrade,andthereforemaintainedrelativelypeacefulrelations withtheNatives.TheybuiltpostsalongbigriversandlakesandtradedfurswithIndians.

COLONIALEXPANSION(chapter2)
CHESAPEAKECOLONIES
NewColonialism AfterJamestownwasfoundedin1607,13differentEnglishcoloniesdevelopedthrough charters,grantsfromtheEnglishmonarch.Threetypesofcoloniesgrewasaresultof threedifferenttypesofcharters. CorporatecolonieslikeJamestownwereownedbyjointstockcompanies. RoyalcolonieslikeVirginiaafter1624wereunderthemonarchsrule. ProprietarycolonieslikeMassachusettsandPennsylvaniawereundertheauthorityof individualstowhomthekinghadgrantedcharters. Maryland KingCharlesIgrantedGeorgeCalvert(LordBaltimore)acharterforMaryland,thefirst proprietarycolony.Hewasresponsibleforcarryingoutthekingswishes,buthedied beforehecouldachievewealthorsubstantialimprovementforCatholicslikehimself.His sonCecil,thesecondLordBaltimore,tookoverin1632. ActsofToleration:WealthyEnglishCatholicsemigratedtoMarylandtoescapereligious intolerancebackhome.ProtestantfarmersquicklyoutnumberedtheCatholicsandhada majorityinMarylandsassembly.In1649,CecilCalvertconvincedtheassemblytoadopt theActsofToleration,whichgrantedreligiousfreedomtoallChristians. Protestantrevolt:AfterabriefcivilwarvictoryforProtestantsinthelate1600s,the ProtestantsrepealedtheActsofToleration.Catholicslosttheirpositionintheassembly. Virginia Economicproblems:Lowtobaccopricesinthe1660sstrainedtheChesapeakecolonies. PoliticalproblemsandBaconsRebellion:SirWilliamBerkeley,Virginiasgovernor, favoredlargeplanters.HedidntprotectthefarmersonthewesternfrontierfromIndian attacks.NateBacon,ledarebellioninresponsetothelackofprotection.In1676,he raisedanarmyandledraidsagainstIndianvillages.BerkleyaccusedBaconofrebelling againstauthority.Baconsarmythendefeatedthegovernorsforcesandburned Jamestown.Bacondiedsoonafter,andhisarmyfell. Lastingproblems:BaconsRebellionrevealedtheclassdifferencesbetweentheplanters andfarmers.Italsohighlightedthepresenceofcolonialresistancetoroyalcontrol. LaborShortages TheclimatecoupledwithdiseasesandIndianscontributedtoslowgrowthamongthe Chesapeakecolonies.Therewasanimbalancebetweenthenumberofmenandwomen. Indenturedservants:Britishyouthagreedtoserveforseveralyearsinexchange forroomandboard. Headrightsystem:Toattractimmigrants,Virginiaoffered50acresoflandtoeach immigrantorplantationownerwhopaidforanimmigrantspassage. Slavery:ThefirstAfricansarrivedwithDutchtoVirginiain1619.Theywereinitially treatedthesameasindenturedservants.Inthe1660s,theHouseofBurgesses passedlawsthatdiscriminatedbetweenblacksandwhites.Africansweretobe treatedasslavesforlife,whilewhitelaborerscouldbesetfreeafteracertain period.

DEVELOPMENTOFNEWENGLAND
RhodeIsland

Founding:RogerWilliams,aPuritanminister,believedthatanindividualwasbeyondthe controlofchurchauthority.PuritansleadersbanishedhimfromMassBay.Hefledto NarragansettBay,whereheandhisfollowersfoundedProvidencein1636.Thecolony recognizedtherightsofNativeAmericans,anditalsoprovidedcompletereligious toleration. AnnHutchinson:Hutchbelievedinantinomianism,theideathatfaithalone,notdeeds, wasnecessaryforsalvation.Shewasbanishedfromthebaycolony,andshefounded Portsmouthin1638.Afewyearslater,IndianskilledherinLongIsland. Charter:WilliamswasgrantedacharterthatjoinedProvidenceandPortsmouthintothe singlecolonyofRhodeIslandin1644. Connecticut ReverendThomasHookerwasalsounhappywiththeMassachusettsauthorities.Heleda groupofPuritanstofoundHartfordcolonyin1636.In1639,theydrewuptheFundamental OrdersofConnecticut,thefirstconstitutioninAmericanhistory.In1637,JohnDavenport startedanothercolonyintheConnecticutValleycalledNewHaven.Thetwocolonies mergedin1655andweregrantedaroyalcharterforthecolonyforConnecticut. NewHampshire KingCharlesIIseparatedNewHampshirefromtheMassachusettsBaycolonyin1679and madeitaroyalcolony. HalfwayCovenant Inthe1660s,therewasanew,lessreligiousgeneration.Inanefforttomaintainthe churchsinfluenceandmembership,clergymenofferedahalfwaycovenanttothosewho werelesscommittedtoreligion. NewEnglandConfederation In1643,fourNewEnglandcoloniesformedamilitaryalliance,theNewEngland Confederation,toprotecteachotherfromtheIndians,French,andDutch. KingPhilipsWar Metacom,chiefoftheWampanoagIndians,wasknowntocolonistsasKingPhilip.He unitedmanytribesinNewEnglandagainsttheEnglishsettlerswhoweretakingtheirland. Between1675and1676,thousandsoneachsidedied.Thecolonistseventuallywonand killedKingPhilip.

RESTORATIONCOLONIES
TheCarolinas:CharlesIIgaveahugeplotoflandtoseveralnoblesin1663.Heawardedtwo noblesproprietorshiptoSouthandNorthCarolina. SouthCarolina:Initially,theeconomywasbasedonthefurtradeandgivingfoodtothe WestIndies.Bythemid1700s,SouthCarolinahaddevelopedbigriceplantationsworked byslaves. NorthCarolina:Differentthaninthesouth,NorthCarolinawashometotobaccofarms. TheregionhadweakertransportationthanSouthCarolina,sotherewerelessplantations andlessneedforslavery. NewYork CharlesIIwantedtotakeNewAmsterdamfromtheDutchtoclosethegapbetweenNew EnglandandtheChesapeakecolonies.In1664,theDukeofYork,JamesII,tookcontrol overthetheDutchcolony.Heorderedtherenamingofthecolonyandthathisagentstreat theDutchwell.Jamesalsoorderednewtaxeswithouttheconsentofanassembly.After opposition,Jamesallowedthegovernortograntarepresentativeassemblyin1683.

NewJersey In1664,JamesdividedasectionofNewYork,.amongtwofriends,JohnBerkeleyand GeorgeCarteret.ThelandwasbrokenintoEastandWestNewJersey,eachofwhich boastedreligiousfreedomandanassembly.TheyattractedgroupsofQuakers.In1702,the KingdecidedtocombinethetworegionsintoNewJersey. PennsylvaniaandDelaware Quakers:TheQuakerswereamemberoftheReligiousSocietyofFriendsthatbelievedin equalityformenandwomenandnonviolence.Theirviewthatreligiousauthoritycouldonly bederivedfromwithinwastooradicalforEngland.Theywerejailedfortheirbeliefs. WilliamPenn:WilliamPenn,aQuaker,inheritedalotofmoneyandagrantwithwhichhe foundedPennsylvaniain1680. TheHolyExperiment:PennwantedtoprovideareligiousrefugeforQuakers,developa liberalgovernment,andgainprofitsforhimself.Heguaranteedarepresentativeassembly, andhedraftedaconstitutionin1701thatgrantedfreedomofreligionandunrestricted immigration.Unlikeotherproprietors,PennsupervisedthefoundingofPhiladelphia.Healso vowedtotreatthenativeAmericansfairly. Delaware:In1702,PenngrantedasectionofPennsylvaniatheirownassembly,creating Delawareasaseparatecolony. Georgia Georgia,thethirteenthcolony,wascharteredin1732.Britainwantedtocreateabuffer zonetoprotectSouthCarolinafromSpanishFlorida.WealthyphilanthropistsinLondon thoughtthenewcolonywouldrelieveovercrowdedjailiimprisoneddebtorsfromEngland wereshippedtoAmerica. Specialregulations:JamesOglethorpeandotherphilanthropistsweregranted proprietarycharter,andtheyfoundedSavannah,thecolonysfirstsettlement,in1733. Oglethorpeenactedstrictregulationslikeabanonrunandtheprohibitionofslavery. Royalcolony:GeorgiawastakenoverbytheBritishgovernmentin1752,andthe restrictionsonrumandslaveryweredropped.

MERCANTILISM
Mercantilism Aneconomicpolicythatfocusesontrade,colonies,andwealthasthebaseforacountrys politicalandmilitarystrength.Throughoutthe1600s,Europeankingdoms,including England,adoptedthistheory. NavigationActs Provisions OnlyEnglishshipscouldbeusedintradetoandfromthecolonies. GoodimportedtocolonieshadtopassthroughEnglishports. EnumeratedorspecifiedgoodsliketobaccocouldonlybeexportedtoEngland. PositiveEffects ShipbuildingprosperedinNewEngland. ChesapeaketobaccohadamonopolyinEngland. EnglandsmilitaryprotectedthecoloniesfromtheFrenchandSpanish. NegativeEffects Colonialmanufacturingwaslimited. Chesapeakefarmersreceivedlowpricesfortheircrops. ColonistshadtobuygoodsfromEnglandathighprices.

Enforcement:TheBritishgovernmentwasgenerallylaxinenforcingtheacts.Occasionally thecrowntriedtoovercomecolonialresistancetothetradelaws. DominionofNewEngland KingJamesIIwantedtoincreaseroyalcontroloverthecolonies.In1686,hecombinedNew York,NewJersey,partsofNewEnglandintotheDominionofNewEngland.HesentSir EdmundAndrostogovernthedominion.Hewasunpopularsinceheleviedtaxes.After WilliamandMarysGloriousRevolutionof1688inEngland,JamesIIwasdeposedfromthe throne.Thedominionwasdividedagainintoitsoriginalcolonies.

INSTITUTIONOFSLAVERY
IncreasedDemandforSlaves Reducedmigration:Therewasawaningsupplyofimmigrantsduetowageincreasesin England. Dependableworkforce:Plantationownersweredisturbedbythedemandsofsmall farmersasshowninBaconsRebellion.Theythoughtslaveswouldbecompletelyunder theircontrol. Cheaplabor:Togrowthenowprofitablericeandindigo,plantersneededalotoflandand alotofcheap,unskilledfieldhands. Slavelaws Asslaverygrewinthemidthe17thcentury,whitecolonistsadoptedlawstoensurethat blackswouldbeslavesforlifeandthattheirchildrenwouldalsobeslaves.Itwas customaryforwhitestoregardblacksasinferior.Racismandslaverybecameanimportant partofsociety. TriangularTrade ShipsfullofrumleftNewEnglandandarrivedinWestAfrica,wheretherumwastradedfor hundredsofAfricans.TheshipwouldtaketheMiddlePassagebacktotheWestIndies, whereAfricansweretradedasslavesforsugarcane.TheshipthenreturnedtoNewEngland withthesugar,whereitwassoldforthemakingofrum.

COLONIALSOCIETYANDCULTURE(chapter3)
POPULATIONGROWTH
Background InEnglishcoloniesduringthe1700s,thepopulationincreasedtenfold.Thishappened amongwhitesandslavesalike.Immigrationandafertilelandthatencouragedtheraisingof largefamiliesledtothegrowth. EuropeanImmigrants NewcomerstotheBritishcamefromCentralandWesternEuropeinadditiontoGreat Britain.Religiouspersecution,wars,andeconomicopportunitywerecommonmotivesfor leavingEurope. English:Withfewerdomesticissues,theamountofEnglishimmigrantswasrelatively small. Germans:GermanssettledmostlyinwesternPhiladelphia.Theymaintainedtheirculture forthemostpart. ScotchIrish:EmigratingfromnorthernIreland,thisgroupsettledalongthewesternpartsof Pennsylvaniaandotherpartsofthefrontier. OtherEuropeans:FrenchProtestants(Huguenots),Dutch,andSwedesmigratedtoo. Africans AnoverwhelmingconcentrationofAfricanscometoAmericaagainsttheirfreewill. Regardless,theygenerallylivedinthesoutherncoloniesasslaves.Farthernorth,African Americanshadmorefreedomintheirlabor,buttheywerestillsubjecttodiscrimination.

SOCIETY
GeneralCharacteristics DominanceofEnglishculture:MostcolonistswereEnglishinorigin,language,and tradition.Still,AfricansandotherEuropeanscreatedtheirowndiverseculture. Selfgovernment:Mostcolonieshadarepresentativeassemblythatvoterselected. Religioustoleration:Coloniesgranteddifferentdegreesofreligioustoleration. MassachusettswastheleasttolerantRhodeIslandandPennsylvaniawerethemost liberal. Nohereditaryaristocracy:Anarrowclasssystemofwealthylandowners,craftspeople, andsmallfarmersdevelopedinthecolonies. Socialmobility:Besidesslaves,mosthadanopportunitytoimprovetheirstandardof livingthroughhardwork. Families Thefamilywasthecenterofcoloniallife.Mendidwork,andwomenborechildren,cooked, cleaned,andtaughttheirchildren.

ECONOMY
NewEngland Rocksoilandlongwinterspromptedsubsistencefarming.Theindustriousdescendantsof thePuritansprosperedfromlogging,shipbuilding,andfishing. Middlecolonies RichsoilletEuropeanfarmersgrowanabundanceofwheatandcornforexport.Tradingled tothedevelopmentofcitieslikeNewYorkandPhilly.

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Southerncolonies Southernfarmsrangedfromsmallsubsistencetolargeplantations.Cashcropsincluded tobacco,rice,andindigo. Monetarysystem ColoniesusedhardcurrencytopurchaseimportsfromEngland.Theysometimesissued papermoneyfordomestictrade. Transportation Tradingcenterswerelocatedonharborsandriverstoeasetransportation.Overlandtravel byhorsebecamemorecommoninthe1700s.Tavernsboardedandlodgedtravelers.

RELIGION
ProtestantDominance Background:ChurchesthattaxedthepeopletosupportaProtestdenominationwere knownasestablishedchurches.ThetwoestablishedchurchesweretheChurchofEngland inVirginiaandtheCongregationalChurchinMassachusettsandConnecticut.Asincreased immigrationgrewthereligiousdiversityinNewEngland,thechurchexemptedsome membersofotherchurchesfromthetaxburden. Anglicans:MembersoftheChurchofEnglandwereusuallywealthyfarmersand merchants.Sincethechurchwasheadedbytheking,itbecameasymbolofEnglish controlinthecolonies. Congregationalists:MembersoftheCongregationalistChurchsucceededthePuritansin NewEngland. TheGreatAwakening Background:Intheearly18thcentury,ProtestantsportrayedGodasabenigncreatorofa perfectuniverse.TherewaslessfocusonthePuritanemphasisideasofhumansinfulness andthefearofdamnation.TheGreatAwakeningcoughttochangethis. JonathanEdwards:EdwardsarguedthatGodwasangrywithhumansinfulness.God wouldonlysavethosewhorepented.HeexpressedtheseideasmostnotablyinSinnersin theHandsofanAngryGod.HisinfluencewascenteredaroundNewEngland. GeorgeWhitefield:IntheentirecolonialAmerica,Whitefieldignitedthemovementswith sermonsonthehellishtormentsofthedamned.Hepreachedineveryimaginablesettingto largecrowds,stressingthatGodwouldonlysavethosewhoopenlybelievedinJesus. Religiousimpact:EmotionalismbecameacommonpartofProtestantism.Ministerslost someauthorityassomenowstudiedtheBiblealoneathome.TheAwakeningalsodivided churchesliketheCongregationalandPresbyterian.ItdividedNewLightsthatsupported theAwakeningsmessagesfromthosethatcondemnedthem,OldLights.Evangelical sectslikeBaptistsandMethodistsgainedpopularity.Thisledtoacallforseparationof churchandstate. Politicalimpact:TheAwakeninghadademocratizingeffectbychangestheway Americansviewedauthority.Theythoughtthatreligiousresponsibilityshouldgivethem politicalresponsibilitytoo.

CULTURE
AchievementsintheArtsandSciences Architecture:PeopleadoptedarchitecturalstylefromEngland. Painting:Colonialartistslookedforpeoplewhowantedtheirportraitspainted. Literature:Literaturemostlyconcernedreligionandpolitics.Intheyearsbeforethe

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Revolution,politicalessayswerepopular. Science:BenFranklinworkedwithelectricity. Education NewEngland:PuritanschoolsemphasizedtheBible.Theseweretaxsupportedschools. Middlecolonies:Schoolswereeitherchurchsponsoredorprivate. Southerncolonies:Parentseducatedtheirkidstothebestoftheirability.Plantationkids hadtutors. Highereducation:Harvardwasfoundedin1636todevelopministers.WilliamandMary andYalefollowed. Professions Physicians:Medicinewasveryprimal,andbleedingandpurgingwereacceptedpractices. Lawyers:Lawyerscameaboutinthe1700sastradeexpandedandlegalproblems becamemorecomplicated.Duringthe1760sand1770s,lawyersgainedmorerespect whentheyarguedforcolonialrights. ThePress Newspapers:By1776,newspaperswerefarmorepopularthantheyhadbeenjustfifty yearsprior. Zengercase:Ifanyarticleoffendedpoliticians,printerscouldbejailedforlibel.In1735, JohnPeterZengerwaschargedforlibelouslycriticizingNewYorksgovernor.Zengerwas acquittedonthegroundsthathehadprintedtruthfulinformation.Thecaseencouraged newspapertotakegreaterrisksincriticizingthegovernment. RuralFolkways Farmersdidntreadtheyworkedeveryhouroftheday.Althoughfoodwasusuallyplentiful, homeswerentcomfortable. EmergenceofaNationalCharacter Colonistsexercisedrightsoffreespeech,freepress,andreligioustoleration.Theygrew accustomedtoelectingrepresentativestoassemblies.

POLITICS
StructureofGovernment Ineachcolony,thelegislaturehadtohouses.Thelowerhouse,orassembly,votedon taxes.Thus,colonistsgrewaccustomedtoonlypayingtaxesthattheirrepresentativeshad approved.Theupperhousememberswereelectedbythekingorbythecolonysproprietor. Localgovernment:InNewEngland,colonistsestablishedtownsandvillages. Here,townmeetingswerethedominantformoflocalgovernment.Peoplewouldgo tothechurchandvoteonissues.TownswerelesscommonintheSouthbecause thefarmsandplantationswerespreadfarapart.Sheriffsandotherofficialsformed alocalgovernmentaspartofacounty. Voting Colonieshadlimiteddemocracywhitewomen,poorwhitemen,slaves,andfreeblacks couldntvote.Duringthe1700s,somevotingrestrictions(religion)werelifted.Still,allvoters hadtoownproperty.InVirginia,theHouseofBurgesseswasfiledwithwealthylandowners. InMassachusetts,thelegislaturewasmoreopentosmallfarmers.Thegeneraltrendwas thatthecommonpeopleineachcolonydependedontheprivilegedfewtomakethe decisions.

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BEGINNINGSOFREBELLION(chapter4)
COLONIALWARS
FirstThreeWars InKingWilliamsWarandQueenAnnesWar,EnglandtriedtocaptureQuebecbutfailed. NativeAmericansworkedtogetherwiththeFrench,andtheywereabletoburnedEnglish frontiersettlements.Lastlyin,KingGeorgeswar,TheEnglishfacedtheFrenchand Spanish.EventhoughEnglandwon,theylostanimportantfortinNewEnglandduringthe peacetreaty. FrenchandIndianWar(SevenYearsWar) ThefirstthreewarshadbeenmostlyfoughtinEurope.SincetheFrenchand Indianwarwasfoughtinthecolonies,FranceandEnglandrecognizedtheimportanceof thecolonies. Beginningofthewar:TheBritishthoughttheFrenchstartedthewarbybuildingfortsin theOhioRiverValley.VirginiasentamilitiaunderGeorgeWashingtontostopFrancefrom buildingFortDuquesne,whichwouldgivethemcontroloftheValley.Washington surrenderedafteraninitialvictory.ThewarwasgoingbadlyforBritainatfirst.Frenchand NativeAmericantroopswerestrong,andtheydeseroyestedmuchofthewesternfrontier AlbanyPlanofUnion:In1754,delegatesadoptedBenFranklinsAlbanyPlanofUnion thatprovidedforanintercolonialgovernment,arecruitingsystem,andtaxcollectionsfrom eachcolonies.Noneofthecolonieswantedtoabandontheirowntaxationpowers,sothey rejectedtheplan. Britishvictory:WilliamPitt,theBritishprimeminister,concentratedthemilitaryon conqueringCanada.AftervictoriesinLouisbourgandQuebec,thetwosidessignedthe PeaceofParisin1763.GreatBritainwonFrenchCanadaandSpanishFloridaFrancegave LouisianatoSpain. Immediateeffectsofthewar:ForBritain,thewarremovedthethreatofFrench,Spanish, andNativeAmericans.Itcouldbecomethedominantnavalpowerintheworld. Britishview:TheBritishleftthewarwithalowopinionofthecolonialmilitary effort.Theydecidedthatthecolonieswereunableandunwillingtodefendedthe newfrontiersoftheBritishEmpire. Colonialview:Thecolonistswereproudoftheireffort,andtheywereconfident thattheycoulddefendthemselves. ReorganizationoftheBritishEmpire Britainhadpreviouslyexercisedlittlecontroloverthecolonies.Theydidntenforcethe NavigationActs.Theydecidedtoleavethispolicyofsalutaryneglectformoreforceful tacticstocontrolthecolonies.Britainfelttheneedtokeepamilitaryforcetoguard theAmericanfrontiers.Britishlandownerswerepressuredintoreducingtheheavytaxes thatthewarshadplaceduponthem.KingGeorgeIIIdecidedtomakethecoloniesbear someofthecostofmaintainingtheBritishempire. Pontiacsrebellion:In1763,ChiefPontiacraidedcolonialsettlementsontheWestern Frontier.Toretaliate,theBritishsenttheirowntroopsinsteadofrelyingoncolonialsupport. Proclamationof1763:TheBritishgovernmentprohibitedcolonistsfromsettlingwestof theAppalachianMountains.TheythoughtthiswouldendhostilitieswiththeNatives.The colonistsresenttheproclamationtheyexpectedbenefitsfromthewarvictory.Manymoved pasttheproclamationlinetospitethegovernment.

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BRITISHACTIONSANDCOLONIALREACTIONS
NewRevenuesandRegulations ThefollowingwerepassedunderGeorgeIIIandprimeministerGeorgeGrenville. SugarAct(1764):Thisactplacesdutiesonforeignsugar.Itwasmeanttoraisemoneyfor thecrownandprovideforstricterenforcementoftheNavigationActs QuarteringAct(1765):ThisrequiredcoloniststoprovidefoodandlivingquarterforBritish soldiersinthecolonies. StampAct(1765):Thisrequiredthatrevenuestampsbeplacedonprintedpaper.Thiswas thefirstdirecttaxitwascollectedfrompeoplewhousedgoods.Incasesprior,thetaxes wereonimportedgoodspaidbymerchants. Protests:ColonistsalloverreactedangrilytotheAct.Toprotest,theyformedthe SonsandDaughtersofLiberty,asecretsocietythatterrorizedtaxagents.Many boycottedBritishimports,whichpressedparliamenttorepealtheStampAct. DeclaratoryAct:In1766,ParliamentvotedtorepealtheStampActed.Whilecolonists rejoiced,theydidntrealizethatanacthadbeenpassedthatassertedthatParliament couldtaxandmakelawsforthecolonieswhenevertheywantedto. SecondPhaseoftheCrisis,17671773 TownshendActs:In1767,Parliamentenactednewdutiestobecollectedonimportsof tea,glass,andpaper.Therevenueswouldpaycrownofficials. Colonialreaction:Atfirst,colonistsdidntprotestthetaxesundertheActs becausetheywereindirecttaxespaidbymerchants,notdirecttaxesonconsumer goods.SamuelAdamsandJamesOtisledthemovementtopetitionParliamentto repealtheTownshendActs.ColonistsbeganboycottsofBritishgoods. Repeal:InLondon,LordNorthurgedParliamenttorepealtheActsbecausethey weredamagingtrade.TheActswererepealedin1770,endingthecolonialboycotts andpromptingarelativelypeacefulandprosperousthreeyears. BostonMassacre:TheoneexceptiontothisperiodofpeacewastheBostonMassacre.In March1770,colonistsharassedthetroopswhowereprotectingcustomsofficials.The guardsfiredintothecrowdandkilledfivepeople.Thesoldierswereacquitted,andSam Adamsdenouncedtheshootingasamassacre. RenewaloftheConflict SamAdamss1772CommitteesofCorrespondenceprojectedthecolonialgrievancesand exchangedlettersaboutsuspiciousBritishactivities. TheGaspee:ThiswasaBritishcustomsshipsthathadcaughtmanysmugglers.In1772, whentheshipdockedinRhodeIsland,colonistsdressedasNativeAmericansburnedthe ship. BostonTeaParty:ColonistsrefusedtobuyBritishteabecauseitwasstilltaxed.In1773, theTeaActmadethepriceoftheBritishEastIndiaCompanysteacheaperthanthatof smuggledDutchtea.ColonistscontinuedtoboycotttheBritishproductbecausethey wouldntrecognizeParliamentsabilitytotaxthem.BostoniansdressedasNative Americans,boardedBritishships,anddumpedtheteaintotheharbor.Whilesome colonistsapplaudedtheincident,othersthoughtitwastooradical. IntolerableActs CoerciveActs(1774) TheportofBostonwasclosed. TheMassachusettslegislaturelostpowertotheroyalgovernor. RoyalofficialscouldbetriedinEnglandinsteadofinthecolonies.

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TheQuarteringActwasexpanded.NowBritishtroopscouldbequarteredinprivate homesinallcolonies. QuebecAct(1774):ThefollowingactsangeredcolonistsbecausetheyfearedtheBritish wouldenactsimilarlawsinAmerica. EstablishedRomanCatholicismastheofficialreligionofQuebec. Setupagovernmentwithoutarepresentativeassembly. ExtendedQuebecsboundarytotheOhioRiver. PhilosophicalBasisforRevolution Enlightenment:JohnLockesideasofnaturallawsappealedtomanyeducated Americans.Theyagreedwiththenotionthatpeoplehadanobligationtorevoltagainstthe governmentifitviolatedtheirrights.OtherEnlightenmentthinkersvaluedrationalismand reasoninthefaceofproblems.

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REVOLUTIONARYWAR(chapter5)
PREREVOLUTIONPOLITICS
Atfirst,peoplethoughttheydfightforreform,notindependence. DivisionswithinSecondContinentalCongress(1775) Completeindependence(supportedbyJohnandSamuelAdams)vsReformedimperialist relationship(supportedbyJohnDickinson) OliveBranchPetition CompromisebetweenthetwofactionsattempttoavoidfurtherconflictRejectedbyBritain. Pushedpeopletowardsfightingforindependenceratherthanredressofgrievances. DeclarationoftheCausesandNecessityofTakingUpArms adoptedsoonaftersaidthatAmericahadnochoicebuttosuccumbtotyrannyorfight CommonSense(1776) PamphletwrittenbyThomasPaine,arecentBritishimmigrant,whichattributedAmericas problemswithBritaintothefundamentallyflawedBritishconstitution.Itwasonlylogicalfor Americatobreakawayfromsuchtyranny.Publicsupportforindependencegrewasa result. ProhibitoryAct Barredthecoloniesfromforeigntradeandimplementedablockadeofcolonialports. Supportforindependencegrew. LossofLoyalty AfterfightingagainsttheBritish,itwashardtoretainanyaffectionstowardthem.They recruitedIndians,Hessians,andAfricanslavesagainsttheAmericans.Anultimategoalof independencewastheonlythingthatwouldjustifythehighcostofwar.However,therewas asubstantialminorityofLoyalists. DeclarationofIndependence(1776) Compiledthecolonistsgrievances,thecrimesoftheking,andLockesideas.Ledto increasedforeignaidtothePatriots.InfluencedFrenchRevolutionandotherrevolutions ArticlesofConfederation(1781) Weaknationalgovernment,whichwouldbeaproblembecauseCongresscouldntlevy taxes. Mobilization Shortagesofsuppliesandmanpower AidfromEurope,mainlyFrance Toomuchmoneyprintingcausedinflation ContinentalArmyheadedbyGeorgeWashington,whobecameanimportantfigurein holdingthecountrytogether.

AMERICANREVOLUTION
AmericanAdvantages Fightingonhometurf Patriotsweredeeplycommittedtothecause ForeignaidfromBritainsindustrialcompetitors Britishgaffes BritishAdvantages Superiorarmyandnavy Betterequippedfortraditionalfighting

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 Vastresources Goodcommandstructure FirstPhase:NewEngland BattleofBunkerHill(1775):PatriotsattackedGeneralThomasGagesarmyinBoston. HeavycasualtiesonbothsidesvictoryforBritish. BritishevacuationofBoston(1776):BostonwasnotastrategiclocationforBritishtroops becauseitcouldeasilybesurroundedwhichwaswhatthePatriotsdidtodrivethemout, aswellasalotofLoyalistrefugees.Britainrealizedthatthiswarwaslegit. Loyalists:SincetheyweresuppressedbythePatriots,Britainfelttheycouldntcounton themforsupportanddecidedagainstaplantoinvadethesouthernstates. InvasionofCanada:Patriotstriedtowinsupportofnortherncolonists,butfailed. SecondPhase:MidAtlanticRegion(1776early1778) NewYork:BritishnavypresenceinNYCswatersCommanderHowedrovePatriotforces outofNYtoPA. ChristmasattackonTrenton:WashingtoncapturedbutcouldntholdPrincetonor Trenton. CommanderHowe:HopedAmericanswouldbeawedorintimidatedintosurrendering expectedthewartobeaquickvictory.Offeredsurrenderwithpardonasanalternativeto battle,butPatriotsdidntaccept.AttackedPhiladelphia,therebelcapital,torallyLoyalists, discouragePatriots,andwinthewarquickly. Britishstrategy/Howesidea:Dividethecolonieswithforcescomingfromnorthand south.GeneralJohnBurgoynecapturedFortTiconderoga,whichhadlotsof supplies.BecauseHoweabandonedthisstrategyMohawkValleyandSaratoga. BritishsurrenderatSaratoga:Turningpoint.LegitimizedthecoloniesandledFranceto recognizethemasasovereignnation.Becameallies.BenFranklinspopularityinFrance alsohelpedwiththis. Britishmistakes:HowesabandonmentofstrategyandfailuretopursueContinentalArmy inPhillyWashingtonsweaktroopsleftaloneatValleyForgeduringthewinter. FinalPhase:TheSouth BritishwantedsupportofLoyalistsbecausenotallBritssupportedthewar.Southern resourceswerealsomorevaluable. Civiliansbecameinvolvedsupportforindependencegrew. North:stalemate.BenedictArnoldlostconfidenceinPatriotcauseandbecameatraitor. Britishdifficulties:OverestimatedsupportofLoyalistsoffendedallwhitesouthernersby promisingescapedslavesfreedomcouldnttellfriendfromfoe(LoyalistfromPatriot) PatriotGeneralNathanielGreeneusedguerillawarfaretoconfuseCornwallis. Attrition:PatriotstrategyoftiringouttheBritishforces. Yorktown:FrenchnavyandPatriotarmysurroundedCornwallis.Britishsurrenderon 10/17/1781. TreatyofParis(1783) AmericawantedtostandbyFrance,whowantedtostandbySpain.SpainwantedGibraltar backfromEngland,soFrancewouldntagreetoanythingtillitwasreturned. AmericaandBritainengagedinpreliminarynegotiationsbecausetheydidntwanttostay atwar. EndofhostilitieswithEngland,France,Spain,andAmerica.Americawasfree!

SOCIETY

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Loyalists 1/51/3ofwhites.ManyfledtoCanadaorEngland,therichleavingbehindestatesand importantjobs. Christianity Anglicanchurchwasdisestablishedbyrevolutionaryregimes.CatholicAmericanswere Patriots,andtheFrenchtroopswereCatholic,sotheCatholicChurchwasstrengthened. Slavery Manyslavesescapedduringthewar.Thedesireforfreedombecamestronger.Antislavery sentimentgrewintheNorthbecauseofrevolutionaryfeelingsandevangelism.Slavery survivedintheSouththeargumentwasthatenslavingblackswastheonlywaytopreserve whiteliberty.Also,whiteswereseenassuperior. NativeAmericans SomesupportedtheBritishbecausetheyhadtriedtostopthecolonistsfromencroaching onnativelandsinthepast.IroquoisConfederacywasweakenedbecausehalfitstribes supportedtheBritish.Moststayedneutral,asencouragedbyPatriotsandBritish.Native Americanssufferedfromwhiteresentmentandencroachmentonlandsaswellasdisunity. Women Manywomenwereleftinchargeofhomesandfarmswhentheirhusbandswenttowar. Womeninthearmywereresentedbymenbutvaluableascooks,nurses,andlaunderers someevenincombat.TheRevolutionsparkedademandforwomensrightsimportant figureswereAbigailAdamsandJudithSargentMurray.Ultimately,thepatriarchalstructure wasstrengthened,butwivesandmotherswereviewedwithincreasedrespectandwere responsibleforraisinggoodrepublicancitizens.

ECONOMY
Trade ThecolonieslostBritainasatradingpartnerexportsdeclined.However,theywereno longersubjecttothemonarchysrestrictionsontradewithothercountries.Imports increased. DomesticManufacturing Americancouldnolongerrelyonothercountriesforfinishedgoods.Homespunfabric becamepatrioticandfashionable.Atrueeconomicrevolutiondidnthappentillthe1800s, though. FinancingtheWar UndertheArticlesofConfederation,Congresscouldnotlevytaxestoraisemoneyforthe ContinentalArmy.Warbondsweresold. PostwarDepression(17841787)

STATEGOVERNMENTS
Republicanism Powercomesfromthepeople.Civicvirtue,equality,successmustbeearned.However inequalitypersisted:womenweresubordinate,nativessubjugated,andequalityof opportunityneverfullyexisted. StateConstitutions ToavoidmakingthesamemistakesasEngland,thenewstateswrotetheirconstitutions andlimitedexecutivepower.However,theywererevisedafterprovingineffectiveduetotoo muchdemocracy.Governorswouldhaveafixedsalaryandcouldvetolegislation.

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ReligiousToleration StatuteofReligiousLiberty,writtenin1786byThomasJefferson,wasenactedinVAand calledforsecularism. Slavery AbolishedinPAandNewEnglandimportationbannedeverywhereexceptSCandGA.The Southwashighlydependentonslaves,andnoonecouldthinkofanalternativeorenvision blacksandwhitescoexistingequally. TaxesandDebt Statestaxedpopulationforwardebt Poorfarmersthoughtitwasunfairandwantedanincreaseinmoneysupply ShaysRebellion:demandedpapermoney,taxrelief,delayondebtpayment,relocation ofstatecapitalfromBostontointeriorofMA,abolitionofimprisonmentfordebt.Showed thatastrongernationalconstitutionwasneeded.

NATIONALGOVERNMENT
ArticlesofConfederation(17811789) Congress,theonlycentralauthority,hadpoweroverwars,foreignrelations,andmoney however,itcouldntlevytaxes,regulatetradeordrafttroops.Ratificationwasdifficult becauseitrequiredapprovalofallthestates.Smallstateswantedequalrepresentation largestateswantedrepresentationbypopulation. Diplomacy ForeignnationsthoughttheArticleswerelame.Britainwashostileandviolatedthepeace treatybykeepingtroopsintheGreatLakesregionandfailingtorepayslaveownerswhose slaveshadbeentakenduringthewar.BorderdisputeswithSpainSouthdidntwanttogive upaccesstotheMississippi. LandOrdinances Didntwanttotreatwesternersassecondclasscitizens,thewaytheBritishhadtreated thecolonists.MoreattentionwaspaidtolandnorthofOhioRiverthough,somorechaos southofitintheprocessofdevelopment. NativeAmericans:lotsofviolenceonthewesternfrontierin1790s.Congresswasselling nativeland! 1784:populationofawesternterritoryhadtobeatleastthatofthesmalleststateto becomeastate. 1785:favoredlandowningcompaniesoverindividualsettlers.Landwouldbeauctionedoff anddividedintotownshipssomeprofitwouldgotopublicschools. NorthwestOrdinanceof1787:responsetocriticismaboutsellingmostofthelandto companies.CreatedasingleNorthwestTerritorythatcouldbefurtherdivided.Minimum population,noslavery,religiousfreedom,andrighttotrialbyjury. Debt Congressdidntreceiveenoughmoneyfromstatestopayoffwardebt.Continentalimpost wouldhavebeena5%taxonimportstogeneraterevenue,butitwasntpassedbecause Americansdidntwanttoomuchpowerinthefederalgovernment.

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NEWREPUBLIC(chapter6)
ARTICLESOFCONFEDERATION
ForeignProblems TheweakgovernmentcouldntstopBritainfromplacingrestrictionsontradeandkeeptheir militarypostsonthewesternfrontier. EconomicWeaknessandInterstateQuarrels Reducedtradeandlimitedcreditledtowidespreadeconomicdepression.Therewasalso nowaytolevynationaltaxes.Statescreatedfinancialrivalriesandcompetedforeconomic advantage. AnnapolisConvention Washingtonorganizedthismeetingin1765and1786todiscussthecountrysproblems. Onlyafewdelegateswenttotheconvention,andtheydecidedtogotoPhillytorevisethe ArticlesofConfederation.

CONSTITUTION
Delegates Delegatesmetinthesummerof1787inPhiladelphia.Mostwerewealthy, collegeeducated,andyoung.Theywereallwhitemales.GeorgeWashingtonwasvoted chairperson. Issues Background:ManydisagreedonwhethertheArticlesshouldbeamendedorcompletely eradicated.Delegatesfearedthepowerofgovernmentofficials,sotheymostlysupported theideaofchecksandbalances. Representation:Thefollowingmeasurestriedtosolvetheissueofwhetherrepresentation inCongressshouldbeproportionaltoastate'ssize. MadisonsVirginiaPlan:Thisfavoredlargestates. NewJerseyPlan:Thisfavoredsmallstates. ConnecticutPlan/GreatCompromise:ThisprovidedatwohouseCongress. EachstatewouldhaveequalrepresentationintheSenatebutproportional representationbasedonpopulationintheHouseofRepresentatives Slavery:Thenorthandsouthresolvedtheissueofslaverythroughthefollowingmeasures. ThreeFifthsCompromise:Thiscountedeachslaveasthreefifthsofapersonfor thepurposesofdeterminingastatespopulation. Therewasaguaranteethatslaveswouldbeimportedforatleasttwentymore years(1808)beforecongresscouldvotetoabolishthepractice. Trade:Thenorthwantedregulatedinterstatecommerceandforeigntrade.Thesouth thoughtthatitsproductsliketobaccoandricewouldgetanexporttax TheCommercialCompromise:Thisallowedcongresstoregulateinterstateand foreigncommerce,includingplacingtariffsonforeignimports,butitprohibited taxingexports. Powersandelectionofthepresident:Thepresidentwasgivenpower,likethattoveto actsofCongress.Thedelegatesalsolimitedthepresidentstermtofouryears,butthey didntlimitedhowmanytimesapresidentcouldbereelected.Theycreatedtheelectoral system,anumberofelectorsforeachstatebasedonthenumberofCongressional representatives,topreventdemocracyfromgrowingtoolarge. Ratification:ThePhiladelphiaconventionapprovedadraftoftheConstitutioniSeptember

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1787.Thisdocumentwouldneedsupportfromnineoutofthethirteenstatestoberatified.

POLITICS
Background ThosewhosupportedtheConstitutionwereknownasFederalists.Thoseopposedwere AntiFederalists. Federalists Leaders:Washington,Franklin,Madison,Hamilton Arguments:Theunionneededastrongcentralgovernment Strategy:EmphasizedtheweaknessoftheArticles Advantages:Strongleadersstrongorganization Disadvantages:Constitutionslackedabillofrights AntiFederalists Leaders:PatrickHenry,GeorgeMason,JohnHancock Arguments:Strongcentralgovernmentdestroysdemocracyandstatesrights Strategy:ArguedthattheConstitutiondidntprotectindividualrights Advantages:Appealedtodistrustofgovernmentbasedonthecolonialexperience Disadvantages:Poororganization FederalistPapers Madison,Hamilton,andJohnJaywroteTheFederalistPaper,whichshowedthe practicalityofeveryprovisionoftheConstitution. Outcome AftertheFederalistspromisedtoaddabillofrights,theygainedmoresupport. Virginia:TheFederalistswonaclosevotehereafterpromisingthebillofrights. Otherstates:Virginiasvoteinfluencedotherstates,andin1790RhodeIslandwasthelast statetoratifytheConstitution. BillofRights ArgumentsFor:AntiFederalistsarguedthatabillofrightswastheonlywaytoprotect Americansfromthestrongcentralgovernment. ArgumentsAgainst:Federaliststhoughtthepeopledidntneedtobeprotectedsincethey electedmembersofCongress.Federalistsbackedofftheirargumentandpromisedtoadda billofrights.

WASHINGTONPRESIDENCY
OrganizingtheFederalGovernment Executive:WashingtonappointedThomasJeffersonassecretaryofstate,Alexander Hamiltonassecretaryofthetreasury,HenryKnoxassecretaryofwar,andEdmund Randolphasattorneygeneral.Theseappointmentssettheprecedentforapresidential cabinet. Judiciary:TheJudiciaryActof1789,anearlyCongressionallaw,establishaSupreme Courtwithonechiefjusticeandfiveassociatejustices.Thiscourtcouldruleonthe constitutionalityofstatecourtdecisions. HamiltonsFinancialProgram Hamiltonproposedthefollowingmeasuresinordertoresolvethegovernmentsfinancial plight.WhileHamiltonfoundsupportedamongnorthernmerchants,ThomasJeffersonanda groupofsouthernAntiFederalistsopposedtheplan.Congresseventuallyadoptedaslightly amendedversionoftheplan.

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Payoffthenationaldebtandhavethefederalgovernmentassumestateswar debts. Imposehightariffsonimportedgoodstoprotectinfantindustries Createanationalbankfordepositinggovernmentfundsandforstabilizingcurrency Debt:JeffersonsupportedHamiltoninthattheU.S.governmentshouldpayoffthenational debtatfacevalueandassumethestatesdebt.Inexchange,Hamiltonagreedtoestablish thenationscapitalintheSouth. Tariffsandexcisetaxes:HamiltonconvincedCongresstopassexcisetaxesonthesale ofwhiskeytopayforthegovernmentsdebtsthatresultedfromarelativelylowtariffrate. NationalBank:JeffersonsnarrowviewoftheConstitutionledhimtobelievethatCongress couldntcreateabank.Hamiltontookabroaderview,andhecitedthatthebankwas necessaryandproper.ThebankwasvotedintolawafterWashingtonexpressedhis supportforHamiltonontheissue. ForeignAffairs FrenchRevolution:AmericansweresplitontheFrenchpeopleshopetoestablisha republic.Jeffersonandhissupporterssympathizedwiththerevolutionariesandthoughtthe U.S.shouldjoinFranceinitswaragainstBritain. ProclamationofNeutrality(1793):Washingtonthoughttheyoungcountrywasntstrong enoughtoengageinwar.AfterWashingtonproclaimedneutralityin1793,Jefferson resignedfromthecabinet. CitizenGenet:EdmondGenet,theFrenchminister,disobeyedWashingtonspolicyand appealingtoAmericanstosupporttheFrenchcause.Washingtonrequestedhisremovalas adiplomat. JayTreaty(1794):JohnJay,ChiefJustice,arrangedatreatywithBritaininwhichitwould evacuateitspostsontheU.S.westernfrontier.ThetreatydidntaddressBritishseizureof Americanmerchantships,soitwasunpopularandbarelyratified. PinckneyTreaty(1795):SpainviewedtheJayTreatyasreconciliationbetweentheU.S. andGreatBritain,whichfrightenedit.SpainconsolidateditsNorthAmericanholdings. ThomasPinckney,ministertoSpain,negotiatedatreatyinwhichSpainwouldopenthe MississippiRiverandNewOrleanstoAmericantrade. DomesticConcerns NativeAmericans:Assettlersmovedwestward,theyencroachedontheNativeAmerican land.Nativesresentedthis,andtensionsgrewwhenAmericansheardthattheBritishwere givingtheNativesweapons.Variousbattlesin1794,suchastheBattleofFallenTimbers, ledtoanagreementinwhichNativessurrenderclaimstotheOhioTerritory. WhiskeyRebellion(1794):InwesternPennsylvania,farmersrefusedtopaytheexcisetax onwhiskeyattackedrevenuecollectors.Washingsentin15,000statemilitiamen,who suppressedtherebellionwithoutanybloodshed. Westernlands:Congressencouragedrapidsettlementofnewlands,anditpassedthe 1796PublicLandAct,whichregulatedthedivisionandsaleoffederallands.Newstates wereadmittedintotheunionintheseyears:Vermont,Kentucky,andTennessee.

PARTIES
Origins The1790smarkedthebeginningoftheFederalistera,atimecharacterizedbyFederalist policies.Intheera,HamiltonandJeffersonledtwoopposinggroups:thefederalistparty andtheDemocraticRepublicanparty.Donotconfusethesegroupswiththoseofthe

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Constitutionalera. Federalists Leaders:JohnAdamsandAlexanderHamilton ViewoftheConstitution:Looseconstructionist,strongcentralgovernment Foreignpolicy:ProBritish Militarypolicy:Largepeacetimearmyandnavy Domesticpolicy:Nationalbank,tariffs,favoredbusiness Chiefsupporters:Northernbusinessmenandlargelandowners DemocraticRepublicans Leaders:ThomasJeffersonandJamesMadison ViewsoftheConstitution:Strictconstructionist,weakcentralgovernment Foreignpolicy:ProFrench Militarypolicy:Smallpeacetimearmyandnavy Domesticpolicy:Nonationalbank,notariffs,favoredagriculture Chiefsupporters:Skilledworkers,smallfarmers,plantationowners WashingtonsFarewellAddress In1796,WashingtonprojectedthefollowingmessagetoAmericans: DontgetinvolvedinEuropeanaffairs Dontmakepermanentalliancesinforeignaffairs Dontformpoliticalparties Avoidsectionalism

ADAMSPRESIDENCY
Background Adams,Washingtonsvicepresident,beatJeffersoninthe1796electionbyaveryclose margin.Jeffersonbecamevicepresident. XYZAffair AdamssentadelegationtoParistonegotiateatreatywiththeFrenchregardingabout FrenchseizureofU.S.merchantships.FrenchministersX,Y,andZrequestedbribesas thebasisforreachingnegotiation.TheAmericansrefused,andreportsofthedemands angeredAmericans.Sentimentforwargrewquickly,butAdamsresistedtheurgeonthe groupsthatthemilitarywasntstrongenough. AlienandSeditionActs FederalistsadoptedthefollowinglawstorestricttheDemocraticRepublicans: NaturalizationAct:Increasedthenumberofyearsneededforimmigrantstoqualifyfor U.S.citizenshipbecausetheyusuallyvotedDemocraticRepublican AlienActs:authorizedthepresidenttodeportanyaliensconsidereddangerousandto detainenemyaliensduringwartime SeditionAct:MadeitillegalfornewspapereditorstocriticizethepresidentorCongress KentuckyandVirginiaResolutions RepublicansthoughttheAlienandSeditionActsviolatedFirstAmendmentrights.The1799 KentuckyResolution(Jefferson)and1799VirginiaResolution(Madison)declaredthat statescouldnullifyfederallawifthefederalgovernmentbrokethecompactthathad formed. Electionof1800 Results:TheelectionremovedFederalistsfrompowerintheexecutiveand legislativebranches.AfterThomasJeffersonandAaronBurr,twoRepublicans,

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receivedthesamenumberofelectoralvotes,theHouseofRepresentativeshadto breakthetie.TheFederalistsintheHousedecidedthatJeffersonwasthebetter candidate,andhewaselected. PeacefulRevolution The1801passingofpoliticalpowerfromonepartytotheotherwasnonviolent.Thiswas veryrare,andhasbecameknownastheRevolutionof1800.

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JEFFERSONIANERA(chapter7)
JEFFERSONPRESIDENCY
LouisianaPurchase Background:Louisiana,roughlythecentralthirdofthecontinentalU.S.today,hadbeen ownedbySpainandthenbyFranceunderNapoleon.NapoleonplannedtorestoreaFrench empireintheAmericas.HeabandonedthisideaduetothewarwithEnglandandToussaint lOuverturesrebellioninSantoDomingo. MississippiRiver:Asthewesternfrontierexpanded,settlersgrewdependentontradethat flowedintotheMississippiRivertotheportatNewOrleans.AftertheSpanishclosedthe porttoAmericans,peoplewantedgovernmentaction.Jeffersonwasalsoworriedthata foreignpowerhadcontrolovertheriveratNewOrleans. Negotiations:JeffersonssentministerstoFRancetobuyNewOrleansandasmallpiece ofland.NapoleonofferedtoselltheentireLouisianaTerritoryfor$15million.Theministers accepted. Constitutionalpredicament:Jeffersonwasastrictconstructionist,andtheConstitution didntaddressthatpurchaseofforeignland.Hedecidedtoabandonhisidealsforthesake ofthecountry,andhesubmittedthepurchasetotheSenate.Hearguedthatlandscould beaddedaspartofthepresidentspowertomaketreaties. Consequences:Thepurchasedoubledthesizeofthecountry,removedaforeign presence,andguaranteedtheextensionofthewesternfrontier.Italsostrengthened Jeffersonshopesforanagriculturalnation. LewisandClarkexpedition:Beforethepurchase,in1804,JeffersonsentLewisand ClarktotravelfromSt.LouistotheOregoncoast.Theexpeditionincreasedknowledgeofa newterritory,strengthenedU.S.claimstotheOregonTerritory,improvedrelationswith Natives,anddevelopedmapsforfurtrappers. JohnMarshallandtheSupremeCourt Background:Afterthe1800election,Federalistsstillhadcontrolofthecourts. JohnMarshall:MarshallwasChiefJusticeoftheSupremeCourtfor34years,beginningat theendofJohnAdamspresidency.Hisdecisionsusuallystrengthenedthecentral governmentattheexpenseofstatesrights. Marburyv.Madison(1803):WhenJeffersonwastakingoffice,hetriedtoblockAdams midnightappointments.HetoldMadisonnottodelivercommissionstotheFederalist judgesthatAdamshadappointment.WilliamMarbury,anappointment,suedforhis commision.Inthe1803case,MarshallruledthatMarburyhadarighttohiscommission accordingtothe1789JudiciaryAct.MarshallalsoruledthatthisJudiciaryActwas unconstitutional,andthereforeMarburycouldntgethiscommission.Thisestablishjudicial review. Judicialimpeachments:Jeffersonbeganacampaignofimpeachmentinanattemptto removedFederalistjudges.TheHouseimpeachaSupremeCourtjustice,SamuelChase, buttheSenateacquittedhim.Theimpeachmentcampaignwasafailuresincetherewere hardlyanyFederalistjudgesleftinoffice. Electionof1804 Jeffersonwonthe1804electionagainstAaronBurrbyalargemargin. AaronBurr Federalistconspiracy:BurrplannedtobecomeNewYorkgovernor,unitedwithNew Englandstates,andleadthegroupofstatestosecedefromtheunion.Hamiltonwonthe

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NewYorkelection,andBurrsplanwasdissolved. DuelwithHamilton:BurrfatallyshotHamiltonintheir1804duel. Trialfortreason:By1806,BurrhadplanstotakeMexicofromSpainanduniteditwith Louisianaunderhisrule.Jeffersonorderhisarrestandtrial.BurrwasacquittedbyMarshall, whousuallyopposedJefferson. ForeignDifficulties Barbarypirates:Previously,presidentshadpaidtributestoBarbarygovernmentsto protectU.S.merchantshipsfrombeingseizedbypirates.WhenthePashaofTripoli demandedahighersum,JeffersonsentasmallfleettotheMediterraneanthatfoughtthe piratesforfouryears.Thenavyachievedsomerespect,butnodecisivevictory. ChallengestoU.S.neutrality:FranceandBritainattemptedtoblockeachothersports inthemidstoftheNapoleonicwars.TheBritish,inparticular,capturedU.S.sailorsand impressedthemtoserveintheBritishnavy. ChesapeakeLeopardaffair:In1807,theBritishLeopardfiredontheU.S.Chesapeake. AfewAmericanswerekilled.AntiBritishsentimentgrew,andmanydemandedwar. Jeffersonrespondedwitheconomicanddiplomaticmeasures. EmbargoAct(1807):TheactprohibitedAmericanmerchantsshipsfromsailingtoany foreignport.JeffersonhopedthatBritishwouldstopviolatingtheU.S.srights,butthe embargobackfired.TheBritishhadnotroublewithoutU.Sgoods,butNewEngland merchantsandshipbuildersweredevastatedwithoutBritishtrade.Jeffersonrepealedthe actin1809.

MADISONPRESIDENCY
Electionof1808 MadisonwastheVirginianwhowrotetheconstitution.HebeatFederalistCharlesPinckney intheelection. CommercialWarfare NonIntercourseActof1809:LiftedtheembargoonallnationsexceptBritainandFrance. ItwasanattempttoendeconomichardshipthatresultedfromJeffersonsEmbargoAct. MaconsBillNo.2(1810):Economichardshippersisted,andNathanielMacon(not Bacon)proposedthisbillthatrestoredtradewithBritainandFrance.Ifeitherofthe countriesagreedtorespectU.S.neutralrightsatseatheU.S.wouldprohibittradewiththat nationsenemy. Napoleonsdeception:Napoleonannouncedthathewouldrevokethedecreesthathad violatedtheU.S.neutralrights.MadisonthereforeembargoedtradewithBritainin1811. Napoleonkeptseizingmerchantshipsanyway.

WAROF1812
Causes Freeseasandtrade:NeitherofthetwoEuropowershadrespectedU.S.neutralrightsat sea,butJeffersonwasbiasedtowardsFrance,andthereforesowashisrepublican America.TheBritishviolationsalsoseemedtobemoreblatant,especiallyinimpressment. Frontierpressures:AmericansonthefrontierwantedBritishCanadaandSpanishFlorida. NativeAmericanconflict:TheShawneewarrior,Tecumseh,andhisbrother,theProphet, areligiousleader,triedtounitethetribestodefendtheirlands.GeneralWilliamHenry HarrisondestroyedtheShawneecampsintheBattleofTippecanoein1811.Althoughthe BritishhadonlygivenlimitedhelptoTecumseh,AmericansblamedtheBritishforstarting

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thefight. Warhawks:WarhawkswerethenewgroupofcongressionalRepublicansfromfrontier stateslikeHenryClayandJohnC.Calhoun.TheywantedwartodefendAmericanhonor. Declarationofwar:Madisonwasfinallyconvincedbyallofthefervortodeclarewar, whichhedidinJuneof1812. Electionof1812 MadisondefeatedDeWittClintonofNewYork,thecandidateforFederalistsandantiwar Republicans. WarOpposition NewEnglandmerchantsandFederalistpoliticiansopposedthear.Merchantswere opposedbecauseimpressmentwasonlyaminorinconveniencewhencomparedtotheir sizableprofitsaftertherepealoftheEmbargoAct.Federaliststhoughtthewarwasa Republicanschemetowinnewland. MilitaryDefeatsandNavalVictories InvasionofCanada:BritishdefenderseasilyrepulsedearlyAmericanlaunchesinto CanadafromDetroitandupstateNewYork. Navalbattles:Americannavalvictoriesweremorenotable.Americanprivateerscaptured Britishmerchantships.Themostimportantnavalbattlewasthatfoughtin1813onLake EriebyOliverPerry.Britisheventuallyretreated,abandoningtheirplantoinvadeNewYork andNewEngland. Chesapeakecampaign:Inthesummerof1814,BritisharmiesmarchedthroughD.C.and burnedalotofgovernmentbuildings.WhentheyfailedintheirattempttotakeBaltimore, FrancisScottKeywroteTheStarSpangledBanner. TreatyofGhent Thefollowingagreementsweremadein1814andratifiedin1815.Britainmadeno concessionsaboutimpressment. Halttothefighting Returnofallconqueredterritorytoprewarsettings RecognitionoftheprewarboundarybetweenCanadaandtheU.S. HartfordConvention Beforethewarended,NewEnglandstatescameclosetoseceding.Aspecialconvention atHartfordwasheldtovoteuponsecession.NewofAndrewJacksonsvictoryattheBattle ofNewOrleansandthetreatycameshortlyafterthemeeting.Theeventsrenderedthe conventionirrelevantandseverelyweakenedtheFederalists. Legacy Thewardidntachieveanyofitsaims. U.S.gainedrespectofothernations U.S.acceptedCanadaasaneighborandpartoftheBritishEmpire Federalistpartydied Seedsofnullification/secessionwereplanted NativeAmericanswereforcedtosurrenderlargeamountsoflandtowhitesettlers AsBritishgoodsbecameunavailableduetothenavalblockade,Americanfactoriesand industrygrew WarheroesLikeJacksonandWilliamHarrisonwereborn NationalismfutureofAmericaliesintheWest,notEurope

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ERAOFGOODFEELINGS(chapter8)
MONROEPRESIDENCY
Background JamesMonroewaselectedpresidentin1816.SincetheFederalistpartyhadfaded,his yearsinofficemarkedatimewithonlyonepoliticalparty,theRepublicans,whodominated theNorth,South,andWest. JamesMonroe MonroewasthethirdandfinalpresidentintheVirginiadynasty.Hewonthe1816bya largemargin,andhewonreelectioneasilyin1820.Sincetherewasnoorganizedpolitical opposition,MonroesupportedthegrowingnationalismoftheAmericanpeople. CulturalNationalism Americasyouthwasexcitedforyearsofwestwardexpansion,withlittleinterestin Europeanpolitics.Patrioticthemesmanifestedthemselveseverywherefrompaintingsto schoolbooks. EconomicNationalism Tariffof1816:ThiswasthefirstprotectivetariffinU.S.history.Itraisedtariffratesto protectmanufacturers.Itwasgenerallypopular,evenamongsouthernandwesternfarmers. HenryClaysAmericanSystem:Clay,aKentuckyCongressman,proposedthefollowing planforadvancingeconomicgrowth.AlthoughMonroesupportedthefirsttwomeasures,he frequentlyvetoedCongressionalactsprovidingfundsforroadsandcanalsbecausethe Constitutiondidntspecifyonfederalspendinginthisarea. Protectivetariffstopromotemanufacturingandraiserevenueforbuildingnational transportation Nationalbanktoprovideanationalcurrency. InternalimprovementstopromotegrowthintheWestandtheSouth. Panicof1819:ThiscrisiswasthefaultoftheSecondBankoftheUnitedStates(est. 1816),whichhadtightenedcredittocontrolinflation.Statebanksclosed,andthevalueof moneydeflated.TheWestwasmostseverelyhurtbythepanic,andlandspeculation placedmanypeopleindebt. PoliticalChanges TheRepublicanPartyhadsomestrainsduringthistime.Eventhoughsomeclungtothe oldidealsoftheparty,mostRepublicansadoptedtheFederalistprogramaftertheWarof 1812(Bankandlargemilitary).ThefeudbetweentwoRepublicans,DanielWebster (protariff)andJohnC.Calhoun(antitariff),wasborninthelateryearsofMonroesterm.

MARSHALLCOURT
Background Marshall,aFederalist,consistentlyfavoredthecentralgovernmentandpropertyrights againststatesrightsinhisrulings. Cases Fletcherv.Peck(1810):InacaseinvolvingGeorgelandfraud,Marshallruledthatastate couldntpasslegislationthatviolatedacontract. Martinv.HuntersLessee(1816):TheSupremeCourtestablishedthatithadjurisdiction overstatecourtsincasesinvolvingconstitutionalrights. Dartmouthv.Maryland(1819):TheMarshallCourtstruckdownaNewHampshirelawthat changedDartmouthfromaprivatelycharteredcollegeintoapublicinstitution.Thecourt

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assertedthatacontractforaprivatecorporationcouldntbealteredbythestate. McCullochv.Maryland(1819):Marshallruledthefederalgovernmenthadtheimplied powertocreatetheSecondBank.Astatecouldnttaxafederalinstitutionbecausefederal lawsaresupremetostatelaws. Cohensv.Virginia(1821):ThecaseestablishedthattheSupremeCourtcouldreviewa statecourtsdecisioninvolvingthepowersofthefederalgovernment. Gibbonsv.Ogden(1821):Marshallestablishedthefederalgovernmentsbroadcontrolof interstatecommerce.

WESTERNSETTLEMENT
Reasons AcquisitionofNativeAmericanslands:NativeAmericansweredrivenfromtheirlands byvariousmilitaryvictories. Economicpressures:StrugglingnortheasternerssoughtafutureacrosstheAppalachians. Southerntobaccoplantersneedednewlandtoreplacetheexhaustedsoil. Improvedtransportation:Roads,canals,steamboats,andrailroadsmadereachingthe frontiermorefeasiblethanitpreviouslyhadbeen. Immigrants:CheaplandintheWestattractedEuropeans. NewQuestionsandIssues Sincethewesternstateshadsmallpopulations,representativesbargainedwithpoliticians fromotherregionstoobtaintheirobjectivesbecuasetheyhadlimitedinfluencein Congress.Theywantedcheapmoney(easycredit)fromstatebanks,cheapland,and improvedtransportation. MissouriCompromise Missourisbidforstatehoodin1819upsetthebalanceof11freeand11slavestates. TallmadgeAmendment:DefeatedintheSenateandneverenacted.Proposed: ProhibitingfurtherintroductionofslavesinMissouri Childrentobeemancipatedattheageof25. Claysproposals:Claywoncongressionalsupportforthethefollowingmeasures. Missouriwouldbeadmittedasaslavestate. Mainewouldbeadmittedasafreestate. IntherestofLouisianaTerritorynorthoflatitude3630,slaverywasprohibited. Aftermath:Thecompromisepreservedsectionalbalanceforover30years.

FOREIGNAFFAIRS
Canada ThefollowingprovisionswerebetweentheU.S.andBritain. RushBagotAgreement(1817):ThiscalledforthemutualnavaldisarmamentontheGreat Lakes. Treatyof1818:ThisprovidedforsharedfishingrightsofNewfoundland,jointoccupationfor OregonTerritoryfortenyears,andtheU.S.Canadaboundarylineatthe49thparallel.

Florida Jacksonsmilitarycampaign:In1818,JacksonledamilitiaintoFloridaanddestroyed Seminolevillages.EvenasJacksongrewmoreaggressive,SecretaryofStateJohnQuincy AdamsconvincedMonroetocontinuesupportforJackson. AdamsOnisTreaty(1819):SpaingavetherestofwesternFloridaand,theeast,andits claimsinOregonTerritorythetheU.S.TheU.S.gavethe$5millionandterritorialclaimsin

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SpanishTexas. MonroeDoctrine Background:BritainandAmericadecidedtheyhaveasharedinterestinprotectingNorth andSouthAmericafromEuropeanaggression. Britishinitiative:TheBritishsuggestedtotheideaofajointAngloAmericanwarningto theEuropeanpowersnottointerveneinSouthAmerica. Americanresponse:SecretaryofStateJohnQuincyAdamsarguedagainstthisideafor thefollowingreasons.TheyconvincedMonroetoissueastatementalone. IftheU.S.actedalone,BritaincouldbetrustedtostandbehindtheU.S.policy. NoEuropeanpowerwouldriskwarinSouthAmerica.Ifitdid,theBritishnavy woulddefeattheaggressor. Doctrine:InDecember,1823inamessagetoCongress,Monroeinsertedadeclarationof U.S.policytowardEuropeandLatinAmerica.ItassertedthattheAmericancontinents werenotanareaforfuturecolonizationbyEuropeancountries.TheU.S.wouldoppose attemptsbyaEuropeanpowertointerfereintheaffairsofarepublicintheWestern Hemisphere. Impact:Mostcitizenssoonforgotthedoctrineastheyweremoreconcernedwithdomestic issues.Thedoctrineheldlesssignificanceatthetimethaninlatertimes.

ECONOMY
PopulationGrowth Populationwasimportantforindustrialdevelopment.Thebirthrateandimmigrantsfrom northwesternEuropecontributedtothehugepopulationgrowthoftheearly19thcentury. Transportation Roads:PennsylvaniasLancasterturnpikestimulatedtheconstructionofotherprivately builtandrelativelyshorttoll.BesidesthethatontheCumberlandRoad,statesrighters blockedthespendingoffederalfundsoninternalimprovements. Canals:The1825completionoftheErieCanalinNewYorkledtothelinkagebetween economiesofwesternsfarmsandeasterncities.Otherstatesfollowed,andthetworegions grewincreasinglyinterdependent. Steamboats:RobertFultonsmechanizedsteamboathaditsfirstsuccessin1807. Commercialboatsfollowed. Railroads:Inthelate1820s,railroadsbegantobebuilt.Theywereimprovedinthe30s, andhelpedsmall,westerntownslikeChicagogrowintobigcities. GrowthofIndustry Mechanicalinventions:Patentlawsnowprotectedinventors,somanysoughttoreapthe rewardsofcreatingsomecoolshit.EliWhitneyinventedthecottonginin1793and interchangeablepartsforriflemanufacturingduringtheWarof1812. Corporationsforraisingcapital:NewYorkledthewayinpassinglawsthatfacilitated businessestoincorporateandraisecapitalbysellingstock. Factorysystem:SamuelSlaterbroughtBritishsecretsforbuildingcottonspinning machines,whichhelpedestablishthefirstfactoryin1791.NewEnglandemergedasthe manufacturingcenterinthe1820sduetowaterpowerandseaports.NewYorkandPhilly followedsuit. Labor:Atfirst,itwashardtofindindustrialworkers.TextilemillsinLowell,Massrecruited youngfarmwomenandhousedthemincompanydormitories.TheLowellSystemspread throughoutthe30s.Childlaborwasusedextensively.Immigrantsdidnotworkin

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manufacturinguntillater. Unions:Trade(craft)unionsgrewinmajorcities.Skilledworkershadtoworkinfactories becausetheycouldntcompetewiththecheap,massproducedgoods.Therewerelow wages,longhours,andbadworkingconditions.Unionssawobstaclesinimmigrant replacementworkers,statelawsoutlawingunion,andfrequenteconomicdepressionand unemployment. CommercialAgriculture Cheaplandandeasycredit:Westernlandwasmadeavailableatlowpricesbythe federalgovernment.Statebanksgavefarmersloanswithlowinterest. Markets:CanalsandrailroadsopenednewmarketsintheEast. CottonandtheSouth Themaincashcropinthe19thcenturySouthwascotton.Whitneys1793cottongin allowedformoreextremegrowthintheindustry.Southernplantersinvestedinslavesand newlandinAlabamaandMississippi(Blackbelt). EffectsoftheMarketRevolution Women:Womendidntworkontheirfamilyfarmsasmuch,andeitherperformeddomestic serviceortaught.Theyrarelygotfactoryjobs.Mostworkingwomenweresingle. Economicandsocialmobility:Althoughwagesincreasedforurbanworkersintheearly 1800s,sodidthegapbetweentherichandpoor.SocialmobilitywasbetterthanEurope, buttrueselfmademenwererare. Slavery:Atthebeginningofthe1800s,somethoughtslaverywouldendnaturally.The rapidgrowthofthecottonindustryendedthisfantasy.

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JACKSONIANERA(chapter9)
POLITICS
CommonMan Reforms: universalmalesuffrage partyconventions spoilssystem Parties Whigs:antiJackson Democrats:proJacksonformerlyDemocraticRepublicansduringEraofGoodFeelings AntiMasons:thirdpartyattackedMasons,whorepresentedundemocraticelite KnowNothings:thirdpartyantiimmigration

QUINCYADAMSPRESIDENCY
Electionof1824 JohnQuincyAdams,Whig,againstJackson,Democrat.Jacksonwontheelectoralcount, buttheHouseofRepresentativeschoseAdamsinsteadintheCorruptBargain,after whichthenSpeakeroftheHouseHenryClaywasappointedAdamsSecretaryofState. TariffofAbominations 1828tariffonindustrialgoodsinordertoprotectAmericanmanufacturing.HurtSoutherners andpissedthemoffbecausetheywerehavingtopaymoreforgoodtheirregiondidnt produce.LedtoNullificationCrisis.

JACKSONPRESIDENCY
Electionof1828 DemocratsnominatedJacksononaplatformofcontinuedsubjugationofwomenand AmericanIndians,continuedslavery,andexpansionofdemocracytoallwhitemale citizens. BankWars Electionof1832:Jacksonrenominatedbynationalpartyconvention,wonagainstNational RepublicanHenryClay.TherenewaloftheBankoftheU.S.wasamajorissue,with JacksonagainstitsrenewalandClayinfavorofitsrenewal. JacksonversusBiddle:JacksonsawtheBankoftheU.S.asacorruptinstitution. Soughttopreventthebanksrecharteringin1836.NicholasBiddlewaspresidentofthe bank,usedalliesDanielWebsterandHenryClaytotryandgainsupportforthebank.After Claysdefeatin1832,Jacksontriedtoremovefundsfromthebankinordertoweakenit, andputtheminpetbanks.Biddlecontractedcreditandcalledinloanstocreatea recession.Thiswasnotenoughofastatement,andeventuallythingsgotbadenoughthat hehadtostop,andthebankwasdestroyed,hurtingtheAmericaneconomyforovera century. PetBanks:SmallerstatebanksusedtoholdportionsofthemoneyintheU.S.treasury afterthedefeatoftheBankoftheUnitedStates. SpecieCircular ExecutiveorderbyJacksonin1836sayingthatalllandpurchasesinvolvingthegovernment hadtobemadewithspecie(gold).CausedthePanicof1837.

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NullificationCrisis Afteratariffpassedthatdidnothingtochangethe1828TariffofAbominations,South Caroliniansgotrealpissed.LedbyJohnC.Calhoun,thestateheldaconvention,deciding tonullifybothtariffswithinSouthCarolinabasedontheideathatpowerlayinthestatesas opposedtothefederalgovt.Jacksonwasrealpissed,andhadaforcebillpassedthat allowedthepresidenttousethemilitarytoenforceactsofCongress.HenryClayaverted thecrisiswithacompromisethatwouldgraduallylowerthetariff. IndianRemoval IndianRemovalAct,1830,appropriatedmoneytofinancenegotiationswithsouthern tribestomovethemwest.Cherokeeresisted.CherokeeNationv.Georgiain1831and Worcesterv.Georgiain1832partiallysupportedthetribe,butJacksonignoredtherulings, signingatreatywithaminorityfactionoftheCherokee.TheCherokeeagainrefusedto leave,soJacksonsent7000soldierstoforcethemwest,beginningtheTrailofTears. SeminoleWar,183542,sawtheSeminoleswinawarandresistremoval. FiveCivilizedTribesincludedCherokee,Creek,Seminole,Chickasaw,andChoctaw. Vetoes VetoedODshit,butmostimportantlytheNationalBankrecharterandtheMaysvilleRoad.

VANBUREN,HARRISON,ANDTYLERPRESIDENCIES
Electionof1836 Whigsvs.DemocratsWhigsledbyClay,Webster,andCalhoun,DemocratsledbyVan Buren,whowontheelection. Panicof1837 Duetooverexpansioninrealestate,hundredsofbanksandbusinessesfailed,variousother panickythingshappened.BlamedonDemocratsandVanBuren,despiteitsbeingcaused byJacksonandtheSpecieCircular. Electionof1840 CalledtheLogCabinCampaign,sawWilliamHenryHarrisonrunastheWhigandVan BurenastheDemocrat.Pennypressmakesnewsofcandidatesmoreavailable.Harrison wins,butdiesamonthaftertakingoffice.HisvicepresidentJohnTylertookthepresidency. JohnTyler BlockedseveralWhigbills,frustratedCongressionalWhigstothepointthattheyreadhim outoftheparty,andallofhiscabinetresigned. ForeignAffairs CarolineAffair:CanadianrebellionagainstBritishcolonialgovtbeginsin1837.American shipsentsuppliestotherebels,buttheBritishseizetheshipandburnit,killingan American.TheBritishdidnotapologize. AroostookWar:BoundarybetweenMaineandCanadahadbeenindisputesince1783.In 1838,AmericansandCanadiansmovedintothedisputedregionandstartedaviolentbrawl. Itprobablylookedreallyfuckingstupid.Nobodydied,Idontevenknowiftheyhadgunsor anything.Sillyshitifyouaskme. WebsterAshburtonTreaty:EstablishedthecurrentMaineboundary,promisedthatthe Britishwouldstopfuckinwithourshit. TreatyofWangHya:1844.FirstdiplomaticrelationswithChinaestablished.Gave AmericanssametradingrightsastheBritish.

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EARLYINDUSTRIALISM/MARKETREVOLUTION (chapter10)
ECONOMY
PopulationandImmigration Nativism:Thebeliefthatimmigrantsareinherentlyinferiortothosealreadylivingina country.Grewoutoffearoflosingjobsinanincreasinglycompetitivemarket,andracism. KnowNothings:Politicalpartyestablished1845onthetenetsofnativism, antiCatholicism,andtemperance.Dissolvedin1860. Transportation Roads:Turnpikeera17901820,notsufficientforthecountrysshippingneedsbutstill important. Canals:Grewinimportanceaftertheinventionofsteamboats.ErieCanalbegan constructionin1817,openedin1825,ConnectedNYtotheGreatLakesandChicago. Steamboats:RobertFultoncreatedthefirstcommerciallysuccessfulsteamboatinthe early1800s.Bythe1820s,allowedthequicktransportofgoodsfromNewOrleansto Easternports. Railroads:Supplantedcanalsasthedominantmodeoftransportationin1840s.Themost comprehensiverailsystemexistedintheNorthEast.Transcontinentalrailroadbegunin 1863andcompletedin1869. Inventions Steamengine1812,lawnmower1830,sewingmachine1830,rubberband1845,safetypin 1849,dishwasher1850,telephone1876,lightbulb1879. Labor LowellSystem:Labormanagementsystemusedbytextileindustrialiststohireyoung womenandcreateapaternalmanagementfigure. Unions AlthoughtheNationalTradesUnionwascreatedin1834,unionswerelookeddownupon andlargelyunsuccessful.Artisanunionsweremoreeffective,butonlymarginallyso. Agriculture Farmerswereupsetattheloweringcostoftransportationduetocanalsetc.Manymoved tocitiesandcontributedtourbangrowth.Newfarmingtechnologyallowedforgreater production.

SOCIETY
Women CultofDomesticityarises.Womenworkingwereseenaslowerclassandlookeddown upon.Womenwereinsteadencouragedtocultivatetheirownsphere,whichincludedhome making,raisingkids,etc. EconomicMobility Americansbecameobsessedwiththeideaoftheselfmademan.Aslivingstandardsgot betterandworkingstandardsworsened,theycontinuedtochasethedreamofmakingtheir wayintheworld. Slavery Itwasstillshittybutnoonecared.

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OLDSOUTH(chapter11)
ECONOMY
KingCotton ShortstaplecottonallowedforcottontotakeoverSoutherneconomybythe1850s.Up untilthispoint,tobaccoandricehaddominatedtheeconomy. Manufacturing NeverasdevelopedastheNorthduetoplantersnothavingmuchcapitalandlacking incentivetoturnfromplanting. Transportation Disconnectedfromnationalrailroadsystem,cropsshippedalongriversorbysea. NorthernDependency SoutherneconomyreliedonNortherneconomyformarketsandshippingcentersto Europe.

SOCIETY
PlanterClass HeldmostofthepowerintheSouth.Mostlyfirstgenerationsettlers.Extremely competitive.Lessthanaquarterofallwhitepeopleownedslaves. AristocraticValues Codeofchivalryadoptedbyplanterclassthatemphasizedhonor,chivalry,andpublic appearance.Duelswerecommonplace. Women MoresubordinatethanthoseintheNorth,unengagedinpublicactivities.Lessaccessto education.Smallerfarmshadwomeninvolvedineconomicsofthefamily.Birthrateand infantmortalityhighestinthecountry.Maleslaveownersoftenrapedtheirfemaleslaves. PlainFolk HillPeople:OpposedhierarchyoftheSouth,slavery.Resistedsecession.Hugenumber ofilliterates. DependencyonAristocracy:Neededaristocracyforaccesstocottongins,marketsfor theircrops/livestock,andcredit.Manyalsohadfamilyties.

INSTITUTIONOFSLAVERY
LegalBasisandConditions Teachingslaveswasillegal,slavescouldnttestifyincourt.Havinganyblackancestry meantyouwereblack.Enforcingofslavelawswasspotty. SlaveLife Slavesreceivedfood/shelteretcfromtheirmaster.Womenhadtoworkthefieldinaddition tochildrearingandcooking.Deathratewashigh. UrbanSlaves Generallyslightlymorefree.Urbanslaverygraduallydiedout. Freedmen 250,000freeblacksatstartofCivilWar,mostlyinMarylandandVirginia.Mostlyurban slaveswhohaddevelopedtrades.Generallylivedinpoverty. SlaveTrade SlavestakenfromSouthtotheSouthwestbyboat,foot,ortrain.Slavespurchasedat

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auction,wherefamilieswereoftenseparated.Traderswereheldinlowesteeminsociety. Importationofslavesprohibitedfrom1808on,butsmugglingcontinueduntilthe1850s. SlaveResistance ProsserRebellion:GabrielProssergathered1,000slavesoutsideRichmondin1800,but theyweregivenaway(goddamnsnitches)and36wereexecuted,includingProsser. TurnerRebellion:NatTurner,slavepreacher,ledarmeduprisingthatkilled60whitemen, women,andchildrenwhiletheysleptin1831.Morethanahundredoftheparticipantswere executed.

SLAVECULTURE
LanguageandMusic Spokeinpidginearlyon.Musicbecameextremelyimportanttoslaveculture. Religion MostlyChristian,eitherthroughchoiceorcoercion.Incorporatedvoodooandother polytheisticreligioustraditions.Moreemotionalthanwhitereligion,emphasizeddreamof freedom. Family Slavesdidnotcondemnpremaritalpregnancy.Marriageslackedlegalrecognitionbutwere recognizedwithincommunities.Familieswereoften,throughaccidentorpurpose, separatedduringtheslavetradingprocess.

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ANTEBELLUMSOCIETY(chapter12)
ARTS
Painting Paintersdepictedthebeautyofdivinenature(e.g.HudsonRiverSchool). Literature JamesFenimoreCooper,HermanMelville,andWaltWhitmanwrotenovelsandpoemsthat weredistinctlyAmericanandenhanceduniquelyAmericanculture.IntheSouth,writers playedupthebestpartsoftraditionalSouthernlife,includingslavery. Philosophy Transcendentalism:LedbyEmersonandThoreau,believedthatmanisdivineandmust beliberatedfromthephysicalworldinordertoachievedivinity. DefenseofNature:Peoplebegantoworryforthefirsttimethatcapitalistexploitationand industrialismcouldhurttheenvironmentwhichinturnwouldhurthumansspiritual relationshipwithnature.

SOCIETYANDRELIGION
UtopianCommunities BrookFarm:CreatedbyGeorgeRipleytocreateanorganizationinwhichacommunal systemwouldpromoteindividualfreedomfellapartwhenitbecametooclosetosocialism. NewHarmony:FoundedbyRobertOwentoformasocietyinwhicheveryonewas completelyequaldiedwhenitcouldnotmakeenoughmoneytokeeprunning. Oneida:Communityinwhicheveryonewasconsideredmarriedtoeachother,sexwas rarelyallowed,andchildrenwereraisedbytheentirecommunity. SecondGreatAwakening Revivalism:Liketranscendentalists,Protestantscametotheconclusionthatmancould achievesalvation.TherevitalizationofProtestantfaithledtoadesiretoreformAmerican societyforthebetter. BurnedOverDistrict:AreaofupstateNYthatwentthroughmanyreligiousrevivals. Mormons:CreatedbyJosephSmithinupstateNYwhenhewrotetheBookofMormonin 1830.Persecutedforpolygamyforcedtotravelacrossthecountrytofindanewhome. AfterSmithwaskilledin1844,BrighamYoungled12,000MormonstoSaltLakeCity. Shakers:FoundedbyMotherAnnLeetochallengetraditionalgenderroles:menand womenrarelyhadcontact,andwomenhadcontroloverthecommunity.Focusedonsocial disciplineratherthanpersonalfreedom.

REFORMMOVEMENTS
Abolition Moderates:Intheearlystageofthemovement,abolitionistswereconcernedaboutwhere tomovetheemancipatedslaves.TheAmericanColonizationSociety(1816)suggestedthat theU.S.movethemtoafreestateinLiberia. Radicals:By1840,peoplebegantofeelmorestronglyaboutabolition.Theysplitinto gradualistsandimmediatists.MostfamousimmediatistwasWilliamLloydGarrison, creatorofTheLiberatorunpopularbecausehefeltwomenshouldbeallowedtoparticipate inthemovement.Otherfigures:FrederickDouglass,SojournerTruth,NatTurner. Education

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Focusedonseculareducation.LedbyHoraceManninMassachusetts,whostandardized teachingandimprovedthequalityofeducationEmmaWillard,whotrainedfemale teachersandMaryLyons,whoestablishedthefirstallwomencollege.By1860,allstates offeredfreeeducationtoallwhites. Feminism CultofDomesticity:Womenwereconstrainedbyasocialsysteminwhichtheycouldnot vote,ownproperty,orinitiatedivorcesorlawsuits,andweretreatedwiththestatusof minors.Theyweresupposedtobethemoralleadersofthehomeandchildrenonly. Beginnings:TheGrimkesistersandLucyStonewerethefirsttostartpromotingwomens rightsbymakingthemselvesactiveinothermovementsliketemperanceandabolition. LucretiaMottandElizabethCadyStantonbecamenationalfigureswhentheyweredenied entrancetotheWorldAntiSlaveryConvention.Womenwerestillseenasintellectuallyand emotionallyunsuitedforprofessionalcareersorpoliticalactivity. SenecaFallsConvention(1848):ProducedtheDeclarationofSentiments,whichwas modeledontheDeclarationofIndependenceandbeganthecampaignforlegalandpolitical rights. Penitentiary/InsaneAsylums LedbyDorotheaDix,whofeltinmates/insaneshouldbetreatedwithdignity,notbrutally. Prostitution LedbytheFemaleMoralReformSociety,whichtargetedtheissuesofmen,notwomen. Temperance Alcoholwasthemostcommonbeveragebecausecleandrinkingwaterwashardtofind. AmericanTemperanceSocietyformedin1826WomensChristianTemperanceUnion (mostpowerfultemperancelobby)formedin1874.EventuallyledtoProhibitionin1919.

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WESTERNEXPANSION(chapter13)
STATES
Texas Revolution:ManyAmericanimmigrantsinTexasintheearly1800sAmericansunder StephenAustintriedtobecomeindependentfoughtMexicansandlostattheAlamo,but pulledoffamajorupsetatSanJacinto. ManifestDestiny:ThebeliefthatAmericahadthegodgivenrighttocontrolthelandfrom theAtlantictothePacific. ArgumentsFor/AgainstTexasAnnexation For:gainingmorelandandoceanportsspreadinglibertyandselfgovernment (whitemansburden,racism)preventingforeignconflicts(Texasgettingsupport fromBritain/France) Against:spreadingslaveryUSbeingseenbyLatinAmericaasbully unconstitutionalMexicanscapableofselfgovernmentandhavingtheirownrights unnecessary(nopriorMexicanattacks)racism(notwantingtoassociatewith Mexicans. MexicanWar(18461848)/TreatyofGuadalupeHidalgo(1848) USgainedhalfofMexicosterritorypaidMexico$15million 13,000Americansdead slaveryissuewasaroused,partiallyledtoCivilWar:abolitionistsbelieved expansionwasaconspiracybySouthernslaveholders,SouthresentedNorths attempttolimitslaveryinTexas sentimentforManifestDestinyincreased,whileLatinAmericasawUSasabully Southernsoldierswerenowexperiencedincombatvitallyimportantduringthe CivilWar Oregon&California ExpansionintoTerritory/OregonTrail:ThousandsofpeoplemovedintoOregoninthe 1820s30s,mostlymissionariesandfarmerspeopletraveledincoveredwagonsalong dangerousroutesthatkilledthousandsofmigrants. OregonCompromise:In1818,EnglandandtheUShadagreedtoapolicyofjoint occupationAmericansettlersdemandedtheUStakealllandbelowthe5440parallel,but inordertoavoidwar,thetwosidesagreedtomaketheboundaryatthe49thparallelin 1846. GoldRush:Hundredsofthousandsofpeople(fortyniners)movedtoCaliforniain1849to findgoldmostpeoplefoundnothingtheterritorygrewsomuchthatitappliedtobecomea state,raisingthequestionofslavery(manyCalifornianshadIndianslaves). GadsdenPurchase:NorthandSouthhadconflictoverwhichwouldcarrya transcontinentalrailroadSouthernerscasewashelpedbypurchasingasmallstripofland inArizona/NewMexico,fuelingsectionaltension. Kansas&Nebraska KansasNebraskaAct:StephenDouglaswantedanewstateintheMidwesttomakea northerntranscontinentalrailroadviableheproposedmakingtwostates,Kansas& Nebraska,andaddressedtheissueofslaverybyrepealingtheMissouriCompromiseand openingthequestiontopopularsovereignty. BleedingKansas:MissourianscameintoKansasandvotedforopeningslavery,which madeabolitionists(ledbyJohnBrowninthePottawatomieMassacre)angryandcaused

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widespreadphysicalviolenceeachsidefelttheotherwasinthewrongfirstsignof physicalviolenceoverslavery

SLAVERY
WilmotProviso failedproposaltoeliminateslaveryinallterritoryacquiredfromMexico Compromiseof1850 influxofpotentialnewstatesledtoanewcompromisebyClayandDouglas Californiaadmittedasafreestate abolitionofslavetradeinWashington,D.C. slaverylegalintherestofterritoryacquiredfromMexico createdastrongerfugitiveslavelaw compromisewassplitintosectionssopeoplecouldsupportorrejectparts FugitiveSlaveAct allowedSouthernerstotakefreeslavesbackfromthenorthNorthernersrebelledand startedmobs,infuriatingtheSouthbecauseitruinedtheCompromiseof1850 UncleTomsCabin 1852bookbyHarrietBeecherStowethatmadepeople(NorthandSouth)passionateabout slavery,byportrayingslavesashumanandslaveownersascruel OstendManifesto amessagefromadvisorstoFranklinPiercesayingheshouldtakeCubabyforce Northernersfelthewasconspiringtoaddaslavestate DredScottv.Sanford SupremeCourtcaseinwhichslaveDredScottsaidhewasfreebecausehisownerhad diedwhiletheywereinfreeterritoryChiefJusticeRogerTaneyruledthatScottwasnota citizenandcouldnotsueinthefirstplace,andthatthefederalgovernmenthadnorightto takeawayproperty(slaves)inanyfederalterritoryNorthernerswereoutragedwhile Southernerswereelated.

PEOPLE&POLITICS
JohnTyler VicepresidenttoWilliamHenryHarrison,electedin1840,whodiedfourweeksintohis termfrompneumonia,makingTylerpresident.TylerwasaWhigbyname,butoncein officecompletelychangedsides.BlockedthesecondBankoftheU.S.,opposedClays AmericanSystem. CarolineIncident(1837):CanadianrebelstookanAmericansteamshipthe BritishburneditandkilledanAmericanandrefusedtoapologizetheUShelda Canadianhostageandthreatenedwar. MaineBoundaryDispute/AroostookWar(1838):DisputeoverMaineBoundary withCanadaledtoviolencebylumberjacksinMaineledtoWebsterAshburton Treaty(1842),whichfixedboundaryatthe49thparallel,creatingthemost peacefulborderinworldhistory. CreoleIncident(1841):SlavesrebelledonanAmericanshipsailingtoNew OrleansandescapedtotheBahamas,wheretheBritishdeclaredthemfree, enragingSoutherners. JamesPolk

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Electedpresidentin1844neededonlyonetermtoaccomplishhisagendaNapoleonof theStump CCalifornia OOregon IIndependentTreasury LLowerTariffs ZacharyTaylor Electedpresidentin1848supportedCaliasafreestatediedafterayearreplacedby MillardFillmore. FranklinPierce Electedpresidentin1852signedKansasNebraskaActprettylameguy. JamesBuchanan Electedpresidentin1856pushedKansastobeadmittedasaslavestate,whichfailedand madeeveryonehatehim,eventothisday. FreeSoilParty Manyabolitionistsfelttheproblemwithslaverywasnotthemoralissue,butthefactthatit madeanentrenchedaristocracyintheSouth,whichmadeitimpossibleforfarmerstobe freeandhaveequaleconomicopportunitythatideologyledtotheformationofthe RepublicanPartyanditsownparty. RepublicanParty Formedin1854mainlybyWhigs(whosepartywasdestroyed),NorthernDemocrats,and KnowNothingswhowereallagainstKansasNebraska. SumnerBrooks CharlesSumner,ferventlyantislavery,gaveaspeechdenouncingPrestonBrookssuncle BrooksattackedSumnerwithacane,renderinghiminjuredforfouryearsNorthernerssaw itasanexampleofSouthernbrutality,whileSouthernerssawitasprotectingSouthern idealsofchivalryandhonor. JohnBrown LedthePottawatomieMassacreinKansas,oneofthemostglaringexamplesofBleeding KansasalsoattackedHarpersFerrytryingtostartaslaverebellion,makingtheSouthfeel unsafeaspartoftheUnion,althoughhefailedandwasexecuted. StephenDouglas ledtheCompromiseof1850 pushedforaNortherntranscontinentalrailroad,leadingtohiscreationofthe KansasNebraskaAct ranagainstLincolninan1858SenateelectionintheLincolnDouglasdebates,Lincoln articulatedtheproblemswithslavery,whileDouglaslookedlikehedidnthaveamoral positionandlookedsilly,despitewinning ranagainstLincolninthe1860presidentialelectionasaNorthernDemocratSouthern DemocratsranJohnBreckinridge,andJohnBellranundertheConstitutionalUnionParty theDemocraticvotewassplit,allowingLincolntowinamajority

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CIVILWAR(chapter14)
BATTLES
FortSumter(1861) Firstconflictofthewar.SouthernersdemandedthattheUnionsurrendersinceitwasinside Confederateterritory,butitwasafederalinstitution,sotheUnionrefused.Lincolnsent suppliestothefort,andtheSouthbeganasiegethatendedwiththefortssurrender, withoutcasualties.BegantheCivilWar. BullRun(1861) ExpectedtoshowcasetheNorthsabilitytoquicklyanddecisivelywinthewar,instead showedtheinevitablebloodshedthatwouldensue.ResultedinaSouthernvictoryanda lossofconfidenceforLincolninhisofficers.TookplaceinVirginia. Antietam(1862) McClellandefeatedLee,butMcClellandidntpresstheattack,andwasremovedfrom Unioncommand.Additionally,thisUnionvictorygarneredenoughsupportforLincolnto issuetheEmancipationProclamation,effectivelychangingthefocusofthewarfrom preservationoftheUniontotheendingofslavery.ThischangeinfocusprovidedtheUnion troopswithamoretangiblegoalandpreventedEuropeanpowersfromsupportingthe South. NewOrleans(1862) FirstmajorUnionvictory,chokingtheSoutherneconomy,whichreliedonbeingabletouse theMississippiRiver. Gettysburg(1863) LeetriedtowinabattleonUnionturftogainEuropeansupport,butsustainedmassive casualtiesinstead.GettysburgAddresssawLincolnrefertotheUnitedStatesnotasa unionofstates,butasanation.ThiswasthebloodiestbattleofthewarPickettsCharge saw6.5thousandConfederatedeaths. Vicksburg(1863) GranttookVicksburgin1863,whichgavetheUnioncompletecontroloftheMississippi River,cuttingtheConfederacyinhalfandseverelycripplingtheirabilitytomovetroops. Atlanta/ShermansMarchtotheSea(186465) WilliamTecumsehSherman,ageneralunderGrant,beganapolicyoftotalwar,inwhichhe marchedfromAtlantaacrosstheConfederacytotheAtlantic,burninganddestroying everythingalongtheway.ThisdestructionofConfederatefarmsandsuchfurthercrippled theSouthsabilitytofight.

PEOPLE
AbrahamLincoln Americanpresidentforthedurationofthewar.Electedforthefirsttimein1860,prompting thesecessionofseveralslavestates.Republican.IssuesEmancipationProclamationin 1863,makingallslavesintheConfederacyfree.Pushes15thAmendmentthrough Congressin1865,abolishingslaverycompletely.Wasamoderatereconstructionist,but wasassassinatedin1865beforehecouldtakeaction. GeorgeMcClellan FirstUniongeneral.Agreatorganizerandtraineroftroops,butreluctanttotakechances andnotagreatstrategizer.FailsinhisroleandisreplacedbyUlyssesGrant.Runsfor presidentin1864,losestoLincoln.

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UlyssesGrant GeneralafterMcClellan.Characterizedbyhisuseofoverwhelmingnumbersandrelentless attacks.TakesVicksburgandsiegesRichmond.SignspeacetreatyatAppomatoxtoend thewar.Runsforpresidentin1868andwins. WilliamSherman GeneralunderGrant,beginstheuseoftotalwarinmodernwarfarewithhisMarchtothe Sea. RobertE.Lee Confederategeneral,brillianttactician.SignstreatyatAppomatoxtoendthewar. BecomesasymbolforthoseSouthernersthatrefusedtoacceptdefeat. JeffersonDavis PresidentofConfederacy.Overall,ratherineffective.

LAWS
CrittendenCompromise LastditchattemptbySenatorJohnCrittendentoavoidwar.Calledforamendmenttomake slaverypermanentinslavestates,strengthenthefugitiveslavelaw,andextendthe MissouriCompromiselinetothePacificandmakeitpermanent.Republicansrejectedthe compromise. IncomeTax Firstleviedin1861underLincolnaspartoftheRevenueAct.Itwasrepealedandreplaced in1862,thenrepealedin1871. HomesteadAct Createdin1862,anycitizencouldclaim160acresofpubliclandandbuyitforasmallfee afterlivingthereforfiveyears. MorrillLandGrantAct Transferredpubliclandtostategovtstosell,withprofitsgoingtowardspubliceducation. Passedin1862 MorrillTariffAct Highprotectivetariffpassedin1861thathelpsprotectindustryandfinancethewar. NationalBankActs 18631864.Bankscouldjointhenationalbankingsystemiftheyinvestedonethirdoftheir capitalingovtsecurities.ThisallowedthemtoissueU.S.currency. PacificRailwayAct UnionPacificRailroadCompanyandCentralPacificcharteredtocreateatranscontinental railroad.

POLITICS
PeaceDemocrats/Copperheads LincolnwasforcedtostartadrafttoservethreeyeartermsNorthernDemocrats(called PeaceDemocratsorCopperheads)wereopposedandstartedriotsledtoLincolnoverusing warpowerstosuppressNorthernantiwarandproslaverysentiment EmancipationProclamation firstannouncedafterAntietamin1862butenactedin1863(givingsomeleewaytimeto allowstatestoreturntotheUnioniftheywanted)freedallslavesinallConfederate territories,butnotinborderstatestoensuretheywouldntalsosecedefinallymadethe waraboutendingslaveryinsteadofjustpreservingtheunion

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RelationshipswithEurope EnglandandFranceweresympathetictotheConfederatecause,butsupportedtheUnion aftertheEmancipationProclamationConfederacyarguedEuropeneededtheircotton,but EuropeneversenttangiblesupporttotheSouth InteractionsintheWest guerrillawarfareinKansasandMissouricontinuedafterBleedingKansasWesternIndians weresplitoverwhotosupport Appomattox LeesurrenderedtoGrantin1865attheAppomattoxcourthouseinVirginia.Ninedayslater Johnston,theothermajorConfederategeneral,surrenderedtoShermannearDurham, NorthCarolina.EndedtheCivilWar.

SOCIETY
AfricanAmericans Initially,freeblackswerenotallowedtoserveintheUnionside.AftertheEmancipation Proclamation,AfricanAmericantroopsbegantoenlistenmasseandbecamecrucialto Unionsuccess.DespitetheirimportancetoUnionvictory,theyweremistreatedinthewar, andtheirregimentswereledbywhitemen. Women Duringthewar,womentookuprolesthatmenhadlefttofight,suchasteaching,office work,andfactorywork.Additionally,thefemalenursebegantotakeholdthankstoefforts byDorotheaDix.Malenursesanddoctorsresistedthischange.Reformsledbywomen allowedforgreatersanitationinbattlefieldmedicaltreatment.

SOUTH
Secession ConfederateStates(inorderofsecession):SouthCarolina,Mississippi,Florida, Alabama,Georgia,Louisiana,Texas(allsecededafterLincolnwonin1860)Virginia, Arkansas,NorthCarolina,Tennessee(secededafterFortSumter). Government LedbyJeffersonDavis,theConfederategovernmentwasineffectivebecauseitcouldnot raisemoneyorbuildalargeenougharmystatesrebelledagainstDavissattemptto centralizeSoutherngovernment,buteventuallythenationalgovernmentcontrolledmostof theSoutherneconomy. Economy Governmenthadnowaytoraisemoney,soitimplementedafailedincometaxandprinted currencythatwasdifferentfromstateandlocalcurrencies,leadingtoextremeinflation almostallSouthernmenwereatwar,severelydecreasingproductiontheNorthdestroyed whatlittletransportationandinfrastructuretheSouthhad.

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RECONSTRUCTION(chapter15)
LINCOLNANDJOHNSONPRESIDENCIES
ReconstructionversusRestoration Reconstructionistokeeptheframeworkbutrebuildsomethingnewinside.Restorationis toreturnthingstothewaytheywere. Questionstobeansweredduringtheprocess: HowshouldtheSouthbebroughtbackintotheUnion? HowshouldtheSouthberebuiltpostdestruction? Howshouldnewlyemancipatedblackfreedmenbeintegrated? Whatbranchofgovernmentshouldcontroltheprocess? ConservativeversusRadicalRepublicans ConservativesbelievedReconstructionshouldendonceslaverywasabolished.Radicals wantedtopunishSoutherners,guaranteeblackprotection,andsecureRepublican dominationintheSouth. Lincolns10%Plan Createdasysteminwhichif10%ofwhitemeninasouthernstatetookanoathofloyalty totheUnion,thestatecouldformanewgovernment. LincolnGovernments StategovernmentscreatedinArkansas,Louisiana,andTennesseeunderLincolns10% Planin1864.Knownasloyalassemblies.DependedonRepublicansandtheUnionarmy tokeeppower. WadeDavisBillandothertheories RadicalRepublicansbelievedLincolnsplandidntgofarenough.Theirproposalmadea systeminwhichifamajorityofwhitemeninasouthernstatetooktheIroncladOath,the statecouldholdaconvention.Theconventionwoulddrawupaconstitutionthatbanned slaveryandmetotherconditionstopunishtheSouth.Lincolnpocketvetoedthebill. Othertheories: StateSuicideTheory:CharlesSumnersaidtheSouthernstateshadcommitted suicideandcouldonlybereadmittedunderallNorthernconditions. ConqueredProvinces:ThaddeusStevensarguedthattheSouthernstateswere nothingmorethanterritoriesownedbytheNorthernUnion. JohnsonsPlan AndrewJohnsonwasaslaveowningwhitesupremacistaJacksonianDemocratandthe firstpresidenttousethetermRestoration. GaveamnestytoSouthernersexceptofficersthosewhoearned$20,000ormorehadto askhimpersonallyforamnesty AppointedprovisionalRepublicangovernors Forcedstateconstitutionstorepudiateslavery,secession,anddebts Allowedplanteraristocratstoreturntopower,infuriatingRepublicans ConstitutionalAmendments 13thAmendment:Abolishedslavery. 14thAmendment:DefinedacitizenasonewhoisborninAmericaandguaranteedthe rightsandprivilegesofallcitizens.GuaranteedtheCivilRightsActof1866.Radical Republicansagreedtoreadmitstatesthatratifiedtheamendment,butonlyTennesseedid. 15thAmendment:Prohibitedthedenialoftherighttovotetoblacks. FreedmansBureau

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Createdin1865tohelppropupnewlyfreedAfricanAmericans.Originallylastedforone year,butwasextendedinresponsetotheBlackCodes. BlackCodes NewSouthernstategovernmentsbegantocreatelegalsystemsthatdisenfranchised blacksandessentiallygavethemnorights. CivilRightsAct PassedbyCongressin1866inresponsetotheBlackCodes.Declaredthatblacksare citizensandthatthefederalgovernmentcouldinterveneinstateaffairstoprotectcitizens rights.Guaranteedbythe14thAmendment.Johnsonvetoedthisbillandtheoneextending theFreedmansBureau,butforthefirsttime,Congressoverturnedthevetoes. RadicalReconstruction Inthe1866midtermelections(consideredareferendumonReconstruction),Johnson campaignedforConservativeRepublicansandfoughtagainstthe14thAmendment.But RadicalRepublicanswonsupermajoritiesinCongress,allowingthemtopasswhateverbills theywanted.TheyblockedSouthernstatesfromtheUnionbecausetheirconstitutions wereinsufficientatendingslavery. VoterEnrollmentAct:AuthorizedthemilitarytoforciblyenrollblackvotersintheSouth. MilitaryReconstructionAct:Createdfivemilitarydistrictsinthetenunreconstructed states.MadetheSouthdependentontheNorthernarmyandallowedthearmytoenforce blacksuffrage. CommandoftheArmyAct:Forcedthepresidenttosendmilitaryordersthroughthearmy commander. TenureofOfficeAct:ForcedthepresidenttoreceiveSenateapprovalbeforefiringCabinet members. ImpeachmentofJohnson JohnsontriedtoremovedSecretaryofWarEdwinStanton,aLincolnmanwhostaunchly disagreedwithJohnson,fromoffice,eventhoughtheSenatedidnotapproveunderthe TenureofOfficeAct.RadicalRepublicansusedthisexcusetostartanimpeachmenttrial againstJohnsonin1868.TheimpeachmentpassedtheHousebeforechargeswereeven drawnup,butitfailedbyonevoteintheSenate.

THESOUTHDURINGRECONSTRUCTION
StateGovernments Governmentswerecontrolledbyscalawags,akaSouthernwhiteRepublicans,and carpetbaggers,NorthernRepublicanswhohadsettledintheSouth.Therewasrampant corruptioninthesegovernments.AfricanAmericansgainedalotofpoliticalcontrol,leading whitestocomplainaboutNegroruleandattempttostopthemusingtheBlackCodes. Thiswasbecausefreedmenmadeupmajoritiesofmostsouthernstateshowever,they nevermadeupmajoritiesingovernment. Education AlargenetworkofschoolswasestablishedbytheFreedmensBureau,Northern philanthropicorganizations,andNorthernwomenwhotraveledsouthtoteach.By1876 50%ofwhiteswereinschool,alongwith40%ofblacks.Schoolsweresegregatedthrough choice,notlegislation. Landownership FreedmensBureautriedtodistributeland,butfailedthankstoJohnsonsupporting plantationownersclaimstotheirland.

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Sharecropping:Farmers(usuallyblack)wouldtakeloansfromplantationownerstobuy farmingtoolsandfarmontheirland,thenpaybackdebtovertimewithharvestcaused virtuallyinescapabledebt. CropLienSystem:Sharecropperspurchasedmostoftheirgoodsfromlocalmerchants, andoftenhadtodosooncredit.Thesemerchantswereoftenownedbytheplantation ownerstheywerealreadyindebtto.Interestwasreallyhigh. FreedmenandFamilies Upongainingfreedom,manyblacksrushedtoreunitefamiliesthathadbeenbrokenupand builddomesticlives.TheyidolizedtheconceptofSouthernfamilylifethuswomenwere keptinthedomesticspherewhilemenworked,whichmadeitdifficulttomaintainamiddle classstandardofliving.

ABANDONMENTOFRECONSTRUCTION
UlyssesGrant Wonelectionof1868bynarrowmarginonRepublicanticket.Ledacorruptadministration, wasanineffectualpoliticaloperator.AlienatedsomeNorthernerswhoweregrowing disillusionedwithRadicalReconstructionismbycontinuingtosupportit.Wonreelectionin 1872. Corruption CreditMobilier:FrenchownedconstructioncompanythathelpedwithUnionPacific Railroadbuilding.HeadsofthecompanyusedtheirpositionswithinUnionPacifictoreceive large,fakecontracts,effectivelystealingmillionsandstoppinginvestigationbyselling CreditMobilierstocktokeymembersofCongress.Discoveredin1872. WhiskeyRing:Grantadministrationofficialswerediscovereddodgingtaxes. IndianRing:SecretaryofWarWilliamBelknapacceptedbribestokeepanIndianpost traderinoffice. Panicof1873andGreenbacks Panic:CausedbyleadinginvestmentbankingfirmJayCookeandCompany,which investedtooheavilyinpostwarrailroadbuilding. Greenbacks:Debtorspushedforpapercurrencythatwasnotbackedbyspecie,which wouldincreasetheamountofmoneyincirculationbutcauseinflation.SpecieResumption Act,1875,eliminatedallgreenbacksstillincirculation. KuKluxKlanandCivilRightsAct WhitesintheSouthbeganusingintimidationandviolencetorepressblacks.KKKformed in1866tocontinuethis.EnforcementActs,1870and1871,prohibiteddiscriminating againstvotersonbasisofraceandgavefedgovpowertosupersedestatecourts.Grant usedtheseactstosendfederaltroopstoSouthCarolinaandeffectivelywagewaragainst theKKK.TheKKKbegantodeclineby1872. SlaughterhouseCases SupremeCourtruledthatunderthe14thAmendment,thefederalgovernmentcouldnot discriminatebyrace,butthestateswereallowedtodiscriminate.Essentiallylegalized statesegregationandallowedforthefuturebirthofJimCrowlaws. Electionof1876andCompromiseof1877 RepublicansnominatedRutherfordB.HayesagainstDemocratSamuelJ.Tilden. ControversyovervotecountingcausedCompromiseof1877,inwhichHayesagreedto withdrawtroopsfromtheSouthinexchangeforthepresidency.

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FARWEST(chapter16)
SOCIETY
Hispanics NewMexico:U.S.claimeditaftertheMexicanWarandsetupanewgovernmentthathad noIndianrepresentationledtotheTaosIndianRebellion(1847)whicheventuallyfailed. Still,IndiansandHispanicscontinuedtoprotecttheirculturesdespitegrowingAmerican settlementandassimilation. CaliforniaandTexas:Mexicanssettledtheregionsintheearly1800sbysending missionariestoconvertIndians.Bythe1830s,thenewsecularMexicanaristocracywas beingdefeatedbyandlosinglandtoAnglosettlers.Mexicansendedupformingapoor workingclassundertheAmericans. Chinese Racism:HundredsofthousandsofChinesesettledintheWest,doingtemporaryunskilled laborthatmadeAmericansseethemasthreats.TheyworkedontheTranscontinental Railroadandinminesunderbrutalconditions.Whentheylostwork,theymovedintocities likeSanFranciscoandwereforcedintoethniccommunitiescalledChinatowns. Politics:AsChinatownsgrew,sodidracismwhitesbegantoformanticoolieclubs.In 1882,theChineseExclusionActwaspassedtobanimmigrationinChina,tothechagrinof ChineseAmericans,whocampaignedagainstittonoavail. MigrantsfromtheEast RapidExpansion:SomanythousandsofwhitesandEuropeanimmigrantsmovedwest thatnewstateswereformedquickly(tenstatesinthelast35yearsofthecentury). GovernmentAid:ThegovernmentaidedthismigrationbypassingtheHomesteadActof 1862togive160acrestosettlersthisalsoledtooverproduction.Congresscontinuedto passlegislationtoaidneedywesternersoverthenexttwodecades. Culture RockyMountainSchool:PaintersdepictedtheWestasbeingabeautifulfrontier. Cowboys:Romanticizedasheroes,butactuallyhadtediousanddangerousjobs. Frontier:RomanticizedthroughMarkTwainsnovelsandFredericRemingtonspaintings. FrederickJacksonTurnerassertedinhisTurnerthesisthatthefrontierwasthelargest contributiontowardspreservingdemocracyandformingatrulyAmericancharacter.Theend ofthelastfrontierinthewestledtoalossofthemyththattheWestwasautopia.

ECONOMY
Labor Workingconditionswereterribletherewaslimitedsocialmobility,mainlybecausethere wasaracialclasssystemintheworkforce.Menhadnojobsecurity,sotheywere constantlymovingandoftensingle. Mining Miningbooms,likeComstockLode(silver),followedcycles:adiscoverywouldleadto prospectorsquicklyrunninginanddepletingtheresources,atwhichpointmostleftandthe restformedpermanenttowns.Thesetownshadextremelyimbalancedgenderratios lawlessnessledtotheriseofvigilantes,whotooklawenforcementintotheirownhands (rightlyorwrongly). Cattle

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Cattledrives:CattleKingdombeganwithcattledrivesalongtheChisholmTrail (18671871),inwhichcowboysherdedcattlethousandsofmilestorailroadstobeshipped totheEast.OthertrailsledtothecreationofmajorcitiesacrosstheMidwest. DeclineofCattleKingdom:Cattlemenexpandedsomuchthattheybegantoblockoff theirlandwithbarbedwire(partoftherangewars),makingitimpossibletomovecattle. Manycattlediedasaresultofdiseaseandsevereweather(18851887). Farming CommercialAgriculture:Replacedsubsistencefarming.Farmersspecializedincash crops,whichopenedthemtonewmarketsbutalsomadethemdependentonmiddlemen, railroads,andbanks. ProblemsandGrievances: Overproduction:Farmersbelievedthemoretheyproduced,themoretheydsell, andthemoremoneytheydmake.Buttheyproducedsomuchthatthepriceof theirgoodsdroppedtoolow.Governmentencouragedfarmerstoproducemoreso thatsurplusescouldbestoredandeventuallyusedinrapidlygrowingcities. Railroads:ChargedhigherratesforfarmersbecausecorporationslikeStandard Oilusedtheirinfluencetohavetheirownrateslowered(rebates),andrailroads neededsomewaytomakeaprofit. Banks:Believedthatloanstofarmerswererisky,sotheychargedextremelyhigh interestratesthatfarmersoftencouldnotpay.Thisledtothepopulistdemandfor freesilver,todevaluethedollarsothatfarmerscouldpayloanswithlessmoney. Isolation:Familiesweremilesawayforeachotherandhadnosocialconnections. Weather:Madedafarmersdumtight.

NATIVEAMERICANS
WhiteTribalPolicies Treaties:AmericansroutinelyviolatedtreatiessignedwithNativeAmericans. Concentration:Inthe1850s,thegovernmentcreatedIndianterritoriesawayfromthe desirablespotswherewhiteswantedtosettle.Thereservationsthatwerecreatedwere poorlyadministeredbythedishonestBureauofIndianAffairs. EconomicWarfare:IndiansintheMidwestreliedonthebuffaloforeverything,butwhites wouldkillthemtosellasbuffalohidesandevenforfun. Assimilation:DawesAct(1887)brokeupIndianlandtotrytoassimilatethem. IndianWars SandCreekMassacre(1864):400Arapaho&CheyenneIndianswhohadbeenassured theywouldbeprotectedwereslaughtered. IndianHunting:CiviliansandvigilanteskilledthousandsofIndiansacrosstheWest. TheSioux:ThemostableandskilledIndiantribe,withgreatmilitarypower. LittleBighorn(1876):SiouxarmyunderCrazyHorsewipedoutGeorgeCusters forces.ButthewhiteswonmostotherbattlesandeventuallydroveCrazyHorse, SittingBull,andtheSiouxontoreservations. WoundedKnee(1890):TheArmywassentintoendtheSiouxsghostdance, whichdepictedarevivalofIndiandominanceoverwhites.200Indianswere slaughtered.LastmajorconflictbetweenIndiansandU.S.troops. Apache:Foughtanineyearguerrillawartokeeptheirland(thelastformalwarbetween IndiansandtheU.S.),butin1886Geronimowasforcedtosurrender NezPerc:ChiefJosephfoughtbackagainstwhiteswhowantedthetribetoconcede

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morelanddespitehavinggivenmuchinearlierdecades.NezPercwonseveralbattles beforemakingalongretreatintoCanada,wheretheywerecapturedandforcedto constantlymovethroughmanyterriblereservations.

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INDUSTRIALISM(chapter17)
FACTORS
Government:Laissezfairecapitalismallowedindustrializingbusinessestodowhateverthey wanted.Thefederalgovernmentpassedprobusinesslegislation,includinghighertariffs,land grants,andpatentprotectionlawstospurdomesticindustry. Railroads:TrainslinkedtheEastandWest,permanentlymakingtheregionaleconomies interdependent.RailroadscausedheavyWesterndevelopmentandtookawaylandfromNative Americans. Inventions:telegraph,telephone,lightbulb,combineharvester,Bessemerprocess,oil,electric current NaturalResources:timber,oil,gas,iron,coal,water Capital:Thegrowthofbusinessesgavethemsurplusdollarstoreinvestintotheeconomy. HumanTalent:Wehadit.

CAPITALISM
CorporationsandTrusts Growingbusinessesbegantosellstockwithlimitedliability(investorsonlyriskedwhatever theyinvestedandwerenotresponsibleforthecompanysdebt),allowingthemtoraisea tonofmoney.Trustswereformedwhenconsolidationtechniqueslikepools(everyone workingtogethertomakethingsfair)failed.Inatrust,investorssoldstockinthe corporationinexchangeforstockinthetrust,runbytrusteeswhohadcontrolofallthe companiesinthecorporation.J.P.MorgansU.S.Steelwasanexampleofatrust. Consolidation Consolidationcameintheformofeitherhorizontalorverticalintegration.JohnD. RockefellersStandardOilwasanexampleofhorizontalintegration:hebought90%of Americasoilrefiners.AndrewCarnegiessteelcompanywasanexampleofvertical integration:hecontrolledtheentiresteelprocessfrombeginningtoend,includingmining, refining,transporting,andselling. SelfMadeMan Theidealthatpeoplecouldworktheirwayupfromthebottomofsocietyandbecomerich wasstillpopular,butextremelyunrealistic.Mostpeoplewerenotabletobreakfreefrom thetyrannyofmonopolies,andthosewhotriedtobecomeindustrialistsgenerallyfailed. SocialDarwinism Thetheorythatonlythefittestsurvivedinthemarketplace.Itjustifiedcapitalismby defendingtheideathatcertainpeoplecouldbemagnificentlyrichwhilemanywerestuck withnothing.Corporationstriedtomonopolizeinordertoassertthattheywerethefittest anddeservedtogetridofunfitcompetition.

WORKERS
Immigrants EarlyimmigrantscamefromwesternandnorthernEurope,butlateronescamefrommore variedethnicgroupsinsouthernandeasternEurope.Theselaterimmigrants,luredbythe idealofanewlifethatAmericaoffered,werewillingtoworkverycheaplytheyreplaced moreskilledworkers(theoldimmigrants)inindustrializedjobs,causingethnictensions. Women

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Ascompaniesrequiredmoreunskilledlabor,womenwereabletofindjobsandbeganto makeupsubstantialpartsoftheworkforce.However,itwasgenerallyacceptedthatonly singlewomen,notmarriedwomen,couldlookforjobs.Theywereveryyoung,receivedfar lowersalariesthanmen,andfacedbadworkingconditions. Children Becausetheyweresmallandenergetic,childrenweregoodindustrialworkers.Reformers triedtocreatebetterworkingconditions,butstatechildlaborlawswereineffective. WorkingConditions Incomeswerelessthanwhatwasneededtolivecomfortably.Therewasnojobsecurityfor factoryworkers,whocouldbereplacedatanytimebyimmigrants.Workershadtodo monotonoustasksfor12+hoursadayitwasdemeaninganditgavethemnocontrolover theeconomicprocess.

UNIONS
EarlyUnions Fordecades,therehadbeenorganizationsforcertaincraftsandindustries,butthefirst generallabororganizationwastheNationalLaborUnion.Itquicklydisintegratedunder hostilityfrompeoplewhowerescaredbytheideathatworkerswereradicalsand anarchists,particularlymembersoftheMollyMaguires,aviolentlaboractivistgroup. KnightsofLabor TheKnightswereanextremelyopengroup,eventowomenandimmigrants.Terence Powderlymadeitamainstreamgroup,expandingitgreatlyandorganizingsomestrikes againstrailroads.Butbecausethestrikesfailed,andbecausethereweretoomany competingfactionsintheorganization,theKnightshaddissolvedbythe1890s. AmericanFederationofLabor UnliketheKnights,theAFLwasonlyformaleskilledworkers.Itbelievedgovernment shouldnotplayaroleinimprovingworkingconditions,butthatcollectivebargainingand strikesweretheonlysolutions.ItwasmoresuccessfulthantheAFLatachievingprogress, butitwashamperedbythepersistentideathatitwasasymbolofradicalismandterrorism. Strikes GreatRailroadStrike(1877):Wheneasternrailroadsannounceda10%wagecut, workersbeganastrikethatstoppedtrainsacrosstheentireEastCoast.Hayesused federaltroopstobreakthestrike100peoplediedandthestrikefailed. HaymarketRiot(1886):TheAFLcalledforageneralstrikeacrosstheUSiftheydidnot getaneighthourworkday.AprotestthatbeganinChicagowasbrokenupbythepolice afterabombwasthrown.Theorganizersoftheprotest,whowereanarchists,werearrested becausetheirstatementshadincitedviolenceandweresentencedtodeath.Thisprotest reinforcedtheideathatunionistswereviolentterrorists. HomesteadStrike(1892):CarnegieandHenryClayFrickwantedtokilltheAmalgamated AssociationofIronandSteelWorkers,soitannouncedseveralwagecuts.The AmalgamatedstartedastrikeFrickrespondedbycallinginthestrikebreakingPinkertons, settingoffessentiallyabattle.TheunionwaswinninguntiltheNationalGuardwassentin andpublicopinionevaporatedasaresultofanassassinationattemptonFrick.The AmalgamatedlostthestrikeanddiedoffquicklyamajorblowfortheAFLandunions. PullmanStrike(1894):WorkersforthePullmanCarCompanylivedinacompanytown wherethecompanyownedeverything.Pullmanannouncedamassivewagecutwithout reducingthetownshighrents,causingEugeneDebsandhisuniontostrikeandparalyze

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westernrailroads.Clevelandsentfederaltroopstobreakthestrikeandthecourtsforced thestriketoend. Bread&RoseStrike(1912):InLawrence,MA,theheartofthetextileindustry,immigrants andwomenstartedastrikeinresponsetoawagecut.Despiteobjectionsfrommost unionsliketheAFLthatsuchpeoplewerenotcapableoforganizingthemselves,theywere victoriousandmanagedtoachievehugegains(althoughtheydissipatedwithinayear). LaborWeaknessandCorporateStrength Unionsmadesomegainsduringthelate19thcentury,butthelawsthatwerepassedwere ineffective.ThiswasbecauseunionsliketheAFLfoughtonbehalfofatinypartofthe workforce,meaningmostlaborersweredividedandunorganized.Also,theytriedto challengeextremelypowerfulcorporations,supportedbythegovernment,thatusedevery tactic,legalorillegal,todefeattheworkers.

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GROWTHOFCITIES(chapter18)
IMMIGRATION
Migration 18401860:93%ofimmigrantswerefromnorthernandwesternEurope 18801900:31%ofimmigrantswerefromsouthernandeasternEurope.Inventionofthe steamshipallowedmorepeopletosailtoAmericafromfartheraway. Assimilation Themanydifferentimmigrantsformedtheirownethniccommunitieswithincities.Some immigrantstriedtobecomeAmericanized,throwingouthomeculture(mostnotably traditionalfamilyroles)inhopesofassimilatingintoAmericansociety. Exclusion NativebornAmericanswerescaredbythegreatinfluxofimmigrants(nativismeconomic concernsaswellasracism)andbegantryingtokeepthemout.TheImmigrantsRestriction Leaguewasformed,buttherewerefewrestrictionspassedduringthistime.

POLITICS
BossRule Politicalmachineswereformedbypeoplewhomanagedtomobilizeethniccommunities intovotingforthemyearafteryear.Thiswasdonebyimprovingcityinfrastructureandgiving favorstovoters,aswellasthroughcorruptionandgraft.TammanyHallinNewYorkisthe mostfamousexampleofacorruptpoliticalmachine,runformanyyearsbyBossTweed. PovertyandService Therapidgrowthofcitiesstrainedinfrastructureandledtomanyproblems:lackof firefightersandpolicemen,poorsewagesystems,lackoffood&water,extremelyhigh crimeandpoverty,andpollutionandenvironmentaldegradation.Theseissuesledtothe creationofpublicserviceslikeprofessionalfiredepartments,thefederalPublicHealth Service,andtheSalvationArmy.

SOCIETY
Women By1890,30%of2024yearoldsworked,15%of2440yearoldsworked. WomensEducation Thediscrepancyinworkingwomensageswasdirectlyduetothespreadofwomens educationatplaceslikeSmith,Barnard,Radcliffe,andMt.Holyoke(#shoutoutscudz). Distinctivefemalecommunitieswereformedatthesenewallwomeninstitutions. Housing Thewellofflivedingrowingsuburbs,thankstopublictransportation.Thepoor,however, wereforcedtoliveintenementsinslums,completelymiserableandpackedtogether.The terrible,inhumaneconditionswereexposedbyphotographerJacobRiis.JaneAddams helpedbyopeningtheHullHouse,asettlementhouseforimmigrantswheretheycouldlive somewhatcomfortablyandlearnAmericanvalues.

CULTURE
Education UniversalSchooling:Inanefforttomakeeducationmorewidespread,schoolscreateda

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factorymodel(splittingdifferentagedkidsintodifferentgradeswithdifferenttextbooks)to teachallkidsofallbackgroundsthesameway.Thisattemptatassimilationandunityoften causedconflict.Schoolsalsotriedtoteachsocialvaluesthatwerenolongerbeingtaught inthehome,includingcitizenship,properbehavior,andnecessarylivingskills. LandGrantInstitutions:TheMorrillLandGrantActof1862donatedMidwesternlandto beusedforA&Mcolleges(agricultureandmanufacturing).Also,richphilanthropistslike Rockefeller,Carnegie,andVanderbiltbuiltandfundednewandtraditionaluniversities. Entertainment dimenovels(massproducedliterature) pennypress(cheapmagazinesandnewspapers) yellowjournalism(sensationalizedreporting) departmentstores vaudeville&nickelodeon(NOTthechannel) sports Technology dumbbellapartments steelbridges elevator trolleycarpublictransportationledtotheriseofsuburbsasmiddleandupperclass peoplecouldcommutefartherdistancestoandfromwork

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POSTRECONSTRUCTIONPOLITICS(chapter19)
HAYES,GARFIELD,ARTHUR,CLEVELANDANDHARRISON PRESIDENCIES
StabilityofthePartySystem RepublicanandDemocraticPartyevendistributedthroughoutgovtandpopulation,politics becameverystable.Voterturnoutwashighalongwithpartyloyaltybasedonregion, religion,andethnicity. Patronage Theawardingofpositionswithinthegovtasaformofcompensation,bribery,etc. Essentially,thespoilssystem(orrotationofofficeifyoureoneofthosepeople) StalwartsandHalfBreeds:FactionsformedinRepublicanpartyduringHayes presidencythatclaimedtofavormachinepoliticsandreform,respectively.Both,infact, desiredpatronage. JamesGarfield HalfBreedRepublicanwhowon1880electionbutwasshotin1881. ChesterArthur GarfieldsVicePresident,aStalwartRepublican.Assumedpresidencyin1881.Passed PendletonActwhichrequiredapplicantsforfederaljobstotakeacivilserviceexam. GroverCleveland Democratwhowonin1884afterareligiousscandalhurthisopponent.Wonreelectionin 1892. WilsonGormanTariff(1894):Loweredtariffsslightly. InterstateCommerceAct(1887):Bannedratediscriminationbetweenlongandshort haulsonrails,requiredrailroadstopublishreasonablerateschedules.Interstate CommerceCommissioncreatedtoenforcethelaw,basicallyfailed. BenjaminHarrison Republicanwhowon1888electionaftercorruption. ShermanAntitrustAct(1890):Supposedtohelpdamagemonopolies,becomessymbolic butnotactuallyhelpful. McKinleyTariff(1890):Raisestariffs,causesbacklashagainstRepublicans. ShermanSilverPurchaseAct(1890):Governmentbeginsbuyingsilver.Repealedin1893 byCleveland.

POPULISM
TheGrange Farmorganizationcreatedin1860s.Originallycreatedtoteachfarmersnewtechniques andcombatfrontierloneliness.Becameaunitforpoliticalchangeagainstmonopolies,esp RRsandwarehouses.Lostpowerin1870swhenagriculturalprosperityroseagain. FarmersAlliances Createdin1875.Encouragedcooperation,helpedouteconomically.Womenwereallowed tovotew/inAlliances.Supportedsuffrageforwomen.PromptedcreationofPeoplesParty. MaryLease:Femaleoratorw/inAlliances. PeoplesParty(PopulistParty) Constituency:Farmers.Laborneverreallybecameanimportantpartbecausefreesilver wouldhaveloweredtheirbuyingpower:theirwageswouldstaythesamewhilethemoney

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lostvalue. OmahaPlatform:Supportedremonetizationofsilverat16to1ratesubtreasuriesto strengthencooperativeslikeFarmersAlliancesabolitionofnationalbankdirectelectionof senatorsrestrictedimmigration8hourworkdayforpublicworkersabolitionofPinkerton Agencyandsingletermsforthepresident.

ECONOMY
Panicof1893 PhiladelphiaandReadingRailroaddeclaredbankruptcyin1893alongsideNationalCordage Company,causingstockmarketcrash,bankfailures,creditcontraction,andnewbusiness failures.Alsocausedbylowerpurchasingpoweroffarmers,shrinkingofEuropeanmarkets forAmericangoods,withdrawalofforeigninvestmentsinU.S.,andtoorapidexpansionof RRs. CoxeysArmy GroupofunemployedpeopleledbyJacobCoxeywhichmarchedonWashingtonin1894. 500ofthemmakeittothecapital,theyarearrestedandignored. FreeSilver Theideaofreinsertingsilverintothecurrency,whichwouldcauseinflation.Favoredby farmersbecauseitwouldallowthemtopaybacktheirloans,hatedbyindustrialistsand bankersbecauseitwouldlessenthevalueoftheloanstheyhadgiven.

POLITICS
Electionof1896 WilliamJenningsBryan:Democraticnomineein1896,supportedbyPopulists. CrossofGoldSpeech:SpeechBryandeliveredat1896DemocraticNational Conventioninsupportoffreesilver. Platform:Tariffreductions,incometax,strictercontroloftrusts,freesilver HeavyCampaigning:Bryanhadverylittlecampaigningmoney.Hetraveled aroundthecountrybytraingivingspeechesandcampaigningactively. WilliamMcKinley:Republicannominee. FrontPorchCampaign:McKinleyhadwaytoomuchcampaigningmoney, thankstocampaignstrategistMarkHanna..Hewasabletocampaignliterallyfrom hishouse,invitingreportersoverfordinner. TriumphofGoldoverSilver:McKinleyjustbarelywon,thusensuringthedefeat ofthesilverplatform.GoldStandardAct(1900)confirmedgoldstandard. DeathofthePopulistParty AfteraligningthemselveswiththeDemocratsandtheirloss,thePopulistPartybeganto dissolveastheeconomyexperiencedrapidchange,smallproducersandfarmersfaded away,racecontinuedtodividethepartyespintheSouth,thepartyfailedtobreakexisting partyloyalties,andmostoftheiragendaiscooptedbyDems.

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IMPERIALISM(chapter20)
BEGINNINGSOFIMPERIALISM
Justification JohnFisketooksocialDarwinismandappliedittoaninternationalscale.Hesaidonlyfit nationswouldsurvive,andonlybycontinuingtoevolve.AlfredThayerMahanalsosupported imperialismhesaidanationspowercamefromitsnavalabilities,bothintradeand military.ImperialismwouldhelpOrientaltradeandrevitalizethecountrypostwar. Opposition AntiImperialistLeagueformedin1898,includingCarnegie,MarkTwain,SamuelGompers, andotherprominentmembersofsociety.PopularintheNorthEastandopposedtheTreaty ofParisandimperialism.Theyweremotivatedbyracism,thebeliefthatimperialismwas immoral,fearofcheaplabor,andfearofcompetitionforgrowers. Alaska WegotitfromRussiain1867.Thatsbeenprettymuchitforthelastcenturyandahalf. LatinAmerica PanAmericanUnioncreatedin1889byPanAmCongress/secretaryofstateJamesG. Blaine.Servedasaclearinghousefordistributioninfo.Landdisputetookplacein1895b/w VenezuelaandGreatBritain.U.S.saidBritainwasviolatingMonroeDoctrine,Britain agreedtoarbitration. HawaiiandSamoa Hawaiiseconomywasbasedonsugartradew/U.S.,U.S.usedthatinfluencetostarta revoltin1893andthenannexedthecountryin1898.SamoanIslandsincludedinadispute amongstU.S.,Germany,andGB.Endedin1899w/U.S.andGermanysplittingthe islands.

SPANISHAMERICANWAR
Cuba Cubanrevoltbeganin1895,SpanishgeneralValerianoWeylerrespondsw/brutality. Clevelanddeclaresneutrality,thenMcKinleysaysheopposestheSpanish.TheAmerican battleshipMainewasblownupandwarisdeclaredin1898.Warlastedfourmonths,and exposedAfricanAmericantroopstotheraciallyintegratedmilitaryoftheCubans.Teddy RooseveltgainsfameinhiscavalryunittheRoughRidersandiselectedpresidentin1900. TreatyofParis,1898,endsthewar. Philippines GeorgeDeweytookManilaBayin1898,becominganationalheroandwinningcontrolof thePhilippinesfortheU.S. PuertoRico SlaverywasabolishedinPRin1873,U.S.tookoverin1898.ForakerActendedmilitary ruleandestablishedAmericangovernorw/2chamberlegislaturemadeupofAmerican filledupperhouseandalowerhouse.JonesActin1917makesPuertoRicansAmerican citizens.

POLITICS
PlattAmendment CubamadeaconstitutionthatdidntmentiontheU.S.,U.S.respondedbybarringCuba

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frommakingtreatieswithothernations,givingtheU.S.therighttointervenetopreserve Cubanindependence,andallowtheconstructionofAmericannavalbasesinCuba.Several revoltstookplace. EconomicDominance Americawasextremelyprotectiveofitsnewlands,andalmosteverythingineachwas absenteeownedbyAmericans. PhilippineWar EmilioAguinaldoledFilipinoresistance.Americanresponseisextremelybrutal.Aguinaldo wascapturedin1901,beginningtheendoftheconflict,whichwasovercompletelyin1906. OpenDoorPolicy OpenDoornotesin1899soughttomakeallnationswithspheresofinfluenceinChina respectothernationsintheirsphere,haveChineseofficialscontinuetocollecttariffsinall spheres,andhavenationsnotdiscriminateagainstothernationsinlevyingtaxes.Initially disliked,untilBoxerRebellionin1900,afterwhichthepolicywasaccepted. MilitaryReforms Between1900and1903,theAmericanarmywasenlarged,theNationalGuardwas standardized,officertrainingwascreated,andtheJointChiefsofStaffwascreated.

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PROGRESSIVISM(chapter21)
BEGINNINGSOFPROGRESSIVISM
Muckrakers Journalistsandphotographersetcthattriedtoexposethehorrorsofindustrialworking conditions.IdaTarbell,journalist,exposedStandardOilTrust.LincolnSteffens,reporter, exposedmanypoliticalmachines. SocialGospel MovementincludingtheSalvationArmythatstrovetoreformcities.Religionpoweredthe socialmovement,especiallyCatholicism. SettlementHousesandFemaleLabor SettlementHouseswerehousescreatedtoreducestressontenementbuildings,most famouswastheHullHouseinChicagoin1889,openedbyJaneAddams.Helped immigrantsacclimatetoAmericanlife.Manycollegewomenworkedinthehouses.Women alsoworkedasphysicians,lawyers,engineers,scientists,andcorporatemanagers,though stillinsmallnumbers.Mostbecameteachers. AdvancedOrganizations AmericanMedicalAssociation,1901,calledforstrict,scientificstandardsforadmissionto thepracticeofmedicine.Stateandlocallawsgenerallybegantosupportthiscall.National AssociationofManufacturers,1895,andChamberofCommerce,1912,forbusinessmen.

SOURCES
Women Marriage:Risingnumberofunmarriedwomen.Manysinglewomenlivedtogetherin BostonMarriages,sometimesromantically.Divorceratesrose. Clubs:OrganizedbyGeneralFederationofWomensClubs,initiallycreatedforcultural activities,becamecentersforsocialbetterment.Someclubsacceptedblacks,butmost didntpromptingthecreationoftheNationalAssociationofColoredWomen,whichwas modeledonitswhitecounterpartwithspecialemphasisonracespecificissueslike lynchingetc. Suffrage ArgumentsFor:Womendeservesamerightsasmen.Womenaremothers secondandpartofsocietyfirst.NationalAmericanWomanSuffrageAssociation supportedsuffrage.Alternativeargument:becausewomenwereinadifferent sphere,theyhadspecialinputthatwasvaluabletoelectorate,andcouldhelp temperance. ArgumentsAgainst:Womenbelongedinthedomesticsphere. 19thAmendment:Ratifiedin1920,gavewomensuffrage. EqualRightsAmendment:Proposedafter19thAmendmenttofurtherprotectthe rightsofwomen,supportedonlybythemoreradicalfeminists.Failedtopass. AfricanAmericans W.E.B.DuBois,educatedatHarvard,advocatedthattalentedblacksaspiretothe professionsandfightfortheimmediaterestorationoftheircivilrights.NAACPfoundedin 1909,usedlawsuitstowinbattlesforAfricanAmericans. Labor TriangleShirtwaistFire,1911,NY,ignitedthefireunderlaborreformthroughlegislation, contrarytothetraditionalavenueforlaborreformthroughunionsinNY.

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Westerners WesternProgressivestargetedthefederalgovernmentbecausestatescouldnotenactreal reform.

GOVERNMENT
Cities States Parties CommissionPlan:Mayorsandcitycouncilsarereplacedbynonpartisancommissions. CityManagerPlan:Electedofficialshireoutsideexpertstotakecontrolofcityaffairs. Initiative:Citizenscandirectlyproposelegislationandhavegeneralelectionsonthem. Referendum:Legislativeactionscanbeputtogeneralelections. Recall:Citizenscanremoveofficialsfromoffice. DirectPrimary:Citizenscandirectlyelectsenators(17thAmendment). RobertLaFollette:FamousstatewidereformerasGovernorofWisconsin. GreenbackismandPopulismbothbegintounderminethetraditionalpartydichotomyb/w DemsandRepsbyintroducing3rdparty.Secretballotbegantohelpasitgrewin popularity.Voterturnoutdecreaseddramatically.Interestgroupsdeveloped.

MOVEMENTS
Temperance Experiencedaresurgenceinthe1870s.WomensChristianTemperanceUnion,1873,led after1879byFrancesWillard.Publicizedevilsofalcohol.AntiSaloonLeaguehelpspress forlegislationin1893.EighteenthAmendment,ratified1919,outlawsalcohol. Immigration Mostallreformerssawuncheckedimmigrationasabadthing,throughacombinationof nativismandeugenics(thescienceofalteringthereproductiveprocessesofplantsand animalstoproducenewhybridsorbreeds). Socialism EugeneDebsledtheparty,whichreachedpeakmembershipofabout1million,especially amongGermans,Jews,andProtestantfarmersinthemidwest.Neverachievedmainstream support. DecentralizationandRegulation Centralizationhaderodedtheabilityoftheindividualtocontrolitsowndestinyand encouragedabusesofpower.Someprogressives,however,believedthatgovernment shoulddistinguishbetweengoodandbadtrusts,regulatingonlythebad.

PEOPLE
JaneAddams:Creatorofthefirstsettlementhouse,HullHouserelativelysuccessfulingivingpoor immigrantsaplacetolive. JacobCoxey:LedunemployedworkersonamarchonWashington.Basicallyfailed. EugeneDebs:Socialist,leaderoftheIndustrialWorkersoftheWorldandthePullmanStrike. W.E.B.DuBois:FoundedtheNAACPin1909.Encouragedblackstoentertheprofessionsand demandimmediaterestorationofcivilrights. EmmaGoldman:Anarchist,involvedinattemptedmurderofHenryClayFrick.Supportedunions. HelenHuntJackson:AmericanIndianactivist,wroteACenturyofDishonordetailinggovernment

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transgressionsagainstAmericanIndians. MotherJones:Supportedunionsandopposedchildlabor. RobertLaFollette:GovernorofWisconsinand1912presidentialcandidatebecamenational leaderofprogressivismbutwasneverelectedpresident. MaryLease:Womenssuffragist,wroteTheProblemofCivilizationSolved.Contributedto19th Amendment. JohnMitchell:PresidentoftheUnitedMineWorkersheadoftheAFL. JohnMuir:Conservationistnationalparkssuccessfulinprotectingnaturallands. ThomasNast:Muckraker/politicalcartoonistagainstmachinepoliticssuccessfullydestroyed TammanyHall. CarrieNation:Leaderintemperancemovement.Usedanaxeorsomething.LedtoProhibition. AlicePaul:Womenssuffragist,helpedpassthe19thAmendment. GiffordPinchot:Conservationist,headoftheDivisionofForestry. JacobRiis:Muckraker/photographerinNewYork.Exposedtheharshconditionsoftenementsin whichimpoverishedimmigrantsusuallylived. MargaretSanger:Womenssuffragist,mainlyforbirthcontrollargelyfailedasabortionandmost birthcontroloptionsremainedillegal. UptonSinclair:Muckrakeragainstfoodproductionsuccessfullyexposedlackofhygienein manufacturingoffoods.InitiatedPureFoodandDrugActandMeatInspectionAct.Firstprioritywas promotingsocialistideals,notexposingmeatpackingindustryflaws. LincolnSteffens:Muckrakeragainsturbanpoliticsandcorruptionsuccessfullyexposedflawsin majorcities. IdaTarbell:Muckraker/authorofTheHistoryoftheStandardOilCompany.Exposedoilcorruption. BookerT.Washington:Blackcivilrightsactivistwhoadvocatedamoregradualearningofcivil rights.

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REFORM(chapter22)
ROOSEVELTPRESIDENCY
FederalPowerandTrustbusting Rooseveltbelievedgovernmentshouldprotectthepublicgoodthroughregulationand occasionaltrustbusting.BrokeuptheNorthernSecuritiesCompanyin1902,butdidnot attackanyofthemajortrusts.Healsohelpedunionsoccasionally,butdidnotsee particularlyfavoreitherworkersoremployers. SquareDeal Afterwinningreelectionin1904,pushedforregulationandarbitrationtoprovideasquare dealtoeveryone.PassedtheHepburnActformildregulationofrailroadsandthePure FoodandDrugAct.Alsopushedfor,butdidnotreceive,moreadvancedreform. ConservationandPreservation Firstsupporterofconversation,givingfederalaidtopreservelandandcreatingmanyparks. BiggestcontroversywasovertheHetchHetchydamnaturalistslostbutmadethe conservationistmovementmainstream. Panicof1907 ConservativesblamedRooseveltforthelatesteconomicdownturn.Insteadoftryingtofixit, heallowedbusinessleaderslikeJ.P.Morgantosolvethecrisisbymergingmore companiestogetridofbadcompetition.

TAFTPRESIDENCY
TroubleswithProgressives PayneAldrichTariff:Tafttriedtoappeaseprogressivesbyloweringtariffs,buthewasnot willingtochallengeCongressionalconservatives.Thenewtariffdidnotsatisfyprogressives. BallingerPinchotDispute:GiffordPinchot(conservationist,headofForestService)made publicascandalinvolvingRichardBallinger(nonconservationist,InteriorSecretary) Pinchotwasfired,makingprogressivesveryangryatTaft. Electionof1912 WilliamTaft:QuietlywontheRepublicannominationwhenpartyleadersvotedforhimand Rooseveltdecidedtowalkoutoftheconventionandformhisownparty. TheodoreRoosevelt:AnnouncedaNewNationalismin1910thatwasextremely progressive.DecidedtorunforpresidentafterLaFollettedroppedout.Walkedoutofthe RepublicanconventionwhenTaftwasabouttowinandformedtheProgressiveParty. Failedtogainenoughsupportbecausemanyprogressivesfelttheneedtostayinthe RepublicanParty. RobertLaFollette:Apopularcandidatebecausehewastheepicsymbolof progressivism,butsufferedanervousbreakdownanddroppedout. WoodrowWilson:Anunknown,progressiveNewJerseygovernorwhomanagedtowinas aDemocratbecausetheRepublicansweresplitbetweenTaftandRoosevelt.

WILSONPRESIDENCY
NewFreedom 16thAmendment:Allowedforthecreationofanincometax.Wilsonpassedasmall incometaxin1913tomakeupforanewlyloweredtariff. FederalReserveAct:Passedin1913toreformthebankingsystem.Createdtwelve

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regionalbanksandanationalboardthatwouldsupportbanksandcontroltheeconomyby settinginterestratesandshiftingfundsbetweenbankstosavethemquickly. FederalTradeCommissionActandClaytonAntitrustAct:Supervisedandregulated businessestoprotectagainstunfairtradepracticesandinvestigateunlawfulcompanies. ChildLaborLaws:Firstnationallegislationprotectingchildren.Wilsonsupportedthese lawstoshowthattherewasmorereformthanwhatwaspassedearlyinhisterm.

EARLYTWENTIETHCENTURYFOREIGNAFFAIRS
Roosevelt CivilizationPolicy:Believedwhiteand/oreconomicallydevelopednationsweresuperior touncivilizednationsandthatcivilizednationsshouldinterveneandtakeadvantage. Asia:HelpedendtheRussoJapaneseWar.FearedJapanesemilitaryexpansionhurting theU.S.,sohecreatedaGreatWhiteFleettotourtheworldandintimidateJapan. LatinAmerica: RooseveltCorollary:AddedtotheMonroeDoctrinebyaffirmingthattheU.S. couldinterveneinLatinAmericanaffairsifnationscouldnotmaintainorder themselves.FirstusedtoessentiallytakecontroloftheDominicanRepublicto ensureitpaiddownmassivedebtstoEurope. PanamaCanal:Rooseveltsbiggestaccomplishment.Triedtosecureperpetual rightstocontrolacanalzoneinColombia.WhenColombiaobjected,hefundeda revolutioninPanama(wherethecanalwouldbe)andsecuredperpetualrightsfrom thenewPanamaniangovernment. Taft ProtectedAmericaneconomicinterests,knownbycriticsasdollardiplomacy.Intervened inNicaraguatoprotectAmericaninterestsandgivetheU.S.economicandmilitarycontrol. Wilson LatinAmerica:VigorouslyprotectedAmericabyoccupying/sendingtroopstothe DominicanRepublic,Haiti,Nicaragua,andtheVirginIslands. Mexico:Severalregimestriedtotakepowerinthe1910s,butAmericarefusedto recognizethem,eitherbecausetheydidntprotectAmericanbusinessesorbecausethey failedtoalignwithWilsonsmoraldiplomacy.Wilsonusedasmallincidenttointervene againsttheHuertaregimeandkilled126MexicansatVeracruz.Afterthat,hespenttwo yearsdebatingwhethertorecognizethenewCarranzagovernment,duringwhichtimehe triedtokillPanchoVillaandinsteadkilleddozensofcitizensthatnearlyledtowar.

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WORLDWARI(chapter23)
NEUTRALITY
SubmarineWarfare Lusitania:OnMay7,1915,GermantorpedoessunktheBritishpassengerliner,the Lusitania.Manypassengers,including128Americans,drowned.Thiswasthefirstincident thatchallengedU.S.neutrality.PublicsentimentimmediatelyshiftedagainstGermany. SussexPledge:AfteraGermantorpedostrucktheSussex,Wilsonthreatenedtocut diplomacywithGermany.Inresponse,GermanymadetheSussexpledge,whichpromised thatGermanywouldntsinkmerchant/passengershipswithoutwarning.Americassideof thebargainwasthatithadtopersuadeBritaintoenditsblockadeofGermanports. EconomicLinkswithBritainandFrance DespitetheU.S.sneutrality,itseconomywasclosewiththatofGreatBritainandFrance. Between1914and1917,tradewiththeAlliesquadrupled.Itwasvirtuallynonexistentwith Germany.U.S.governmentallowedbankerslikeJ.P.MorgantoextendcredittoBritainand Francetoaidtheirpurchasingofsupplies. PublicOpinion Ethnicinfluences:By1914,immigrantsmadeupover30%oftheU.S.population. Naturally,theyweresympathetictotheirhomelands.AlthoughGermanandIrish AmericanshadgoodreasontoresenttoBritish,themajorityofnativebornAmericans supportedtheallies. Britishwarpropaganda:GreatBritaincontrolledtheTransAtlanticcable,whichvirtually allowedthemtocherrypicktheinformationthattheU.S.receivedfromEurope. TheWarDebate Preparedness:Soonafterthewarbrokeout,EasternRepublicansbehindRoosevelt realizedthattheU.S.wasntreadyforabigwar.Wilsoninitiallyopposedthemeasures proposedbytheNationalSecurityLeague,anorganizationtopromotepreparednessand extendaidtoAlliesifneeded.Inlate1915hechangedhispolicyandurgedambitious expansionofarmedforces. OppositiontoWar:AmericansintheMidwestandWestespeciallyopposedthemilitary preparationbecausetheythoughtitwouldleadtoU.S.entry.GroupslikePopulists, Progressives,andSocialistscampaignedagainstthewar. Electionof1916:Wilsonwon,campaigningonanowarplatform.CharlesHughesranfor theRepublicanParty. PeaceEfforts:Wilsontriedtomaintainhispartyspromisetostayneutral.In1917,Wilson declaredU.S.commitmenttotheideaofpeacewithoutvictory.

WORLDWARI
DecisionsforWar ZimmermannTelegram:BritishintelligenceinterceptedatelegramfromGermanyto MexicothatproposedMexicoallywithGermanyinreturnforGermanaidinrecoveringlost MexicanterritorieslikeTexasandArizona.Thetelegramarousednationalistangerand convincedWilsonthatGermanyexpectedwar. RussianRevolution:ItbotheredWilsonthatRussia,oneoftheAllies,wasgovernedbyan autocraticczar.TheMarch1917revolutionmarkedtheendoftheczaristgovernmentand proclaimedarepublic.AnotherbarriertoU.S.participationwasremoved. Renewedsubmarineattacks:Germansresumedthispracticein1917.Theyreasoned

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thatGermanywouldwinthewarbycuttingoffU.S.suppliestotheAlliesbeforeAmericans couldrespond.Also,GermanyfeltAmericahadbrokentheSussexPledgebyfailingto persuadeBritaintoenditsblockade.DaysafterGermanynotifiedtheU.S.,Wilsonbroke offdiplomaticrelations. DeclarationofWar:OnApril2,1917,WilsonaskedCongressforadeclarationofwar supportedbyabigmajority. Mobilization IndustryandLabor:WhiletheU.S.trainedtroops,allitcoulddofortheAllieswassend suppliesandweapons.Wilsoncreatedabunchofagenciestoachievethis. BernardBaruchsWarIndustriesBoardsetproductionprioritiesandcentralized controloverrawmaterialsandtheirprices. HerbertHoover,atthetimeanengineer,ledtheFoodAdministration,whichtried toconserveasmuchfood(meatandbread)aspossibleandthenshipittoFrench andBritishtroops. HarryGarfieldsFuelAdministrationtriedtosavecoal. FormerpresidentTaftarbitrateddisputesbetweenworkersandemployersashead oftheNationalWarLaborBoard. Finance:Tofinancethewar,effortsweretakenthatrangedfromincreasedincometaxes toLibertyBonds. PublicOpinionandCivilLiberties:TheU.S.governmentusedpatrioticpersuasionand legalintimidationtocreatepublicsupportforthewar.GeorgeCreel,progressivejournalist, tookchargeofawarpropagandaagencythatspanneddifferentarenasofthemedia. EspionageandSeditionActs:TheEspionageActof1917providedfor imprisonmentforpeoplewhotriedtoinciterebellioninthemilitaryorobstructthe draft.TheSeditionActprohibitedanyonefrommakingdisloyalorabusive remarksaboutthegovernment.Manywereprosecutedandjailedunderthese provisions,EugeneDebsamongthem. Schenckv.UnitedStates(1919):TheSupremeCourtupheldtheconstitutionality oftheEspionageAct.Apparently,freespeechcouldbelimitedwhenitthreatened publicsafety. ArmedForces SelectiveServiceAct(1917):Thiswasademocraticmethodforensuringthat allgroupsofthepopulationwouldbecalledintoservice.Thesedrafteesprovided overhalfthetotalAmericantroops. EffectsonAmericanSociety Women:filledintotheworkforceasmenweredraftedintothearmy. Mexicans:crossedthebordertotakethejobopportunitiesaswell. AfricanAmericans:Manyservedinthewarinsegregatedunits.Activistslike W.E.B.DuBoisthoughtthecontributionwouldearnblacksequalrightswhenthey returnedhome.Hewaswrong. FightingtheWar NavalOperations:U.S.respondedtoGermansubwarfarethroughanadvancedship constructionprogramandaconvoysystemofarmedescortsforgroupsofmerchants ships. AmericanExpeditionaryForce:U.S.troopsheldthelineagainstthelastGermanattack atChateauThierry.AnalliedoffensivethroughtheArgonneForestdrovetheGermanarmy backontoitsownterritory.Germanysignedanarmisticeon11/11/1918.Eventhoughthere hadonlybeenafewmonthsoffighting,almost49,000U.S.troopsdiedincombat110,000

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diedtotal,partiallyduetodisease. Peace FourteenPoints:WilsonspeaceplanthathepresentedtoCongress. Recognitionoffreedomoftheseas Anendtosecrettreaties Reductionofnationalarmaments Animpartialadjustmentofallcolonialclaims SelfdeterminationforthedifferentnationalitieswithinAustriaHungary Ageneralassociationofnations...forthepurposeofaffordingmutualguarantees ofpoliticalindependenceandterritorialintegritytogreatandsmallstatesalike. TreatyofVersailles:WilsonwenttoParistodefendhisPoints.Othernationswanted revengeagainstcompensationagainstGermanyandcompensation.Afterawhile,Wilson concededmostofhisFourteenPoints.HedemandedtheacceptanceoftheLeagueof Nations. Peaceterms: 1. Germanywouldbedisarmedandstrippedofitscolonies.Itwouldadmit guiltforthewar,giveFrancetheRhineland,andpayBritainandFrance. 2. AlliestooktheterritoriesonceheldbytheCentralPowers.Mostwere grantedindependence. 3. SignersofthetreatywouldjointheLeagueofNations. BattleforRatification:WilsonneededtowintwothirdsofSenateapprovalforallpartsof thetreaty.MostRepublicansopposedtheLeagueofNationsprovision. Increasedpartisanship:Inthe1918election,Republicanswonamajorityinthe HouseandSenate.Theirsupportwasimportantforratification. Irreconcilablesandreservationists:Senatorsopposedtothetreatyfellintotwo groups.IrreconcilableswouldrejectU.S.membershipintheLeaguenomatter what.Reservationists,headedbyHenryCabotLodge,wouldaccepttheLeagueif certainreservationswereadded. Wilsonswesterntour:Torallypublicsupport,Wilsonwentonaspeakingtourin thewarintheWest.Afteronespeechhecollapsedandhadastrokedayslater. TheSenaterejectedthetreatytwice(11/1919and11/1920).U.S.officiallyended thewarin1921withoutratifyingthetreatyorjoiningtheLeague. PostwarProblems Demobilization:MillionsofAmericantroopshadtroublefindingjobswhentheygothome. Thewartimebusinessboomfadedandfarmersbegantostrugglefromthefallingprices. TheRedScare:WidespreadfearofsocialismfueledbyRussiancommunism. Palmerraids:Afteraseriesofunexplainedbombings,AttorneyGeneralPalmer gatheredinformationonradicalsandorderedmassarrestsofanarchists, Socialists,andlaboragitators.Manywerearrestedbasedonlittleevidence. PalmerwarnedofriotsonMayDay,1920,butitwasahoaxandhelostcredibility. LaborConflict:Althoughlaborunionshadmadegainsduringthewar,aseriesofstrikesin 1919turnedpublicopinionagainstthem. Strikesof1919:ThefirststrikewasapeacefuloneinSeattle.Next,aBoston strikeprovokedCoolidgetodeploytheNationalGuardtodissolvethestrike.There wasalittlebitofviolence. RaceRiots:Migrationofblackstonortherncitiesincreasedtensions.Variousriotsbroke out,theworstinChicagoin1919.40diedand500wereinjured.Southwasbadtoo.

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ROARINGTWENTIES(chapter24)
POLITICS
Electionof1820 JamesCox/FranklinRoosevelt:DemocraticticketlastcampaignforFDRbeforepolio. WarrenHarding/CalvinCoolidge:Republicanticket.Hardingwasambiguousonthe LeagueofNationsvoteandcoinedthephrasereturntonormalcyhisfrontporch campaignwoninalandslide. WarrenHarding Havingnotexpectedtobecomepresident,hedidverylittleofimportanceandreliedonthe RepublicanCongressandhiscabinetappointeestogetthingsdone,mainlyadecreasein theincometax.Administrationplaguedbyscandal,notablyTeapotDome(acabinet memberhadacceptedbribesforoilleases).Diedin1923. CalvinCoolidge Extremelyfiscallyconservativeandbelievedinlimitedgovernmentthebusinessof Americaisbusiness.DefeatedRobertLaFollette,progressivechampion,inthe1924 election. Electionof1828 AlSmith:DemocraticcandidateandgovernorofNewYork.FirstCatholictorunfor president. HerbertHoover:Republicancandidate,formerSecretaryofCommerceandheadofthe FoodAdministrationduringWWI.Promotedassociationalism(businessesorganizinginto nationaltradegroupstomakeproductionefficient)andacontinuationoftheprosperityof the1920s.Woninalandslide.

ECONOMY
Businesses FrederickTaylorsmanagementtechniquesreformedbusinessmodelsimprovementof massproduction(assemblyline)andtheformationoftradeassociationspromoted efficiency.Newenergieslikeoilandelectricitygreatlyincreasedfactoryspeed.Also,the laidbackgovernmentgavecorporationstaxbreaksanddidnotengageintrustbusting. Labor Unionssawdeclinesinmembership,mainlyduetotheopenshoppolicy(employeeswere notrequiredtojoinunions)thatmanybusinessesadopted.Workerunrestwasquietedby welfarecapitalism,inwhichworkersweregivenhigherwagesandbenefits,although workersstillstruggledtostayafloat.Womenworkedingreaternumbers,butonlyin pinkcollarjobslowskilljobsreservedforthatgenderonly. Farmers Enhancementoffarmmachineryallowedfarmerstoproducemuchmore,butthisledtoa sharpdeclineincropprices.DuringWWI,farmpriceswerefixedatminimumlevelstokeep thefarmersafloat,butthatendedafterthewarfarmersdemandedanewpolicycalled paritytosetpriceminimums.Coolidgevetoedaparitybill. Government Taxes:Republicanpresidentspassedmajortaxcutsforthewealthy(trickledown economics).Theburdenfortaxrevenuefellonthepoorandmiddleclass. Tariffs:FordneyMcCumberTariff(1922)sharplyincreasedtariffstoprotectAmerican businesses.

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Trusts:Antitrustlegislationwasnotenforced. Welfare:Allwelfareandaidprogramswererejected. MuscleShoals:AprojecttoprovideelectricitytotheMidwesteventuallybecame theTennesseeValleyAuthorityintheNewDeal. MississippiFloodRelief:CoolidgerefusedtohelpMississippifarmersinneed. Adkinsv.ChildrensHospital(1923):ReversedMullerv.Oregon(1908),which hadallowedrestrictionsonworkinghoursforwomen,byarguingthatthe19th Amendmentmadewomenequaltomenandthereforedidnotdeservespecial privilegeslikefairworkinghours.

CULTURE
Consumerism Industrialization(massproductionofgoods)allowedtheaverageAmericantobuyluxuries forpleasure,ratherthanjustbasicitems.Theautomobilewasthemostpopularpurchaseof the20s.Carsallowedpeopletoventureintotheworld,escapecongestedcities,andtake vacations.Theradiowasextremelypopularandmadethenationmoreinterconnectedwhile alsoturningcertainpeopleintoheroes(e.g.BabeRuth,CharlesLindbergh). Women Social:Challengedsocialboundariesbybecomingmoremorallyopenandpromiscuous. Flappersworeflashyclothes,wenttonightclubs,andweregenerallyindependent.Their newmoralopennesscreatedtheideaoftheemancipatedwoman.However,whenthey marriedtheyfellintothesametraditionalgenderroles. Economic:Workedinlowskilljobsthatpaidfarlessthanmen. Political:LeagueofWomenVoterscreatedtorallypoliticalsupportonbothsidesofthe aislefromwomen,butitturnedoutwomenvotedalmostexactlythesamewaymendid (usuallyRepublicaninthe1920s). Religion Fundamentalism:EverywordintheBibleislawandcannotbequestioned.Theworldwas formedthroughcreationism. Modernism:Tookaliberal(open)viewoftheBibleandbelievedGodcouldstillexist,even withevolutioninsteadofcreationism. ScopesTrial:In1925,thenationwascaptivatedbyatrialinwhichJohnScopeswas arrestedforteachingevolutioninaTennesseepublicschool,whichwasillegal.Clarence Darrow,arguingformodernism,defeatedWilliamJenningsBryan,afundamentalist,even thoughScopestechnicallylostthetrial.Thequestionoflifesoriginwasthrustcenterstage. Literature Manyauthorsweredisenchantedwithwhattheysawasalossofmoralityandcalled themselvespartofalostgeneration.ErnestHemingway,T.S.Eliot,F.ScottFitzgerald, andotherssaidthewarwasaprobusinessplotandhatedtheriseofconsumerism. Prohibition The18thAmendmentof1919faileddramaticallytostopalcoholconsumption.Liquorwas smuggledacrossthecountryintospeakeasies(secretnightclubs).Gangshadviolentfights overbootleggingorganizedcrimebecameinstitutionalized.Republicanscontinuedto supportProhibition,butby1933crimehadbecomesorampantthatithadtoberepealed. Nativism Immigration:Thepubliconceagaincalledforrestrictionsonimmigrationagainsteastern andsouthernEuropeans,whoweretakingjobsandspreadingradical,undemocratic

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ideals.Congresspassedquotasin1921and1924thatsharplylimitedimmigration. SaccoandVanzetti:TwoItalianimmigrantswereconvictedofmurderand sentencedtodeathmanybelievedtheywereinnocentandwerewrongly persecutedbecausetheywereforeignersandanarchists. KuKluxKlan:TheKKKbecameextremelypowerfulagainstblacks,Catholics,Jews, immigrants,andCommunistsanyoneconsideredunAmerican.Itsmembershipincrease waspartiallyduetothehatefulmovieBirthofaNation.Manypeoplewereterrorized,hung, andkilled.TheKKKlostpowerinthelate1920s,whenIndianaKlanchiefDavid Stephensonwasconvictedofmurder,givingitabadreputation.

FOREIGNAFFAIRS
Disarmament Ratherthanreturntoisolationism,RepublicanpresidentsdecidedtopromoteAmerican interestsandworldpeace. WashingtonConference:A1921navaldisarmamentmeetingresultingin: FivePowerPact:Establishedlimitsfornavysizeamongtheworldsfivebiggest naviesandreducedAmericanandBritishpresenceinthePacific. FourPowerPact:U.S.,France,Britain,andJapanpromisedtorespecteach othersPacificterritories. NinePowerPact:AgreedtocontinuetheOpenDoorPolicyinChina. KelloggBriandPact:Theworldpeacemovementconcludedwithatreaty,initiatedbythe U.S.andFrancebutsignedbyeveryone,thatpromisednottouseaggressivewarasa meansofattainingnationalgoals.Butdefensivewarwasstillallowed,andtherewasno systemtopreventnationsfrombreakingthetreaty. BusinessInterests LatinAmerica:AmericanbusinessesinvestedheavilyinsmallnationslikeMexico, Nicaragua,andHaiti.AlthoughAmericanmilitarypresencewasreduced,thosenationsstill owedhugedebtstoAmerica,forcingthemtostaydependentonU.S.business. Tariffs:TheFordneyMcCumberTariffof1922greatlyraisedforeigntariffs.European nationsbecameunabletopayfortheirdebtsbecausetheycouldnotproduceorimportthe goodstheyneeded,sotheyraisedtheirowntariffsonAmerica.Internationaltradeground toahalt,eventuallyhelpingcausetheworldwideGreatDepression. WarDebts HardingandCoolidgedemandedthatBritainandFrancepaybackallofthewartimeloans Americahadmadetothem,eventhoughhightariffsmadethatunrealisticandtheother nationsarguedtheloanshadbeenspenttobuyAmericansupplies. DawesPlan:In1924,anagreementwasnegotiatedinwhichU.S.bankslentGermanya lotofmoneytopaybackreparationstoBritainandFrance,whowouldthenpaybackwar debtstoAmerica.Thiseasyflowofmoney(circularloans)improvedtheeconomiesofall nations,butEuropebecametoodependentonthisrecklessmoney,causingittocrash whentheU.S.stoppedmakingloansin1929.Afterthisordeal,EuropeansfeltAmericawas toogreedy,andAmericafeltitsinvolvementinEuropehadruinedthenationandwasa goodreasontosupportisolation.

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GREATDEPRESSION(chapter25)
CAUSES
Automation:Mademanyindustrialworkersirrelevantandhurtthepoorsabilitytogetjobs. Banks:CompletelyunregulatedfreetomakeloanstoanyAmericans,eventhoughmostloans wereextremelyriskyandputboththebanksanddepositorsatrisk. Credit:Thefreewheelinglendingofbanksallowedconsumerstospendwildlyonstocksand productsusingcredit(ormargin),takingloansandpayingonly10%oftheactualprice.Butifan investmentwasnotsuccessful,therewasnowayfortheaveragepersontoeverpaybacktheir debts. Europe:Europeaneconomies,stillhurtingpostWWI,reliedheavilyonAmericaninvestment,which puttheU.S.atrisk.Also,FranceandBritainfailedtopaybackitshugeloanstoU.S.banks,a resultofGermanysinabilitytopaywarreparations. Maldistributionofincome:Thetop1%ofthepopulationhad75%ofthewealth.Suchasmall numberofpeoplecouldnotpurchaseenoughgoodstoabsorbwhattheeconomyproduced. Overproduction:Farmerscontinuedtoproducemassivesurplusesthatdecreasedpricesand madeithardtostayafloat.Industrieswerealsocreatingtoomanyproductsforthetopheavy economytobuy. StockMarket:ThemarketcrashedonBlackTuesdayinOctober1929,wipingoutmillionsof investors. Tariffs:TheFordneyMcCumberTariffof1922raisedtariffsto38.5%,forcingothernationstoset retaliatorytariffsthathurttradeandhadanadverseimpactontheAmericaneconomy.

HOOVERPRESIDENCY
Theories Economic:BelievedAmericawouldquicklyrecoverfromthecrash,andthatthe governmentshouldnottrytoaffectthehandofthefreemarket. RuggedIndividualism:Failedtogiveanydirectaidtocitizensbecausehefeltitwould ruintheirselfrelianceandworkethic,andcalledforruggedindividualismpersonal sacrificenowforgreaterrewardslater. Volunteerism:Reliedonbusinesstovoluntarilytakeactionsthatwouldbenefitthe communityasawhole,suchasnotcuttingjobsorwages. Policies FederalFarmBoard(1929):Createdarevolvingfundtopropupfarmers,inwhichthe governmentboughtandstoredsurpluscropsatfairpriceshowever,farmerscontinuedto overproduce. HawleySmootTariff(1930):Againraisedtariffsdrasticallyhurttheeconomyfurther. PublicWorks(1930):Spent$750milliononpublicworksandinfrastructureprojects(e.g. HooverDam)specificallytocreatejobs. DebtMoratorium(1931):RescindedtheDawesPlanandallowedBritainandGermany (Francedeclined)tostoprepayingwardebtsbecausebankswerehemorrhagingmoneyto investorsandcouldnotrepayloans. ReconstructionFinanceCorporation(1932):Appropriated$500million(eventually$1.5 billion)fordirectloanstobanks,railroads,andinsurancecompanies. Electionof1932 HerbertHoover:Lookeddepressedandunabletoleadaneconomythatwasspirallingout ofcontrol.

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FranklinRoosevelt:Vigorous,excitingcandidatewhosaidhecouldprovideanalternative pathoutoftheDepression.Originallyaconservative,herealizedtheonlywaytoendthe crisiswastohavethegovernmentprovidedirectaid.Woninalandslide. LameDuckPeriod HoovertriedtoworkwithRooseveltduringthefourmonthsbetweentheelectionand inauguration,butalsodemandedthatRooseveltpromisetofollowhispoliciesofeconomic conservatism,whichRooseveltdeclined.TheDepressioncontinuedtoworsen,particularly forbanks,whichwerefallingapartrapidly.

CULTURE
AfricanAmericans Problems:BlackssufferedfromtheimpactoftheDepressionworsethanmostwhites theywereexcludedfromreliefprogramsandwerethefirsttobefiredbycompanies. ScottsboroBoys:NineblackmeninAlabamawerearrestedandconvictedofrape,even thoughtheywereclearlyinnocent,andweresenttodeath.Noneofthedefendantsdied, butnoneofthemwereacquittedbytheracistwhitejuries. NAACP:Tookamoreactiveroleinpromotingblackspoliticalrights. Women Womenwerediscouragedfromworkingbecausetheywereseenastakingjobsawayfrom themenwhoneedthem.But20%morewomenbeganworkingduringtheDepression, mainlyinthesamepinkcollarjobsinwhichtheyhadpreviouslybeenemployed. MexicanAmericans WhenunemployedwhitemalesbecamemigrantworkersintheWestandMidwest, Hispanicswereforcedoutoftheirjobsandfacedseverediscriminationinalmostevery aspectoflife.ThousandsofMexicansmovedtoLosAngelesorreturnedtoMexico. AsianAmericans Facedpersistentracismanddiscriminationaswhiteworkersbegansearchingfortheirjobs. AsianAmericansattemptedtofightbackthroughgroupsliketheJapaneseAmerican CitizensLeague,butwerelargelyunsuccessful. Entertainment Radio:ContinuedtobeoneofthemostimportantadvancementsinAmericanculture. Promotedstarsandmajorprogramsbybroadcastinglive.Servedasameansofescapefor peoplefromthetroublesoftheDepression. Movies:Becamecheaperandmoreexpensive.ProducerslikeWaltDisneywereextremely popular(partiallybecausethemovieindustryrefusedtoallowcontroversialproductions). Literature:IntellectualslikeJohnSteinbeckandJohnDosPassoswroteaboutrural povertyandtheillsofcapitalism.PopularwritingsincludedLifeMagazineandGoneWith theWindbyMargaretMitchell. Radicalism PopularFront:AgroupofantifascistorganizationsliketheCommunistPartybecame extremelypopularbecauseofageneralantipathyforcapitalismandthedeclineof Americansociety. CommunistParty:OftenalignedwiththeSovietUnionsandbecameinvolvedinpolitical affairs.Peakedat100,000membersbutdeclinedwhentheUSSRaskedthepartyto separatefromthePopularFront. SocialistParty:Alsobecameapoliticalforce,mainlythroughtheSouthernTenant FarmersUnion,whichdemandedreformforfarmersbutfailedtomakeanimpact.

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NEWDEAL(chapter26)
FIRSTNEWDEAL
FinancialRecovery EmergencyBankingReliefAct:5,000bankshadfailedearlyin1933.Twodaysafterhis inauguration,RooseveltannouncedafourdaybankholidaytoallowCongresstopassabill thatpermittedonlythesecurestbankstoreopen,endingthepanicofwithdrawals. GlassSteagallBankingReformAct:Separatedcommercialbankingfrominvestment bankingtoprotectregularbanksfrommakingrecklessinvestments.Alsocreatedthe FederalDepositInsuranceCorporation(FDIC),whichguaranteeddepositsofupto $5,000. FederalRelief FederalEmergencyReliefAdministration(FERA):Gavemoneytostateandlocal governmentstofundreliefprogramsforthejoblessandhomeless. CivilianConservationCorps(CCC):Createdjobsbyhavingunemployedurbanmenmove tothewildernessandworkedonenvironmentalprojects. CivilWorksAdministration(CWA):Fundedtemporaryconstructionprojectsthatcreated 4millionjobs. PublicWorksAdministration(PWA):Fundedstateandlocalinfrastructureprojectsto createjobs. TennesseeValleyAuthority(TVA):Developedandimprovedtheentireimpoverished TennesseeValleyregion,particularlybyprovidingelectricpowerandstoppingmassive flooding.Controversialbecauseitwasconsideredanoverreachofregionalplanning. IndustrialRecovery NationalIndustrialRecoveryAct:Businessescalledforrelaxedantitrustlawsinorderto letthemraisepricesandstayafloat.Inordertohelpwagesrisewiththeinflatedprices,the NationalRecoveryAdministration(NRA)wascreatedtosetcertaincodes:minimum wage,maximumworkweek,andabolitionofchildlabor.Thecodeswereineffective,aswas theNRAsattempttoallowcollectivebargaining,buttheprogramwasrelativelysuccessful. Schechterv.U.S.(1936):Aftertwoyearsinexistence,theNRAwasruled unconstitutionalbecauseitwasinvolvedinaffairsnotclassifiedasinterstate commerce. AgriculturalRecovery AgriculturalAdjustmentAdministration(AAA):Farmershabituallyoverproduced,soin ordertokeepthefarmersfromshootingthemselvesinthefoot,theAAAsetlimitsonhow muchcouldbeproducedandpaidfarmersnottogooverthatlimit.Thisraisedpricesand helpedpropupfarmers,whohadbeencrushedbytheDepression.TheAAAwasstruck downbytheSupremeCourtin1936.

SECONDNEWDEAL
FederalRelief WorksProgressAdministration(WPA):ThelargestagencyoftheentireNewDeal. Millionswereemployedtotackleinfrastructureprojectsandworkinthearts.TheWPA includedtheNationalYouthAdministration(NYA),whichhelpedhighschoolandcollege graduatesfindjobs. Reforms NationalLaborRelationsBoard(NLRB):TheWagnerActof1935wroteintolawSection

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7(a)oftheNationalIndustrialRecoveryAct,whichguaranteedworkerstherighttoform unionsandengageincollectivebargainingtheNLRBwasformedtoprotectworkersrights. SecuritiesandExchangeCommission(SEC):Createdtoregulatebusinesspractices andpolicethestockmarket. SocialSecurity:Thefirstfederalhealthinsuranceprogram.Employersandemployees wouldjointlypaytaxesintopersonalaccountsthroughoutworkerscareers.Thosetaxes wouldthenbeusedtogivemonthlybenefitstotheelderlyafterretirementatage65.The SocialSecurityActof1935alsoincludedunemploymentinsuranceandbenefitsforpeople withdisabilities.

Unions Workers,angrywiththeirlossofpowerinthe1920sandvitalizedbytheWagnerAct, becameincreasinglymilitantanddemandedmorerights. CongressofIndustrialOrganizations(CIO):FormedoutoftheAFL.TheAFLsupported craftunionsofskilledwhitemalesasmallminoritybelievedinindustrialunionism,inwhich unionswouldbeorganizedbyindustry,notbyjobtype.JohnLewis,headoftheUnited MineWorkers,ralliedthesupportersofindustrialunionismintotheCIO,workingwithinthe AFL.AconflictatanAFLnationalconvention,however,ledLewistomaketheCIO independent.Itworkedtowardsformingunionsinunorganizedindustriesliketextiles. Strikes Automobiles:GeneralMotorsrefusedtorecognizetheUnitedAutoWorkers union,soworkersdevisedthesitdownstrikesittingattheassemblylineandnot working.Neitherthestatenorfederalgovernmentsintervenedfortheworkers,but GMeventuallygavein.Thesitdownstrikesoonfellawayitwasconsideredillegal. Steel:AlthoughU.S.SteelchosetorecognizetheCIOssteelunion,other companiesdidnot,promptingmajorprotests.IntheMemorialDayMassacreof 1937,policefiredintoaprotestatasteelplantandkilledtenpeople.Thatstrike failed,butthesteelcompanieslikemanyacrossallindustriessoongavein. FairLaborStandardsAct(1938):Establishedaminimumwage,amaximumworkweek, andchildlaborrestrictions.Thelastpart,whichhadbeenruledunconstitutionalinHammer v.Dagenhart(1918),wasupheldinU.S.v.DarbyLumberCo.(1941). Electionof1936 AlfLandon:Republicancandidate.SupportedmostoftheNewDealbutfeltRoosevelt spenttoomuchfederalmoney. FranklinRoosevelt:Woninamassivelandslide.Whatwasnotablewastheshiftin electoralrealignmentthatcameasaresultoftheNewDeal.TheDemocratsnowhadthe supportofbothSouthernfarmersandNorthernurbanworkersandminorities.

LASTNEWDEAL
Opposition Liberals:ExtremistslikesocialistsfeltRooseveltaidedbusinessestoomuchandthe unemployedandpoortoolittle. Conservatives:ManybelievedtheNewDealwasanoverexpansionoffederalpoweranda shifttowardssocialism.Businessesdislikedtheincreaseinregulationsandunionpower, aswellasthegovernmentsincreaseddeficitspending(usingloanstopayforprograms despitehavingsignificantdebt). AmericanLibertyLeague:FormedbyvigorousRooseveltopponentsto denouncetheNewDealandstopitfromsubvertingthenationsrecovery.

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Demagogues:Severalpeoplegainednationalfollowingsbypromotingeasysolutionsand inspiringnewmovements. CharlesCoughlin:ApriestwhousedradiotoaccusetheNewDealofbeinga conspiracymadebyJewsandfascists. FrancisTownsend:Adoctorwhoproposedasystemthatcalledforworkersto paytaxesthatwouldbeusedforbenefitsfortheelderly,whowouldimmediately spendthemoneyandlifttheeconomyfromrecession.TheTownsendPlan eventuallybecametheideologicalbasisforSocialSecurity. HueyLong:ProposedtheShareOurWealthPlan,whichcalledforextremelyhigh taxesonthewealthytobeusedtogiveeveryAmericana$5,000homesteadand anannual$2,500wage.Hisideawaspopularwiththepoor,makinghimaviable threattoRooseveltsreelectionin1936untilhewasassassinated. SupremeCourt:RooseveltbecamefrustratedwhentheCourtstruckdowntheAAAand NRAand,aftertheelectionof1936,believeditwasnecessarytogettheCourtoftheway. CourtPacking:Rooseveltproposedanewsysteminwhichthepresidentwouldbe allowedtoappointuptosixnewjusticesbecausemanyofthecurrentoneswere old,givinghimaliberalmajority.BothRepublicansandDemocratsinCongress sawthisasanattackonthechecksandbalancessystem,andthecourtpacking legislationwasrejectedthefirstmajorCongressionaloppositiontoanFDRbill. Beginningin1937,however,theCourtbegansidingwiththeNewDeal. EndoftheNewDeal Recession:In1937,theeconomytookamajordip.Rooseveltcutbackspendinginan attempttobalancethebudget,whilethenewSocialSecuritytaxgavepeoplelessmoney tospend. KeynesianEconomics:JohnMaynardKeynesdevisedanewtheorythatbecamethe basisofeconomicsfordecadestocome.Hearguedthatinsteadofbalancingthebudget, Rooseveltshouldcontinuehispreviousdeficitspendingtocontinueinvestingmoneyinto theeconomy.Implementinghistheory,theadministrationsawpositivebenefits. LackofSupport:Afterthecourtpackingfiasco,Rooseveltlostsupportfromthepublic, whichelectedmoreRepublicansinthe1938midtermelections.Anyfurthermajor legislationwasblockedbytheRepublicansandconservativeDemocrats.

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PREWWIIFOREIGNAFFAIRS(chapter27)
ECONOMICINTERESTS
PurposeofDiplomacy ThemainconcernwastoprotectAmericanforeigntrade. CircularLoans U.S.hadbeenlendingmoneytoGermanysothatitcouldpayreparationstotheAllies.The Alliescouldthen,withloansfromAmericanbanksandcorporations,paybackdebttoU.S. Europeanbankswerethereforeaccumulatinghugedebts. EconomicExpansioninEurope AmericansubsidiariesstartedpoppingupinEuropesinceEuropeanindustryhadyetto recover.ThehighFordneyMcCumberTariffalsodidnthelpEuroindustries. DawesPlan Appropriated$2.5billiontolendtoGermanytopaybackitsreparationstheAllieswould reducethecostofreparations. YoungPlan ReductioninU.S.loanstoGermany,costofreparations,anddebtowedtoU.S.byAllies. DebtMoratorium(1931) TemporarysuspensionofWWIdebts. FDRsDepressionDiplomacy GoldvalueofthedollarwasallowedtodropsothatAmericangoodscouldcompeteinthe worldmarket.Littleinterestincurrencystabilization.Loanstonationsthathaddefaultedon debtswereforbidden.Thisstoppedthecircularloansystemandwardebtpayments. ReciprocalTradeAgreementincreasedexports. LatinAmerica Hoover:Relaxedpolicies.U.S.wouldrecognizeanyregimenomatterhowitgot there.TroopswereremovedfromHaiti.U.S.wouldnotinterveneifanyLatin Americancountrydefaultedonloans. FDRsGoodNeighborPolicy:Emphasizedtheimportanceofcooperationamong countriesoftheWesternHemisphereincaseofforeignaggression.Policyof nonintervention. FDRRecognizestheSovietUnion InhopesofbolsteringtheU.S.againstJapanandhavinganewtradingpartner,theU.S. recognizedtheSovietUnioninlate1933.Theyenteredintoanuneasyalliance.TheSoviet UnionwasdeniedloansfromtheU.S.duetobadcreditrisk.

PEACEINTERESTS
Isolationism TheWilsonianvisionofanewworldorderhadbeenrejected.Peopledidntwanttodealwith internationalproblems.ThiswasamainreasonfortherejectionoftheTreatyofVersailles, whichwouldhavemadetheU.S.amemberoftheLeagueofNations.However,theU.S. playedaprettyactiveroleinworldaffairsduringthe1920s. WashingtonConference(1921) SecretaryofStateCharlesHugheswantedsomesortofguaranteeofworldpeaceand stability. FivePowerPact:America,Britain,Japan,FranceandItalyagreedtolimitsonnaval

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battleships.JapanagreedtomaintainasmallernavythantheU.S.andBritaininreturn, thosecountrieswouldstopfortifyingtheirterritoriesintheFarEast.Loophole:norestriction onsmallcruisers. NinePowerPact:ContinuedOpenDoorPolicyinChina FourPowerPact:U.S,Britain,Japan,andFrancewouldrespecteachothersPacific territoriesandcooperatetopreventaggression. KelloggBriandPact:62nationsagreedtorenouncewarasaninstrumentofforeign policy.Problem:nowaytoenforce! LocarnoPact(1925) GuaranteedthebordersofBelgium,France,andGermanyasspecifiedbyTreatyof Versailles.GermanyagreedtochangeboundarieswithYugoslaviaandCzechoslovakia onlybyarbitration.

NEUTRALITY
NyeCommitteeHearings Thepurposewastoexposethetrueselfishmotivesofbankersandmanufacturersin enteringWWI.Inaddition,WilsonwasblamedforprovokingtheGermansbysending merchantshipsintobelligerentnationswaters.AnticonflictledtoNeutralityActs. NeutralityActs:limitedPresidentsoptionsintimeofcrisis! prohibitionofarmssale,loans,andcredittobelligerents Americanscouldnttravelonvesselsofbelligerents CashandCarry:nonmilitarygoodsonly noinvolvementinSpanishCivilWarallowed 1939NeutralityAct:allowedbelligerentstopurchasearmsonaCashandCarrybasis. TheU.S.wasmovingfromisolationismtointernationalism.Theeconomyimprovedasa result.

JAPANESEAGGRESSION
JapaneseInvasionofManchuria(1931) Japan,ruledbyamilitarydictatorship,wasonamissiontoexpanditsterritorial boundaries.Manchuria,acoalrichregionofChina,wouldbeavaluableasset. HooverStimsonDoctrine TheU.S.wouldnotrecognizeforcefulterritorialgains.Therefore,itdidntrecognizeJapans acquisitionofManchuria.JapanwaspissedbecausetheU.S.haddonethatinthepast (ex:Philippines).JapanlefttheLeague. QuarantineSpeech AfterJapanattackedChinaagain,Rooseveltgaveaspeechcondemningtheaggression andencouraginganinternationalquarantineofaggressorstopreventthespreadofwar. PublicresponsewashostileFDRdrewback. PanayIncident(1937) JapantesteditsboundariesbybombingU.S.vesselsontheYangtzeRiverinChina.The U.S.acceptedJapansapologyinanefforttoavoidconflict.Japanbecamemoreconfident.

FASCISTAGGRESSION
1935:HitlerdenouncedtheLeagueandtheTreatyofVersailles.Mussoliniattacked Ethiopia,leadingisolationistsentimenttoincrease.

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1936:GermantroopsinvadedtheRhineland.FascistforcesaidedFrancoinSpain. RomeBerlinTokyoPact(1938):AxisPowerscreated. MunichConference(1938):HitlerdemandedapartofCzechoslovakia.Britain,France, andtheU.S.followedapolicyofappeasementandgaveinHitlerpromisedtoexpandno further.Failed. NaziSovietNonaggressionPact:Germanswouldnthavetoworryaboutatwofrontwar. InvasionofPoland(1939):BeginningofWWII.BritainandFrancedeclaredwaron Germanyinresponse,andtheU.S.passedthethirdNeutralityActinanattempttohelp theAllies.

EMBRACINGINTERVENTIONISM
FallofFrance(1940) HitlerandMussolinitookoverFrance,dispellingtheideaofaphonywar.Theyestablished anewregimeinVichy.LedmostAmericanstobelievethatGermanyposedadirectthreat totheU.S.RooseveltbeganextendingmoreaidtoBritain. IsolationistOpposition AmericanFirstCommittee(isolationist)becameapowerfulnewlobbyopposingthe CommitteetoDefendAmericaandtheFightforFreedomCommittee(bothinterventionist). Becameanissueof1940campaign. Electionof1940 Rooseveltbecamethefirstpresidenttowinthreeterms.TheRepublicancandidate, WendellWillkie,hardlydifferedfromRooseveltinhispositions. LendLeaseAct(1940) BritainwasbankruptbyDecember1940.TheU.S.couldnowbasicallysendweaponsto Englandinreturnforpromisesofrepaymentafterthewar.Rooseveltdecidedtouse hemisphericdefensetoprotectAmericanmerchantshipsdeliveringsuppliestoEngland: U.S.navyescortedthemintheWesternAtlantic,andradioedthelocationsofGerman submarinestoBritain. AtlanticCharter(1941) AvaguelydisguisedstatementofwaraimsissuedbyChurchillandRooseveltthatcalledfor adestructionoftheNazityranny.Rooseveltmadenomilitarycommitments,buthefelt certainthatthepublicwouldsupportadeclarationofwarintheinstanceofanenemy attack. TripartitePact(1940) AddedJapantotheAxisPowers. FDRcutsJapanoff JapanhadbeencontinuingtoattackChinaandin1941capturedVietnam.Itsnexttarget wasmostlikelytheDutchEastIndies.FDRfrozeJapaneseassetsandissuedatrade embargowhenTokyodidntrespondtowarnings.PublicopinionofJapanwasverylow. JapandecidedtogotowarinsteadofrepairingrelationswiththeU.S. PearlHarbor:December7,1941 TheJapanesesurprisedtheU.S.withanattackonthenavalbaseinHonolulu.TheU.S. lostalotofequipmentand2,000soldiers.TheAmericanpeoplebecameunifiedintheir commitmenttowar.TheU.S.declaredwaronJapanGermanyandItalydeclaredwaron theU.S.theU.S.reciprocated.

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WORLDWARII(chapter28)
EUROPE
MarshallPlan WastolaunchamajorinvasionofFrancein1943.Sovietswantedthisbecauseitwould drawGermanattentionawayfromtheEasternFront,whereRussiawaslosingmany soldiers.BritainwantedtodealwithNorthAfricanandsouthernEuropefirst.Toughdecision forFDR,butheagreedwithBritain. NorthAfrica NaziGeneralRommelwasthreateningtheSuezCanal. OperationTorch:Americanswereinexperienced,butcombinedBritishandAmerican forceslaunchedasuccessfulcounteroffensiveanddrovetheGermansoutbyMay1943. Alliedresourcesweretiedupduringthis,delayingtheinvasionofFrance,toRussias dismay. Russia AlthoughtheSovietsheldofftheGermansatStalingradinthewinterof194243,they sufferedmajorlosses.However,theirsuccessreassuredFDRthattheinvasionofFrance couldbepostponedsothattheAlliescouldinvadeSicily. Sicily ChurchillarguedforaninvasionofSicilyfirstbecauseitmightknockItalyoutofthewarand tieupGermanresourcesthatmightotherwisebeinFrance.ThecaptureofItalytooka wholeyear,embitteringtheSovietUnion,whichwasabsorbingmostofthewarcasualties. TheHolocaust Americaheardabouttheatrocitiesin1942.Publicpressuretohelp,butthegovernment resisted.SomeofficialswereantiSemitic.TheU.S.turnedawaytheSt.Louis,ashipfullof GermanJews,andrefusedtobombthecrematoriaortheRRsusedbytheNazis.They arguedthatthebestthingwouldbetofocusonwinning. LiberationofFrance June6,1944:DDayinvasion.VEDaywasMay7,1945.

PACIFIC
1942JapaneseVictories PearlHarborcaptureofGuam,WakeIsland,HongKong,Singapore,DutchEastIndies, Burma,andthePhilippines. GeneralMacArthur LedforcesnorthfromAustralia. BattleofCoralSea(1942):FirstimportantAlliedvictory BattleofGuadalcanal(194243):LastedsixmonthsandcostmanylivesU.S.victory. ImportantbecauseJapanwouldnolongerbeabletolaunchanoffensivetothesouth. BattleofLeyteGulf(1944):AlliedforcesseverelydamagedJapansnavalcapacitiesin thelargestnavalengagementinhistory. AdmiralNimitz LedforceswestfromHawaii. BattleofMidway(1942):ThreedaybattleinwhichtheU.S.regainedcontrolofthe Pacific.ThetidehadnowturnedagainsttheJapaneseastheU.S.,withhelpfrom AustraliansandNewZealanders,advancedtowardsJapanandthePhilippines. BattleofOkinawa(1945):Heavycasualties,kamikazeinflictedlotsofdamage.Allies

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finallycapturedtheisland.Japanhadbarelyanyplanesorshipswithwhichtofight,soan invasionofJapandidntseemnecessary. ManhattanProject Afterthediscoveryofradioactivityin1939madeatomicbombsfeasible,Britainandthe U.S.racedtodeveloponebeforetheGermansdid.Thearmycontrolledresearchandthe governmentgave$2millionprogresswasmadequickly.TheplutoniumfueledTrinityBomb wastestedinNewMexicoinJuly1945. TheDecisiontoDroptheBombs TrumanissuedanultimatumtoJapan:surrenderorfacemassivedestruction.Japans militaryleadersrefusedtogiveup,eventhoughthepremier(appointedbyEmperorHirohito) wantedto.TheFatManwasdroppedonHiroshimaon8/6/1945.Twodayslater,theSoviet UniondeclaredwaronJapan.Thenextday,abombwasdroppedonNagasaki.Japan surrenderedafewdayslater.

ECONOMY
Workforce Demandforworkersincreasedbecause15millionpeoplelefttojointhearmedforces.The workforceincreasedby20%.Propagandaencouragedwomentojoinworkforce. Unions Membershipofunionsincreased.Unionsvoluntarilyagreednottostrikeormakebig demandsduringthewarinreturn,newworkerswouldautomaticallybeenrolledin unions.Thegovernmentwantedtoensurecontinuousproductionandpreventinflation. Strikes Despitetheconcessionsunionsmade,manyworkersstruckduringthewarinwildcat strikes(strikesunauthorizedbyunionleaders).AftertheUnitedMineWorkersstrikein 1943,CongresspassedtheSmithConnallyActwhichrequiredunionstowaitthirtydays beforestrikingandgavethepresidentthepowertoseizeastruckwarplant.Public animositytowardsthelabormovementincreased. Prosperity TheDepressionendedbymid1941becauseofincreasedproductionandgovtspendingas aresult,itborrowedmoney,soldwarbonds,andpassedtheRevenueActof1942, increasingincometaxes.Duetoashortageofconsumergoods,peoplesavedmoney ratherthanspendingit. Preventinginflation Pricesrose25%.Thegovernmentfearedinflation,sotheAntiInflationActwaspassed, givingthegovttheauthoritytofreezeprices,wages,andrentsthroughtheOfficeofPrice Administration,whichalsorationedconsumergoods.Successfulcostoflivingincreased waylessthanitdidduringWWI. West TheWest,beingthelaunchingpointforthewaragainstJapan,receivedadisproportionate amountofgovtfundsforitswarindustriessuchasaircraftmanufacturingandshipbuilding. Govtalsoinvestedintransportation.

GOVERNMENT
Mobilization WarProductionBoard:notasgoodasitsWWIcounterpart,theWarIndustriesBoard. Wasintendedtohavebroadpowersovertheeconomy.

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 OfficeofWarMobilization:WPBssomewhatmoresuccessfulsuccessor Productionstillincreaseddramatically,despiteadministrativeproblems. SelectiveServiceAct:afterPearlHarbor Research UndertheNationalDefenseResearchCommittee,theU.S.broughttheAlliestothe sameleveloftechnologicaladvancementastheAxisPowers. RadarandSonar:ledtodecimationofUboatsin1943.PutAlliesaheadofAxisinterms oftechnology AircraftTechnology:Improvedalot,butnotenoughtostopbombingraidsonBritainby theLuftwaffe.NewbombersdevelopedbytheAlliescouldflyhigherandcarrymore. Intelligence:BritainrantheUltraProject,whichusedtheColossusIIcomputertodecode messages.TheU.S.rantheMagicOperationwhichsucceededinbreakingtheJapanese codesystem.U.S.couldvepredictedtheattackonPearlHarbor,butnoonecouldfathom it. RetreatfromReform Rooseveltthoughtthatvictorywasmoreimportantthanreformanddidnotdomuchtostop conservatives,manyofwhomcamefromWallStreetandjoinedthegovernmentbecauseof thewar,fromdismantlingtheNewDeal.Therewaslittleneedforthereliefagencies anymoresincetheDepressionwasover. Electionof1944 MaintopicsweredomesticissuesandRooseveltspoorhealth.RooseveltranwithTruman theywon.Democratswonmajoritiesinbothhouses.

SOCIETY
JapaneseAmericanInternment UnlikeWWI,WWIIbroughtlittlecensorshiporcivillibertiesviolations.Theexceptionwas theanimositytowardsJapaneseAmericans.Theexistingprejudiceagainstthemonly worsenedwiththeattackonPearlHarbor.Livingintheirowncloseknitcommunities,they seemedhostile.OfficialslikeSecretaryofNavyKnoxandGeneralDeWittwerealso antiJapanese.In1942,JapaneseAmericanswereforcedtoliveincampslocatedinharsh desertstobeAmericanized.Somewerehiredouttowork.Therewaslittlepublic opposition.In1945,theywereallowedbacktotheWestCoast,butmanyhadlosttheir propertyandbusinessesandfacepersecution. AfricanAmericans A.PhilipRandolphwasaprominentfigureinleadingblackdemandsforintegrationofthe workforcesofcompaniesreceivingdefensecontracts.HeorganizedamarchinD.C. FDRcreatedtheFairEmploymentPracticesCommission,whichendeduphavingmore symbolicvaluethananything. ManyblacksmigratedfromtheSouthtocities,causingtension. CongressofRacialEquality(CORE):est.in1942andorganizedpopularresistance(such assitinsanddemonstrations)againstdiscrimination,unlikeolderorganizations. Militaryreforms:inresponsetopublicandpoliticalpressure,andoutofconvenience, moreblackswereadmittedandsomeunitswereintegrated. NativeAmericans Thewartimeemphasisonnationalunityledtoeffortsatassimilation.Manyleftreservations toworkinwarplantssomeservedinthemilitaryincombatorascodetalkers. MexicanAmericans

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U.S.andMexicoreachedanagreementwherebraceros,orcontractlaborers,wouldcome toworkforalimitedperiodoftime.ManyMexicanAmericansmigratedtocitiesandworked infactories,causingtensionsespeciallybecauseofgangscalledzootsuitsthatwere formed. ChineseAmericans SinceChinawasanallyoftheU.S.,ChineseAmericanslegalandsocialstatuswas elevated.TheChineseExclusionActswererepealedin1943. Women Femaleemploymentincreased,althoughmostlyinstereotypicalfemaleworkmany workedforthegovernmentorinservicejobs.Wagesincreased.Influxofworkingyoung womeninurbancommunities.Manyjoinedunions.RosietheRiveterencouragedwomento enlistplayedactiverole.Prejudicepersisted. Children Childcarewaslimited.Juvenilecrimeincreased.Numberofworkingteensincreased.More familieswereseparated.Manyyoungmarriagesbecausethecountrywasmore prosperous,butalsoahigherdivorcerate.Beginningofbabyboom. Culture Entertainmentindustriesprosperedbooks,magazines,theater,movies,radiobecause peoplehadmoneynow.Centeredonheroicwartopicsorwarcoverage.Swingbecame popular.Forsoldiers,theywerefightingforprosperity.Themilitaryhaddancebrigadesof womenforthesoldiersentertainmentemphasizinghealthyheterosexuality.

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COLDWAR(chapter29)
ORIGINS
VisionsofthePostwarWorld U.S.:democracy,selfdetermination,nomorespheresofinfluenceormilitaryalliances, arbitraryinternationalorganization.ThisviewwasoutlinedintheAtlanticCharter. SovietUnion:greatpowerswouldcontrolareasofstrategicinteresttothem DelayedOpeningofWesternFront BritainandtheU.S.delayedtheinvasionofFranceduringthewartodealwithNorthAfrica andItaly.ThislefttheembitteredSovietsfightingontheEasternFrontforawhile,losing manysoldiers. YaltaConference(1945) SolidAgreements:FormationofUnitedNations.SovietswouldjoinPacificwarinreturn forlandtheydlostduringtheRussoJapaneseWar. Poland:AttheTehranConferencein1943,theissueofwhetherPolandwouldbegoverned byacommunistgovtwasleftunresolved.SovietUnionwasnowoccupyingPolandandhad installedtheprocommunistgovt.StalinagreedtoallowsomeproWesternsfromthe Polishgovtinexileintothegovtandtoholdfreeelections,buthedidntfollowthrough. Germany:SovietswantedtobreakitupandmakeitpayreparationsBritainandU.S. wanteditreconstructedandreunited.Nodecisiononreparations.Germanywasdividedinto zones,oneforeachofthefour(Britain,France,SovietUnion,andU.S.).Berlindividedinto fouraswell.AgreedthatatsomepointGermanywouldbereunited. EasternBloc AfterYalta,whichhadavoidedmanyimportantissues,theSovietUnionbeganinstalling onecommunistregimeafteranotherinEasternEuropeancountries. PotsdamConference Truman,tightaboutviolationsofYalta,metwithForeignMinisterMolotov.Trumanwentin withatoughpolicy,buthadlittleleverage.U.S.recognizedWarsawgovtafterStalin madeafewconcessions.StalincouldnotdemandreparationsfromthepartsofGermany hedidnthavecontrolover.ThewesterncontrolledzonesofGermanywereunitedStalin establishedacommunistgovtintheeast. China ChinahadbeenvitaltoAmericasvisionofanopen,peacefulworld,butChiangKaiSheks nationalistgovernmentwascorruptandunpopular.However,sinceChiangwasfighting Maoscommunistforces,Trumancontinuedsupportinghimeventhoughthecausewas lost.LedU.S.tolookforanewproWesternforceinAsia:Japan! Japan AmericaabandonedstrictoccupationpoliciesandencouragedJapanesegrowth.Anew viewoftheworldorderhadbeenaccepted:adividedworldwithastrong,proAmerican sphereofinfluence.

CONTAINMENT
TrumanDoctrine Supportfreepeopleswhoareresistingattemptedsubjugationbyarmedminoritiesorby outsidepressures.GreeceandTurkey,facingcommunistthreatsin1946,weregiven$400 millioninaid. MarshallPlan

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RebuildingEuropewasstrategicbecausestrongEurogovernmentswouldbelesslikelyto falltocommunism.Also,moreforeigntrade.EconomicCooperationAdministration appropriatedover$12billioninaidoverthreeyears.Europeaneconomyrevived,communist strengthdeclined. Mobilization Militarypowermaintainedalmostatawartimelevel.AtomicEnergyCommissioncontinued nuclearresearch.NationalSecurityActof1947gavethepresidentmorepowerregarding internationalgoals.DeptofDefenseoverseeingallbranchesofmilitary.CIAcollectinginfo. BerlinAirlift(19481949) SovietUnionblockadedWestBerlin,butthewesternpowersairliftedsuppliesthey wouldntgiveupthecity. Alliances NATO(1949):westernalliance.Anarmedattackagainstonewouldbeseenasanattack againstthemall. WarsawPact(1955):responsetoNATO.SovietUnionandEasternEurope. NSC68 ReviewofAmericanforeignpolicythatconcludedthattheU.S.couldntrelyonother countriestoresistcommunism.So,itshouldstopcommunismanywhereintheworldand buildupthemilitary.

ECONOMY
GIBillofRights(ServicemensReadjustmentAct) Providedeconomicandeducationalassistancetoveterans.Helpedpreventeconomic collapse.Veteransreturningtoworkpushedwomenandminoritiesaside,though. Inflation(reached25%) Causedbydemandforconsumergoods,whichhadbeenscarceduringthewar.Luckily, therewasnoeconomiccollapsebecauseconsumershadmoneytospendandbecauseof the$6billiontaxcut. LaborUnrest Partlyduetoinflation.UnitedMineWorkersmadegainsafterstrikingin1946.RRalmost shutdownbecauseofastrikeTrumanthreatenedmilitaryforcesoworkerswouldreturn. GrowthduringKoreanWar GovernmentspendinghaddeclinedafterWWII,butincreasedagainduringKoreanWar.

POLITICS
FairDeal Trumansplansforliberalreform,whichweremetwithoppositionfromaRepubCongressin hisfirstterm:expansionofSocialSecurity,raiseofminwage,permanentFairEmployment PracticesAct,publichousingandslumclearance,environmentalandpublicworks planning,govtpromotionofsciresearch,fedaidtoSt.Lawrenceseaway,nationalizationof atomicenergy,andnationalhealthinsurance. TaftHartleyAct(1947) Assaulton1935WagnerAct.Bannedclosedshopandallowedstatestobanunionshop (whereworkershadtojoinunionafterbeinghired).PassedoverTrumansveto.Damaged weakerunionsandmadeorganizationofwomenandminoritiesmoredifficult. Electionof1948 TrumanversusDewey.Trumanwouldnotgiveupliberalreform.Hefaceunpopularityanda

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dividedDemocraticParty(Southernconservativesbalkedatcivilrightsplatform).Leftwing formedProgressivePartyledbyHenryWallace.Surprisingly,TrumanwonandDemocrats wonmajorities. FairDealSuccesses Minwage,expansionofSS,andNationalHousingAct. CivilRights Employment:banneddiscrimination Military:desegregatedviaexecutiveorder Shelleyv.Kraemer(1948):courtscantbeusedtoenforceprivatecovenantsmeantto keepblacksoutofresidentialneighborhoods. Election1952 Repubrevival:EisenhowerandNixonwon,promisingtobestrongagainstcommunismand toendtheKoreanWar.NixonaccusedDemocratsofweakness,treason,cowardice, corruption,etc.Markedtheendoftheworstturbulenceofthepostwarera.

KOREANWAR
NorthKoreanInvasionofSouth(1950) SovietshadlefttheNorthwithacommunistgovernmentin1949U.S.hadleftSouthwith weakRheegovt.UNintervenedafterinvasionwithGen.MacArthurincharge.Truman wantedtocontainbutalsotoliberateKoreaandunifyit. China Joinedwaroncommunistsidein1950.TrumandidntwanttofightChina,butMacArthur didoratleastbombthem.MartinLetterfromMacArthurtoCongress,outlininghisviews onChina,causedTrumantofirehim.Publicwasangry. LimitedMobilization Trumanwascautiousatfirstwitheconomicregs.OfficeofDefenseMobilizationtoavoid inflationanddiscourageunionwagedemandswasnotverysuccessful. Stalemate Manycasualties.Discouragedthepubliccontributedtofearsofdomesticcommunism.

DOMESTICANTICOMMUNISM
Sources Communismwastangible(SovietUnionandChina).Koreanstalemate.Sovietdevelopment ofatomicbombin1949. HUAC(HouseUnAmericanActivitiesCommittee) ConductedpublicizedinvestigationsofDemocratsingovernmentandHollywoodpeople. AlgerHissTrial Hiss,aformermemberoftheStateDept.,wasaccusedofleakinginfotoSoviets.Hesued forslander,butChambers(hisaccuser)producedthepumpkinpapers(proof).Hisswas protectedbythestatuteoflimitationssincetheallegedcrimehadbeenoveradecade earlier.However,Nixonmadesurehewasconvictedofperjuryandhisreputationwas destroyed.IncreasedpublicsuspicionofliberalDemsandcontributedtoanticommunist hysteria. FederalLoyaltyProgram Trumanadministrationinitiatedareviewoffederalemployeeloyalty.2000resigned,212 weredismissed. McCarranAct

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Requiredcommunistorganizationstoregisterwiththegovtandpublishrecords. Rosenbergs EthelRosenbergsbrotherconfessedtoleakingsecretManhattanProjectinfototheSoviet Union.HesaidthattheRosenbergs,membersoftheCommunistParty,haddonesoas well.Theyweresentencedtodeathin1951anddiedintheelectricchairin1953,claiming innocence. McCarthyism HysteriahadbuiltupsomuchthatSenatorMcCarthywasactuallytakenseriouslyinhis boldandruthlessstanceagainstcommunism.Heconductedinvestigationsbasedonno realproof.HehadaRepublicanCongressandpublicsupport.

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POSTWWIISOCIETY(chapter30)
ECONOMY
SourcesofGrowth West:Governmentspendingonwesternindustriesduringthewarcausedalotofeconomic growth.Thegovernmentalsoinvestedinpublicworks.Thepetroleumindustrydidwellwith theriseoftheautomobile.Stategovernmentsinvestedinuniversitiessincescience becameveryimportant. GovtSpending:publicworks(highways!),veteransbenefits(GIBill!),welfare,military spending(KoreanWar) Suburbia:Fueledauto,petroleum,housing,androadconstructionindustries BabyBoom:Higherconsumerdemand. KeynesianEconomics Thetheorywasthatthegovernmentcouldregulateandstabilizetheeconomywithout intrudingdirectlyintotheprivatesector.Fiscal(spendingandtaxes)policyandmonetary (supplyofcurrency)policycouldstimulatetheeconomy.In1953,thegovernmenteased credittocureaminorrecession.However,whenEisenhowerreducedspendinginthe recessionof1957,therecoverywasslow.Peoplehadconfidenceinpermanentprosperity andcuringpovertywithincreasedproduction. Consolidation Agriculture:Increasedmechanizationdecreasedthenumberofagriculturaljobsandfamily farms. Corporate:Manycorporationsexpandedtocovermanyindustries,especiallyindustries benefitingfromgovernmentdefensespending.AfewfirmscontrolledmostoftheU.S.s economicactivity. Labor PostwarContract:Sinceunionswerestrongandentrenched,workersinlargeunionized industriesweregrantedwageincreasesandbenefitsinreturn,theytacitlyagreednotto bringupissueslikecontrolovertheworkplace. AFLCIO:AmericanFederationofLabormergedwithCongressofIndustrialOrganizations in1955.CIOsradicalpastsometimesbecameanissue.Someworkersremained unorganized,especiallyintheSouth.

SCIENCE&TECHNOLOGY
Medicine AntibioticsbecamewidelyavailableafterWWIIvaccinesweremoredifficulttodevelopbut by1954therewasoneforyellowfever,influenza,andpolio.Infantmortalityandthedeath ratedecreasedlifeexpectancyincreased. Pesticides Usedtoprotectcropsfrominsects.DuringWWII,DDThadbeenusedtoprotectsoldier fromtropicaldiseases.Onlylaterwoulditsnegativeeffectsbediscovered. NuclearWeapons U.S.developedHbombby1952theU.S.S.R.ayearlater.Intercontinentalballistic missiles(ICBM)wereneededtolaunchtheHbomb.ThePolariscouldfireitfrom underwater.Solidfuelinsteadofliquidby1958. Space

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Satellites:SovietSputnikwaslaunchedfirst,anditwasashocktoAmerica.Americas ExplorerIwaslaunchedin1958. NASAestablishedin1958. FirstPeopleinspace:RussiasYuriGagarinthenAlanShepard. ApolloProgram:landedNeilArmstrongandBuzzAldrinonthemoon.Astronautswere viewedasheroesbythepublicandpublicenthusiasmremainedhighuntilthemid1970s, whenfundingalsowaned. Computers Inthe1950s,computersbegantoservecommercialfunctions.TheUNIVACwasthefirst computerabletohandlenumericalandalphabeticalinfo.ItwasdevelopedfortheU.S. BureauofCensusandpredictedtheelectionresultsof1952,whichwasabigdealtothe public.IBMbegansuccessfullymarketingitsfirstmajordataprocessingcomputers. Television AlmosteveryhouseholdhadaTVin1957.ColorTVbecamewidelyavailableinthe1960s. Itwasthemainsourceofnews,entertainment,andtelevisedsports.TVshowssenta homogenizingmessage.

SOCIETY
Consumerism Consumergoodsbecamemoreaffordableandvaried.Demandincreased.Consumercredit (creditcards,revolvingchargeaccounts,easypaymentplans)becamepopular.Advertising playedalargeroleinconsumercrazes/fads. Suburbia Levittowns:Massproduced,affordablesuburbs.Manyveteransstartedfamiliesandmoved intothesetowns.Eventually,distinctionsbetweenlowermiddleclasssuburbsandaffluent onesarose. Homogeneity:Byselfselectionandsometimesformalbarriers,thesuburbsconsistedof whitesonly.Theyfosteredasenseofcommunityamongpeoplewhowereallsimilar. Genderroles:Feminismwasweakenedaswomenweremeanttostayinthehomeand raisethechildrenwhilethemenworkedincities.Dr.BenjaminSpockstheorieson childrearingencouragedwomentostayhomeandfocusontheneedsofthechildren. Automobile Carsmadeiteasiertoliveinsuburbsandescapethechaosofcrowdedenvironments. Highways FederalHighwayAct(1956):$25millionforinterstatehighwayconstruction.Carsand busesbeganreplacingtrains. Travel:Itwaseasiertotravelandworkersweremoreaffluent,sotheycouldaffordit.They alsohadpaidvacations. Retail:Stripmalls,motels,fastfood. Manufacturing:movedoutofcitiestocheaperland.Highwaysprovidedeasieraccessto markets. EnergyIssues AmericasoilreserveswerebeingdepleteditwasheavilyreliantontheMiddleEast.Smog becameathing.Pollutioncontroldeviceswereintroducedinthe1970sduringtheenergy crisis. Environmentalism EnvironmentalismwasrevivedintheSierraClubsfighttopreserveEchoPark.

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NEWLIBERALISM(chapter31)
KENNEDYPRESIDENCY
Electionof1960 NewFrontier ForeignPolicy AllianceforProgress: BayofPigs: CubanMissileCrisis: Assassination

JOHNSONPRESIDENCY
GreatSociety Healthcare: CommunityAction: Housing: Immigration: Legacies: ForeignPolicy Electionof1968 MartinLutherKing: RobertKennedy: HubertHumphrey: DemocraticNationalConvention: GeorgeWallace: RichardNixon:

CIVILRIGHTS
Protests StudentNonviolentCoordinatingCommittee: FreedomRides: Birmingham: MarchonWashington: FreedomSummer: WattsRiot: VotingRightsAct Division Dejure/defactoSegregation: ViolentOrganizations:

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MalcolmXandtheNationofIslam:

VIETNAMWAR
Indochina Vietminh: GenevaConference: BeginningofAmericanInvolvement Aid:(NgoDinhDiem,NLF/VietCong) Intervention: GulfofTonkinResolution: EarlyStruggles: Attrition: Pacification: TetOffensive: PublicOpposition:

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NIXONIANERA(chapter32)
MOVEMENTS
Youth NewLeft PoliticalCauses:Foughtagainstsocialinjustice(notablyagainstblacks). SDS/PortHuronStatement:TheStudentsforaDemocraticSocietywasthe centralorganizationforstudentradicalism.TheirconstitutionwasthePortHuron Statement,whichnotedtheirdisillusionmentwithsociety. UCBerkeleyConflicts:TheFreeSpeechMovementsparkedunrestatcolleges againstdiscriminatoryandunfairpolicies.ThePeoplesParkconflictinvolvedmost ofBerkeleys15,000students,whowantedtoprotectaparkfrombecominga parkinggarage. AntiVietnamSentiment:Manymajorralliesacrossthenationwereheldto campaignagainstthewar.Onlyafewwereradical,notablytheWeathermen.Many alsoobjectedtothedraftpeoplebegantoacceptjailtermsorfleetoCanada. Counterculture: Philosophy:tryingtolookrebelliousfromhomogeneoussocietalnorms,andtrying todiscoverpersonalfreedomandindependence(e.g.hippies) Results:lotsofdrugs,lotsofsex,lotsofrockandroll NativeAmericans Termination:ThegovernmentstoppedtreatingIndianterritoriesasseparateentitiesand triedtoforcethemtoassimilateintoAmericansociety. DeclarationofIndianPurposeandAIM:Indianssoughttoattaintherighttochoose theirownwayoflifeandcreatedtheAmericanIndianMovementtofightforit. OccupationofWoundedKnee:Hopingtogainnationalattention,AIMmembers occupiedtheWoundedKneereservationin1973,buttheireffortsfailedtosparkaction. ResultsoftheIndianCivilRightsMovement:Indianseventuallysecuredmoreprotection andawarenessthaneverbefore,andalsosawasurgeinprideforIndianculture. Latinos GrowingImmigration:MillionsofLatinosemigratedtotheU.S.afterWWI,forming substantialcommunitiesinmanycitizens. ChicanoActivismandCesarChavez:MostHispanicsworkedinlowpayingservicejobs. MexicanswhocampaignedforbetterjobscalledthemselvesChicanosthemostnotable wasCesarChavez,headoftheUnitedFarmWorkers.Hecalledforaboycottofgrapesand lettuce,andwasvictoriousinsecuringmuchbetterjobsforWesternmigrantworkers. CulturalPluralism/Multiculturalism:Minoritiesbegantofeelthattheywerenotbeing assimilatedintoameltingpot,butshouldbeacceptedastheirownethnicgroups. Homosexuals StonewallRiot:Markedthefirstmovementforhomosexualfreedomoccurredinresponse toaraidofagaybarinNYC. ResultsoftheGayLiberationMovement:Increasedsocietalacceptanceofgays,who becamemorepopularlyacceptedalsosuffereddefeats,suchasfailuretorepealDontAsk DontTellmilitarypolicyandproposalofaconstitutionalamendmentbanninggaymarriage. Women TheFeminineMystique(1963):WrittenbyBettyFriedan,sparkedthefeministmovement byrecognizingwomensunhappinesswiththecultofdomesticity.

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EqualPayAct(1963):Bannedcompaniesfrompayingwomenlessforequalwork. NationalOrganizationofWomen:Foundedtoimproveeconomicconditionsforwomen andcalledforfulleconomicandsocialequality. RadicalLiberation:Somewomentookmoreextremeviewsonwomensunhappinessand begantocreatetheirownexclusivelyfemalecultures. Results:Womenbecameforcesinpolitics,particularlythoselikeSandraDayOConnor andRuthBaderGinsburg(SupremeCourtjustices).Theybeganworkinginallprofessions andstartedtoseebettereconomicequality.Strengthoffeministmovementhelped influenceRoev.Wade(1973),allowingabortionsinthefirsttrimester. EqualRightsAmendment:Congresspasseditin1972,buttenyearslaterithad notpassedtherequired3/4thsofstatesbecausesomefeltitwouldupset traditionalsocietalvalues. Environmentalism Ecology:Anewsciencethatpromotedtheideathathumansactionsareconnectedwith nature.MostimportantecologistwasRachelCarson,whopublishedSilentSpring(1962)to raiseawarenessabouttheharmfuleffectsofthepesticideDDTithelpedecologybecomea moreacceptedscienceandmanypeoplebeganresearchingourinteractionswiththeworld. Activism:OrganizationsliketheSierraClubstartwieldingmorepowerbecausetheywere backedupbymoredataandresearch. EnvironmentalIssues:airandwaterpollutionacidraindepletionoftheozonelayer globalwarming ResultsoftheEnvironmentalMovement EarthDay:Establishedin1970popularizedenvironmentalisminanonthreatening mannerandinserteditintomainstreamculture. EnvironmentalProtectionAgency(EPA):Createdtoenforcenewantipollution lawsliketheCleanAirActandCleanWaterAct,whichsignificantlyimproved bodiesofwaterandcutdownonemissionsofpollutants.

VIETNAMWAR
RichardNixon CampaignedonthepromiseofbringingpeacewithhonortotheVietnamconflict,butit turnedouthedidntactuallyhaveaplan. HenryKissinger NixonstopforeignpolicyadvisorwhoessentiallyguidedVietnampolicy. Vietnamization TrainedandequippedSouthVietnamesetroopstoallowsomeU.S.troopstoreturnhelped limitthedraft,butdidnothaveapositiveeffectonthewar. Escalation KentStateandPublicOutrage:MassivedemonstrationseruptedovertheU.S.sinvasion ofCambodia,mostnotablyatKentState,wherefourstudentswerekilled. PentagonPapers:Theresurgenceofoutrageledtoinvestigationsofthewar,mostnotably thePentagonPapers,collectedbyDanielEllsbergandpublishedintheNewYorkTimes.It showedthattheonlyreasontheU.S.wasstillatwarwastopreserveitsprestige. MyLaiMassacre:Withallthiscrapgoingon,troopsstartedtolosemorale.Adevastating incidentoccurredinMyLai,Vietnam,where300innocentcitizenswerebrutallykilled. EasterOffensive:TheNorthVietnamesesawtheU.S.sweaknessesandlauncheda massiveattackinMarch1972itwouldhavesucceededintakingoverSouthVietnamhad

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Americantroopsnotbeentheretoaid. Peace ChristmasBombing:KissingerbegannegotiatingwithNorthVietnaminApril1972,but althoughhesaidpeaceisathand,talksbrokedownbyDecemberbecausetheNorth refusedtoremovealltroopsfromthesouth.Soonafter,Nixonlaunchedamassivebombing onmajorNorthVietnamesecities. ParisPeaceAccords:TheChristmasBombingandAmericanpressureontheThieu regimeinSouthVietnamtoacceptaceasefireledtoafinalagreementinJanuary1973. PostWithdrawalDefeat: Vietnam:TheParisaccordssaidNorthVietnameseforcescouldremaininthe Southpeacefully,butassoonasU.S.troopslefttheylaunchedabigattackon Saigon(nowHoChiMinhCity)andtookoverSouthVietnam. Cambodia:ThefriendlyLonNolregimefelltoPolPotandtheKhmerRouge, whichbegangenocidethatkilledathirdofthecountry. America:Thenationwasembarrassedbythedefeatandwascrushedbythe massivedebtithadrackedup.55,000AmericansdiedinVietnam.

NIXONPRESIDENCY
ForeignPolicy NixonDoctrine:SaidthattheU.S.wouldhelpprotectanddevelopalliednations,but wouldnottakedirectresponsibilityforthemgreatersupportforauthoritarianregimes. China:NixonwantedtobecomemorefriendlywithChinainordertohavearegionalally againsttheSovietUnion.NixonbecamethefirstpresidenttovisitChinaandeventually openedlowleveldiplomaticrelationswiththemalthoughnotofficiallyrecognizingthe Communists. SovietUnion:NixonandLeonidBrezhnev,Sovietpremier,negotiatedtheSALTItreaty, whichfrozethenumberofnuclearmissiles(ICBMs)eachnationcouldhave. MiddleEast: SixDayWar(1967):IsraelfoughtbackagainstEgyptianandJordanianforcesand claimedallofJerusalemandotherkeyareas. YomKippurWar(1973):EgyptlaunchedanattackontheGazaStrip,butIsrael managedtofightbacktheU.S.intervenedinordertoprotectitsoilinterests. ArabOilEmbargo:MiddleEastnationsangrywithIsraelenactedashortoil embargothatmomentarilycrippledtheAmericaneconomy.Nixonrealizedhe couldnotjustsupportIsraelblindlyanymorehehadtotakeintoaccountthe interestsoftheMiddleEastnationsthatcontrolledtheoilreserves. DomesticPolicy Nixonfelthehadtoappeasethesilentmajorityconservative,middleclasswhites.He begantodismantlesomeofthemajorGreatSocietyprograms.However,hedidshowa liberalside,particularlybyreplacingtheoldwelfaresystemwiththeFamilyAssistance Plan,givingallAmericansaguaranteedincomeitwasdefeatedintheSenateby conservativesandliberalswhofeltthebenefitsweretoominimal. SupremeCourt LiberalismoftheWarrenCourt:TheWarrenCourtcontinuallyaidedthepoorand supportedliberalcauses.(SeeAppendixAforcases) LackofConservatismoftheNixonCourt:WhenWarrenretired,Nixontriedtoappoint conservativejustices.Hisfirsttwoappointmentswererejected.TheNixonCourtendedup

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beingrelativelyliberalandcontinuedtheWarrenCourtssocialreform. Economy Inflation:Becamethemostcriticaleconomicissueofthe1970s.Causedbyoverspending ontheGreatSocietyandVietnam,andbyothernationsprotectionofrawmaterialsby raisingprices. Energy:TheU.S.dependedonfossilfuelsmorethananyothercountryitwascrippled whenOPEC(OrganizationofPetroleumExportingCountriescontrolledoilofthirdworld nations)announceditsembargoduringtheYomKippurWar. Deindustrialization:Manufacturingcompaniesfacedgrowingcompetitionfromother countriestheymovedtheirjobsoverseasorjustshutdownentirely.Morejobswerebeing createdinthetechnologyindustry,butmostAmericanswereunequippedandfaced unemployment. Stagflation:Nixonfirstcontractedthemoneysupplytopreventinflation,butpricesstill increasedandtheeconomycontinuedtostagnate(hencestaglation).Hethenfrozeprices andwagesfor90daysinthesummerof1971tostopinflation,butarecessionensued. Worriedthathewouldlookbadaheadofthenextelection,hestartedspendingheavilyto revivetheeconomy,resultinginrenewedinflation.Thedollarlostalotofvalue. Electionof1972 GeorgeMcGovern:Democraticcandidatesolidlyliberal,butrepresentedtheturbulent idealsofthe1960sthatAmericansocietywaswillingtoputaside.Hurtbythedecisionto makeTomEagletonhisrunningmateEagletonwasdiscoveredtohaveundergonemental andemotionaltreatmentandembarrassinglywithdrewfromtheticket. GeorgeWallace:RacistgovernorofAlabama.Nixonfearedhewouldrunasathirdparty candidateandtakeawayhissouthernvoters,buthewasshotandendedhiscampaign. RichardNixon:WoninthebiggestlandslideinAmericanhistory. Watergate NixonsViewofthePresidency:NixondidnotlikedealingwiththeDemocraticCongress andfelthehadtherighttoexercisegreaterexecutivepower. Breakin:SeveralagentswhowerefoundtobeformeremployeesoftheCommitteeforthe ReElectionofthePresidentbrokeintoDemocraticNationalCommitteeheadquarters. Coverup:AninvestigationbegantoexposesometiesbetweenthebreakinandtheWhite House.Theadministrationtriedtomicromanagetheinvestigationandwithholdinformation, leadingpeopletobelievetheywerecoveringsomethingupaboutthewholeaffair. SaturdayNightMassacre:Nixonwasthetargetofinvestigatorsinterest,andcontinuedto pleadinnocence.ItwasdiscoveredthathehadrecordedeveryOvalOfficeconversation,but hetriedtostopthetapesfrombeingreleased.Hewastakentocourtbyspecialprosecutor ArchibaldCox,whowasfiredbyNixonhisattorneygeneralresignedinprotest,completely embarrassingthepresident. U.S.v.RichardNixon(1974):Nixoncontinuedtryingtoprotectthetapes,butthe SupremeCourtruledthathehadtogiveupthetapestoaspecialprosecutor.Thisdecision ledtotheHouserecommendingimpeachmentforhiscoverup.Thetapesgavedamaging evidencethatthepresidenthadtriedtostopthebreakinfrombeinginvestigatedbythe FBI.HeeventuallyresignedinAugust1974,replacedbyGeraldFord.

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REAGANERA(chapter33)
FORDANDCARTERPRESIDENCIES
GeraldFord PardonedNixon.PassedaprecursortoSALTII.LosttoCarterin1976. JimmyCarter Economy:Theeconomycontinuedtostruggleasinflationgrewexponentially.TheFederal Reservesetinsanelyhighinterestrates,whichmadecredithardtoattain.Also,another OPECpriceincreaseandfuelshortageseverelyhurttheeconomy.Hismalaisespeech madeitsoundlikehewasblamingtheU.S.sissuesonthepeopleratherthanhimself. ForeignPolicy:Generallyonlyintervenedagainsthumanrightsviolations. MiddleEast:CarternegotiatedatreatybetweenEgyptandIsraelin1979known astheCampDavidAccords. FarEast:OpenedformaldiplomaticrelationswithChina.Waspreparedtopass SALTII,whichlimitedalmostalltypesofnuclearweapons,butobjectedtothe USSRsinvasionofAfghanistan,causinganxietyamongmanyAmericans. IranHostageCrisis:TheIranianRevolutionof1979causedtheleader,theShah,to fleethecountryandseekrefugeinAmerica.53AmericansintheU.S.sTehran embassyweretakenhostageforoverayear.ReleasedonReagansinaugurationday.

POLITICS
Sunbelt TheSoutheast,Southwest,andCalifornia.Antigovernmentandantiregulation.Southerners stillfeltthegovernmentforcingracialequalitywaslikethetyrannyofReconstruction (SagebrushRebellion)Westernersstillpromotedtheideaofruggedindividualism. Revivalism Evangelical(bornagain)Christianityspreadrapidlyinthe1970sand1980s.Organizations liketheMoralMajorityandtheChristianCoalitionfoughtagainstfederalpower,abortion, feminism,homosexuality,andtheteachingofevolution. NewRight BetterRepublicanfundraisingandorganizingaftertheembarrassmentofBarryGoldwaterin 1964helpedbuildanewconservativemovement.LedbyRonaldReagan,whowasan unapologeticconservativeandcriticizedFordsmoderate,conciliatoryforeignpolicies. TaxRevolt AftertheNewDeal,conservativestriedtolimitthegovernmentssize,butfoundit impossibletodismantlesocialprograms.Theydecidedtotargettaxesinstead,whichwas morepoliticallypalatable.FirstsuccessfultaxrevoltwasProp13inCaliforniain1978.

REAGANPRESIDENCY
Electionof1980 JimmyCarter:HurtbytheIranhostagecrisisandfacedprimarychallenges. RonaldReagan:AlreadyhadpopularsupportwhenhealmostbeatFordinthe1976 primarylatchedontotheantitaxmovement.WonsolidlyGOPwonSenate. ReaganCoalition Madeupofcorporateelites(antitax,antiregulation),neoconservatives(intellectual, anticommunism,wantedtoreassertAmericanculturalvalues),andpopulistconservatives

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(noneliteswhowereconcernedabouttoomuchcentralizedpower). Reaganomics SupplysideEconomics:Cuttaxestostimulateinvestmentfromthetopthatwouldbenefit theentireeconomylessrevenuewouldmeanspendingcuts.Reaganpassedbothmajor taxcutsandmajorspendingcutsinhisfirstyearofoffice Deregulation:Reaganderegulatedalmosteveryareaofsocietytopromoteecongrowth. RecessionandRecovery:Thebigspendingcutshurttheeconomyintheshortterm,but by1983,highinvestmentandlowinterestrateshelpedtheeconomygrowrapidly. Debt:Therecontinuedtobemassivebudgetdeficits,mainlyduetoquicklyrisingcostsfor entitlementprograms(SocialSecurityandMedicare)andlessfederalrevenue.Fundingfor socialandwelfareprogramshadtobecutseverelytotrytobalancethebudget. ForeignPolicy ReaganDoctrine:Supportallanticommunistforcesaroundtheworld,regardlessofties totheSovietUnion.LedtorhetoricalandmaterialsupporttosomeLatinAmericannations. ArmsRace:AlthoughReaganfollowedtheSALTIItreaty,relationswiththeUSSR deterioratedashecriticizedtheirpolicies.ProposedtheStrategicDefenseInitiative(SDI), whichtheUSSRbelievedwouldmerelyproliferatethearmsrace. PoliticalTurmoil:BegantodeteriorateunderMikhailGorbachevinthelate1980sfellapart forgoodin1991.Also,ChinahadTiananmenSquareandSouthAfricaendedapartheid. Electionof1984 ReagandefeatedWalterMondalesolidly,butDemocratsretainedtheHouse.Election showedpublicconfidenceinconservativeeconomics. EndoftheReaganRevolution SavingsandLoanCrisis:Thebankingindustrywasonthevergeofthecollapsebecause ofrecklessandillegalspendingcostover$500billionoftaxpayerdollarstoresolve. IranContraScandal:ItwasdiscoveredthatAmericahadsoldweaponstoIranian revolutionariesandusedsomeofthemoneytoaidNicaraguanrebels(contras).Exposed thattheReaganadministrationwasoftensecretaboutitsforeignpolicyactions. Electionof1988 VPGeorgeH.W.BushbeganfarbehindDemocraticcandidateMichaelDukakis,butrana negativecampaignthatchastisedhimforbeingliberalandwonbyalot.

BUSHPRESIDENCY
DomesticPolicy ConflictedwiththeDemocraticCongressandcouldnotmuchdonepledgesofreducing deficitandnonewtaxesgavehimlittleleeway.Accumulationofdebtinthe1980scaused arecessionin1990. GulfWar SaddamHussein,leaderofIraq,decidedtoinvadeandannexKuwait.Bushannounced economicsanctionsandtheUNbeganplacingtroopsinKuwait.Militaryforcewas authorizedafteracouplemonthsofwarning.TheUNbombedIraqiforcesforsixweeksand thenlaunchedagroundassault,killing141Americansand100,000Iraqis.Showedthe U.S.sdependenceonoilandwillingnesstofighttoprotectitsoilinterests. Electionof1992 BushandBillClintonhadtoughprimarychallenges.TexasbillionaireRossPerotjumpedin theraceasathirdpartycandidateandscoredsignificantsupportbeforewithdrawinginthe summer.HereturnedinOctoberandwon19%ofthepopularvoteClintonbeatBush.

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GLOBALIZATION(chapter34)
CLINTONANDSECONDBUSHPRESIDENCIES
ClintonsFirstTerm SignedNAFTAandGATT,bothfreetradeagreements.Passedabudgetthatincludedatax increaseonthewealthyandspendingcuts.Passedwelfarereform.EndedtheBosniancivil warbysendingpeacekeepingtroopsandanegotiator.Didnotpasshealthcarereform. RepublicanResurgence UndertheleadershipofNewtGingrich,theGOPwonbothhousesofCongressand proposedanewconservativeagendaintheContractwithAmerica. Electionof1996 RepublicansweredamagedbyaconflictwithClintonthatledtoagovernmentshutdown andwhichClintoneventuallylookedbetterfrom.Hebecamemorecentristanddefeated BobDolerelativelyeasily. Impeachment ItwasdiscoveredthatClintonhadliedaboutanaffairwithMonicaLewinsky.Hewas impeachedintheHousebutacquittedbyabigmajorityintheSenate. ClintonsSecondTerm Improvedtheeconomygreatlyandbalancedthebudgetsothatitwasproducingsurpluses. HelpedendtheKosovocivilwar. Electionof2000 GeorgeBushandVicePresidentAlGorehadanunexcitingracebutwassoclosethat neitherhad270EVsonelectionnightbecauseFloridawasundecided.Goredemandeda recount,butKatherineHarristriedtodenyit.Thestatesupremecourtallowedafull recount,buttheconservativemajorityoftheSupremeCourt,inBushv.Gore,decidedthe recounthadtobecompletedbyDecember12thedaythedecisionwasended.Bushwas namedthewinner. BushsFirstTerm UsedthesurplustopassthelargesttaxcutinU.S.history. Electionof2004 Bushmovedtotherightandcampaignedasaconservativeonsocialissues.DefeatedJohn Kerryinaverycloserace.BushthentriedtoreformSocialSecurity,butfailed.

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APPENDIXA:SUPREMECOURTCASES
MARSHALLCOURT
Marburyv.Madison(1803) Establishedjudicialreview.MarburyaskedforawritofmandamustoforcePresident MadisontofulfillMarburyspositionasoneofAdamssmidnightappointments,butthe Courtdecidedthelawauthorizingthewritofmandamuswasunconstitutional. Fletcherv.Peck(1810) Affirmedthesanctityofcontracts. McCullochv.Maryland(1819) UpheldtheconstitutionalityoftheBankoftheUnitedStatesandalsoenforcedfederal poweroverthestates.TheCourtruledthatMarylandcouldnottaxtheBankbecause statescouldnotregulatethefederalgovernment. DartmouthCollegev.Woodward(1819) Affirmedthesanctityofcontracts.NewHampshiretriedtomakeDartmouthapublic college,buttheCourtdecidedtheoriginalcharterthatmadeDartmouthprivatewas sacrosanct. Johnsonv.McIntosh(1823) EstablishedthatIndianclaimstotriballandssupersededalllawsexceptthosebythe federalgovernment. Gibbonsv.Ogden(1824) Assertedthatonlythefederalgovernment,andnotstates,couldregulateinterstate commerce. CherokeeNationv.Georgia(1831) EstablishedthatIndiantribesweresemiindependententitiesundertheprotectionofthe government,likeawardtohisguardian. Worcesterv.Georgia(1832) EstablishedthatIndiantribeshadautonomywithintheirterritoriesthatstatesandpeople couldnotinfringeupon.

TANEYCOURT
CharlesRiverBridgev.WarrenBridge(1837) Determinedthattheinterestsofsocietytakeprecedenceovertheinterestsofbusiness. Commonwealthv.Hunt(1842) Affirmedthelegalityofunionsandstrikes. Scottv.Sanford(1857) DeclaredtheMissouriCompromiseof1820illegal.TaneydeterminedCongresscouldnot prohibitslaveryinastateorterritorybecausethe5thAmendmentguaranteedthatproperty wouldnotbeseizedbythegovernment.DredScottwasrulednotfree.

POSTRECONSTRUCTIONCASES
SlaughterhouseCases(1883) Legalizedsegregationonprivateproperty. Munnv.Illinois(1877) Allowedstatestopasslawsthatregulatedrailroads.MajorvictoryfortheGrangers. Wabashv.Illinois(1886)

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Determinedstatelawsregulatingrailroadstobeunconstitutionalbecauserailroadswere classifiedasinterstatecommerce.MajordefeatfortheGrangers.ReversedMunn. Plessyv.Ferguson(1896) Legalizedsegregationonpublicpropertyundertheseparatebutequalpolicy. InsularCases(1901) Determinedthatannexationofterritorydoesnotguaranteethatresidentsofthatterritory receivecitizenshiptheConstitutiondoesnotfollowtheflag.

PROGRESSIVECASES
U.S.v.E.C.Knight(1895) Limitedthefederalgovernmentsabilitytobreakupmonopolies.MadetheSherman AntiTrustActineffectivebydecidingthatitdidnotapplytomanufacturingcompanies. InreDebs(1895) Declaredthatthefederalgovernmentwasallowedtowriteinjunctionstobreakupstrikes. ThiswasadirectresultofthePullmanStrikeof1894,whichhadbeenbrokenbyGrover ClevelandbecauseitwasdisruptingtheUSPostalService.Majorvictoryforcorporations majordefeatforunions. NorthernSecuritiesv.U.S.(1904) ReempoweredthefederalgovernmenttobreakupmonopoliesundertheSherman AntiTrustAct.ReversedE.C.Knight. Lochnerv.NewYork(1905) Determinedlimitsonmaximumworkinghoursforbakerswasunconstitutional. Mullerv.Oregon(1908) Allowedalawsettinga10hourmaximumworkdayforwomen. Hammerv.Dagenhart(1918) DeterminedtheKeatingOwenActmakingchildlaborillegalwasunconstitutional. Schenckv.U.S.(1919) Declaredthatthe1stAmendmentrighttofreespeechcanbelimitedifsomeoneswords presentsaclearandpresentdanger.UpheldtheEspionageActof1917,whichmadeit illegaltocriticizetheU.S.sWWIeffort.SimilartoDebsv.UnitedStates(1919). Adkinsv.ChildrensHospital(1923) Determinedthatamaximumworkdayforwomenwasunconstitutional.Afterthe19th Amendmentwaspassed,theCourtdecidedthatwomenwerenowconsideredequalto men,andthereforedidnotmeritspecialtreatment.ReversedthedecisioninMuller.

GREATDEPRESSIONANDWORLDWARICASES
Schechterv.U.S.(1936) DeclaredtheNationalRecoveryAdministrationunconstitutional.TheNRAuseditspowerto interveneinaffairsnotconsideredinterstatecommerce. U.S.v.DarbyLumberCo.(1941) Ruledchildlaborrestrictionsconstitutional.OverruledHammerv.Dagenhartupheldthe FairLaborStandardsAct. Korematsuv.U.S.(1941) UpheldtheU.S.sdecisiontoplaceJapaneseAmericansininternmentcampsinWWII. ExparteEndo(1944) DetermineditwasunconstitutionalfortheU.S.toplaceAmericanbornJapanese(Nisei)in internmentcamps.

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WARRENCOURT
Brownv.BoardofEducation(1954) Declaredsegregationunconstitutional.Decidedtheseparatebutequalpolicywas unconstitutionalinpublicschools,andrequiredschoolstointegratewithalldeliberate speed. Bakerv.Carr1962) Requiredstatelegislaturestocreateelectoraldistrictsthatwouldmakeallvotesequal, insteadofgivingmorevotingpowertoruralareas(thusdevaluingthevotesofcitypeople). Engelv.Vitale(1962) Ruledthatpublicschoolprayerisunconstitutional. Gideonv.Wainwright(1963) Determinedsuspectsoffelonieshadtoreceivelawyers,whetherornottheycanaffordone. Escobedov.Illinois(1964) Determinedalldefendantshadtoreceivelawyersbeforebeingquestionedbypolice. Mirandav.Arizona(1966) Determinedthepolicehastotellcriminalsuspectswhattheirrightsare.

MODERNCASES
Roev.Wade(1973) Declaredabortioncouldnotbecriminalizedbystateswithinawomansfirsttrimester. Majorvictoryforabortion/feministadvocates. U.S.v.RichardNixon(1974) DeterminedthatNixoncouldnotclaimexecutiveprivilegetoinhibitthejudicialprocess. NixonwastryingtostoptheincriminatingWatergatetapesfrombeingmadepublic. Bakkev.RegentsoftheUniversityofCalifornia(1978) Upheldthepolicyofaffirmativeaction,butonlybarely(4for,4against,1dissent). BoyScoutsv.Dale(2000) Ruledthatbusinessesfreedomofassociationsupersedesantidiscriminatorylaws.The BoyScoutswereallowedtofireatroopleaderbecausehecameoutashomosexual. Bushv.Gore(2000) GaveGeorgeW.Bushthepresidencyin2000.

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APPENDIXB:CONSTITUTIONALAMENDMENTS
1stAmendment Guaranteesthefivebasicfreedoms. 2ndAmendment Protectstherighttobeararms. 13thAmendment Abolishesslavery. 14thAmendment DefinescitizenshipandenforcestheCivilRightsAct. 15thAmendment Givesblackstherighttovote. 16thAmendment Authorizesthecreationofanincometax. 17thAmendment Allowsfordirectelectionofsenators. 18thAmendment EstablishesProhibition. 19thAmendment Giveswomentherighttovote.

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