J Fam Viol (2008) 23:3745 DOI 10.

1007/s10896-007-9127-6

ORIGINAL ARTICLE

Drinking, Alcohol Problems and Intimate Partner Violence Among White and Hispanic Couples in the U.S.: Longitudinal Associations
Raul Caetano & Suhasini Ramisetty-Mikler & T. Robert Harris

Published online: 13 September 2007 # Springer Science + Business Media, LLC 2007

Abstract This paper examines longitudinal associations between drinking, alcohol problems and male-to-female (MFPV) and female-to-male partner violence (FMPV) in a national sample of White and Hispanic couples in the United States. The study uses general population household survey longitudinal data collected in 1995 and in 2000. Subjects (18 years or older) constitute a random sample of married and cohabiting couples in the 48 contiguous United States. In 1995, a total of 1,635 couples completed the interview for a response rate of 85%. In 2000, face-to-face interviews were completed with 1,392 couples in their homes. The present analyses include 406 White and 387 Hispanic couples, who remained intact at the follow-up. Alcohol volume, alcohol problems, MFPV and FMPV in 1995 significantly predicted these same behaviors 5 years later. For White couples, female alcohol problems predicted FMPV in 1995. For Hispanics, female alcohol problems predicted FMPV only in 2000. The relationships between the three alcohol variables and MFPV and FMPV are not static, changing across ethnic groups over time. Findings suggest that once a behavior is present, it tends to be a strong predictor of that same behavior in the future. Keywords Drinking . Alcohol problems . Intimate partner violence

Introduction This paper tests ethnic-specific path models of the association between drinking and male-to-female (MFPV) and female-to-male intimate partner violence (FMPV) in a 5-year national longitudinal study of White and Hispanic couples in the United States. Intimate partner violence (IPV) has been identified as a major public health problem in the U.S. Prevalence rates for IPV among couples in the general population are as high as 17% (Straus 1990b), with higher rates for FMPV (21.4%) than for MFPV (13.6%) (Schafer et al. 1998). Higher rates of IPV have also been found among certain ethnic groups (Kantor 1993), especially Blacks and Hispanics (Straus 1980, 1990b). Cross-ethnic analyses of the first wave (1995) of data in this paper indicated that the rate of MFPV was 17% for Hispanic and 12% for White couples and rates of FMPV were 21% for Hispanic and 16% for White couples (Caetano et al. 2000a). Some of these results, especially those showing higher rates of FMPV than MFPV in survey samples have generated controversy. Further research has shown that although rates of FMPV may be higher than MFPV, consequences of MFPV are in general more serious. MFPV is more likely to result in injury and death, and a significant percentage of womens emergency room visits are due to male perpetrated violence (Grisso et al. 1991, 1996; Sorenson et al. 1996). Among those homicides in which the victimsuspect relationship is known, women are three times more likely to be killed by an intimate than a stranger (Kellerman and Mercy 1992). Authors are therefore in general agreement that the health consequences of violence are greater for women than for men. The papers focus on drinking and IPV is based on previous research showing an association between alcohol consumption, alcohol problems and partner violence (Bushman 1993;

R. Caetano (*) : S. Ramisetty-Mikler : T. R. Harris University of Texas School of Public Health, Dallas Campus, 5323 Harry Hines Blvd. Room V8.112, Dallas, TX 75390-9128, USA e-mail: Raul.Caetano@UTSouthwestern.edu

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Hotaling and Sugarman 1986; Kantor 1993; Leonard 1993; Pernanen 1976, 1991). In a broad overview of studies of alcohol use and IPV, Roizen (1993) estimates that men are drinking at the time of the event in about 45% of all cases and women are drinking in about 20% of such events. Previous analyses of the data set analyzed herein showed that between 27 to 41% of the men and 4 to 24% of the women, depending on ethnicity, were drinking at the time of the violent incident (Caetano et al. 2000a). Prior studies also indicate that individuals who report alcohol problems are much more likely than those who do not report these problems to perpetrate intimate partner violence. These associations have been consistently reported both in general population and clinical samples (Cunradi et al. 1999; Leonard 2005; Miller et al. 1989; Murphy and OFarrell 1994; OFarrell 1991; Stuart et al. 2006; Walker 1991). However, the presence of alcohol during partner violence does not necessarily mean that alcohol is the cause of the violence being reported. It is important to consider that the violence could have occurred without individuals being actively under the acute influence of alcohol. As outlined previously (Caetano et al. 2001), the following may also serve as explanations of this association (a) individuals expect alcohol to disinhibit them and then act out this expectation by being violent, (b) individuals consciously use alcohol as an excuse for their violent behavior; (c) alcohol appears to be associated with violence because both heavier drinking and violence have common predictors such as impulsivity or other personality characteristics. Unfortunately, the analyses in this paper will not allow specific tests of these hypotheses. The specific paths between drinking, alcohol problems and IPV being tested are described below. Previous longitudinal analyses have generated important knowledge concerning the severity of IPV in various populations and how IPV severity levels change in time. These analyses indicate that IPV in general population samples is not as severe and chronic as in institutional samples such as those from the criminal justice system or substance abuse treatment programs (Jasinski 2001; Leonard 1993; OLeary et al. 1989; Quigley and Leonard 1996). Rates of remission range from 24 to 69%, depending on many factors but especially on type of sample, the definition of violence and the follow-up time. Also, the IPV remission rate in the community is related to severity. Those who engage in more severe violence are more likely than those who engage in moderate violence to report further violence during follow-up. Longitudinal analyses with ethnic groups show that the prevalence, incidence, and recurrence of IPV are higher among Hispanic couples than White couples (Caetano et al. 2005a). The likelihood of recurrence of IPV is associated with severity, but the rate of recurrence of severe IPV among Hispanic couples is 5 times higher than the rate among Whites (Caetano et al. 2005a). When analyses examine

predictors of MFPV and FMPV separately, the presence of one of these types of violence at one time is a strong predictor of recurrence of the same type of violence 5 years later (Field and Caetano 2003). Acculturation to U.S. society is not longitudinally associated with the occurrence of intimate partner violence among Hispanic couples (Caetano et al. 2004). Although previous longitudinal research has generated complex models of intimate partner violence (Leonard and Senchak 1996; OLeary et al. 1994; Stith and Farley 1993), ethnic-specific models of the longitudinal associations among alcohol use, ethnicity, and MFPV and FMPV have not been described. Such models are needed because of the evidence that predictors of intimate partner violence vary across ethnic groups both cross-sectionally and longitudinally, and that Blacks and Hispanics may have higher rates of recurrence of IPV than Whites (Caetano et al. 2001, 2005a; Field and Caetano 2003; Leonard 1993; Leonard and Quigley 1999). Specifically, the models being tested consider characteristics of both partners in the dyad, including, sociodemographic factors, family history of violence, drinking and alcohol problems. Sociodemographic factors and family history of violence are seen as background correlates. The models test direct and indirect paths between males and females drinking and alcohol problems with MFPV and FMPV in 1995, and then again in 2000. In addition, because there is stability in drinking and alcohol problems across time, the models test the association between drinking and alcohol problems in 1995 and 2000. Stability in intimate partner violence is also tested by paths linking MFPV and FMPV in 1995 and 2000. Finally, the model also tests longitudinal cross-over associations between MFPV and FMPV. Previous ethnic-specific analyses of this data set have indicated that ethnicity is a modifier of a number of intimate partner violence predictors (Caetano et al. 2005a, b). Based on these previous analyses, drinking and alcohol problems should have stronger associations with MFPV and FMPV among Whites than among Hispanics. Specifically, male drinking among Whites should be associated with FMPV (Caetano et al. 2000a), and female alcohol problems among Whites should be associated with FMPV (Cunradi et al. 1999, 2000).

Methods Study Design The study is a longitudinal study where couples were interviewed in 1995 and again in 2000. At the time of the first interview, subjects 18 years or older constituted a multistage random probability sample representative of married

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and cohabiting couples in 48 contiguous states (Alaska and Hawaii were not included). Hispanic couples were oversampled. Participants All couples in which both members were 18 years of age and older living in randomly selected households were eligible to participate. This process identified 1,925 couples, of which 1,635 couples completed the interview for a response rate of 85%. In 2000, these couples were contacted again to participate in the 5-year follow-up. At follow-up, both members of 15 couples were either dead or incapacitated, leaving 1,620 couples (1,635 15) to be reinterviewed. Interviews were successfully completed with 1,392 couples, or 72% of the 1,925 couples from the 1995 original eligible sample (or 86% of those eligible to be reinterviewed). The present analysis is limited to 793 couples406 White, and 387 Hispanic couples who were still intact at follow-up (living with the same partner since 1995). They are 71% of all the White and Hispanic couples interviewed in 1995, during the baseline survey. Sampling weights were used to adjust for the deliberate oversampling of Hispanics as well as for nonresponse patterns. Procedure and Data Collection All subjects signed a written informed consent prior to being interviewed. In both 1995 and 2000, face-to-face interviews were conducted in respondents homes with a standard questionnaire designed for this study. Members of the couple were always interviewed independently either in English or Spanish as preferred by the subject. Interviews in which this independence appeared to be compromised were discarded (n =20). Nonresponse Analysis Details of the nonresponse analysis are described elsewhere (Caetano et al. 2003). Couples who were lost to follow up did not have higher rates of violence that those who were successfully followed in 2000. Ethnicity, education, income, marital status, alcohol consumption, drinking problems, history of observation violence between parents were not related to non-response. Men who were under age 30 or unemployed, and women who were age 4049 or who did not report being victimized by violence during their childhood, were more likely than others to be lost to follow-up. Measures Male-to-Female and Female-to-Male-Partner Violence Both in 1995 and 2000 participants were independently asked

about the occurrence of 11 violent behaviors that they may have perpetrated against their partners, or that their partners may have perpetrated against them, during the year prior to the survey. The violence items were adapted from the Conflict Tactics Scale, Form R (Straus 1990b) and included the following: threw something; pushed, grabbed or shoved; slapped; kicked, bit or hit; hit or tried to hit with something; beat up; choked; burned or scalded; forced sex; threatened with a knife or gun; used a knife or gun. Due to survey time constraints, no frequency data were collected. Violence was considered present when reported by one of the members of the couple. All positive responses (yes) to each of the violent acts listed above were summed to obtain a total score. Because these scores were positively skewed, they were log transformed after adding 1. Drinking Respondents were grouped into abstainers, current drinkers who never consumed five drinks or more on a single occasion in the past year, and those who did have five or more drinks on at least one occasion during the past year. Several different groupings are possible. This grouping differentiates abstainers from drinkers who binge drink (five or more drinks on occasion) and who do not binge drink. This differentiation is important because based on previous findings in the general alcohol literature (Dawson and Room 2000) and the IPV literature (Caetano et al. 2001; Kantor and Straus 1987) binge drinking is an important predictor of problems in general and IPV. Alcohol problems The items included 14 specific problem areas: salience of drinking, impaired control, withdrawal, relief drinking, tolerance, heavy drinking, belligerence, accidents, health-related problems, work-related problems, financial problems, problems with the police, problems with the spouse, and problems with persons other than the spouse. For the current analysis, all affirmative responses were summed to obtain the total number of problems reported in a year. Again to adjust for non-normality, log transformations (after adding 1) of this score were used in the analyses. Psychosocial variable Childhood Exposure to Parental Violence. Respondents were asked whether during their childhood or adolescence they had observed their parents or the persons who raised them threaten one another with physical violence or actually be physically violent with one another. On the basis of their response, individuals were categorized as never having observed violence or threat of violence, or as having observed threat of violence or actual physical violence between their parents. Sociodemographic Ethnic identification. Respondents who identified themselves as black of Hispanic origin (Latino, Mexican, Central or South American, or any other Hispanic

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origin) and white of Hispanic origin (Latino, Mexican, Central or South American, or any other Hispanic origin) were classified as Hispanic. Respondents who selected white, not of Hispanic origin were classified as White. From their response, couple level ethnicity (homogenous couple) was created to be used in the current analysis. A couple is considered either White (both partners are White) or Hispanic (both partners are Hispanic). Age. The age of respondents was measured continuously in years. Education. Each respondent was asked about the highest grade or year in school that he/she completed. Based on their responses, subjects were categorized into three groups, less than high school, those with a high school diploma or GED (general equivalency diploma), and those who had more than high school education (technical or vocational training beyond high school, some college or holding college/professional degrees). Employment. Male respondents were categorized into two employment categories: not employed (retired, unemployed and other disabled, in school, volunteer, in job training program) and employed part or full-time. Female respondents were grouped into three employment categories: homemaker, not employed (retired, employed, unemployed and other), and employed. Data Analysis Path analysis models were specified on the basis of anticipated theoretical relationships and previous work with this sample. For instance, previous research (Caetano et al. 2000a, 2005a; Kantor 1993; Straus and Smith 1990b) and preliminary analyses of our data indicate that the presence and strength of relationships between variables differ between ethnic groups. Given the lack of studies regarding the longitudinal relationships among the variables investigated in this study, and the lack of a generative theory to guide hypothesized relationships, this conceptually and empirically guided approach to specifying the models seemed prudent. Accordingly, model development began with the investigation of the relationship between drinking (which incorporates drinking five or more drinks on one occasion), alcohol problems, and MFPV and FMPV. Every path among these three variables was indicated by the data for one or both partners, in one or more ethnic groups, in either or both survey waves. Residual correlations between male and female alcohol problems, and between MFPV and FMPV, were also strongly indicated by the data. Therefore, all of these effects are included in the models presented, in order to obtain comparable coefficients across ethnicity, gender and time. The cross-time comparisons are also tested between the core 1995 and 2000 violence variables. Tests were also conducted (Wald test) to see whether the paths among the core violence variables are significantly different between the two ethnic groups.

Important potential confounders were controlled. The number of such confounders was limited in order to obtain stable coefficients in the presence of moderate sample sizes. Between similar variables, the one with generally larger bivariate correlations with the core variables was chosen. The covariates include childhood exposure to parents violence or threats of violence and sociodemographic variables (age, education, and employment status) and were specified as exogenous variables. Models were specified, fit, and evaluated using multigroup method with the Mplus program (Version 4.0, Muthn and Muthn 2005). Mplus allows categorical exogenous variables, and also allows the use of sampling weights and controls for the stratification and clustering effects due to the multistage sampling design when estimating path or structural equation models. The fit of the models was determined by examining consistency across multiple descriptive fit indexes. Hu and Bentler (1999) and others (e.g., Loehlin 2004; Muthn and Muthn 1998) have suggested that the following goodness of model fit statistics and the associated values support a good fit: Comparative Fit Index (CFI>0.95), and Root Mean Square Error of Approximation (RMSEA<0.05). These values are used as guides and are not based on statistical distribution theory; hence, multiple descriptive fit indexes and their consistency are commonly used in structural equation modeling applications to evaluate model fit.

Results Sample Characteristics Men in this sample are a little older (mean age 49 years, SD=14.6) than women (mean age 46 years, SD=14.1). One third of men (33.1%) had less than high school education, one third graduated from high school (32.7%) and the remaining (34.3%) had some college education or college graduates. Over three-quarters of men (77%) were employed at the time of when they were interviewed. One quarter of women (27%) had less than high school education, one third graduated from high school (36%) and the remaining (37%) had some college education or were college graduates. Over one half of women were employed (53%), little over a third were homemakers (35%), and 12% were unemployed at the time of when they were interviewed. Regarding drinking, alcohol problems and partner violence, 71% of White men and 61% of Hispanic men had drunk alcohol in the past 12 months. The proportion of drinkers among White and Hispanic women was 61% and 36%, respectively. The mean number of drinks consumed per week by White and Hispanic men were 5.1 (SE=1.2) and 6.2 (SE=0.92); while among White women and Hispanic

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women, the means were 2.3 (SE=0.32) and 0.92 (SE=0.32). About 15% of White men and 25% of Hispanic men reported one or more alcohol-related problems in the past 12 months. Among women the proportions were lower, and only 6% of Hispanic women and 9% of White women reported problems. Twelve months rates of events defined as moderate partner violence (throw something, push, shove, grab, slap) ranged from 1 to 20% among White men and from 5 to 13% among Hispanic men. Among women rates for these same acts ranged from 4 to 10% among Whites and from 6 to 13% among Hispanics. Rates of severe partner violence (e.g., kick, bite, beat up, choke, burn, threaten with or use knife or gun) were lower, ranging from 0 to 7%, independent of gender and ethnicity. Model Characteristics Because most of the covariates are time-specific, 1995 and 2000 alcohol variables and MFPV and FMPV are adjusted for covariates at the same time. The exceptions are (1) the psychosocial variable, childhood exposure to parental
1995 Male Drinking 0.65*

violence, which would not have changed, and for which we used 1995 self-reports, and (2) ages of the partners, for which the 1995 and 2000 values are collinear. The core set of relationships is presented in Figs. 1 and 2 for White and Hispanic couples respectively. This includes the crosssectional relationships between drinking, alcohol-related problems and MFPV and FMPV for each partner in the couple as well as the longitudinal relationships between these variables. The model also includes cross-time paths between MFPV and FMPV. The models also include residual correlations between male and female alcohol variables and violence variables crossectionally. Path Models and Goodness of Fit The results from the multi-group model testing indicated good overall model fit indices with chi square value 340.6, (df =308, p-value 0.0985), Comparative Fit Index (CFI) 0.985 and the root mean square error of approximation (RMSEA) 0.017. Figures 1 and 2 show paths with standardized path coefficients for the core set of relationships in
2000 Male Drinking

0.29* Male Alcohol Problems 0.11 0.02 0.31* MFPV

-0.01

0.27* 0.25* Male Alcohol Problems 0.04 -0.02

MFPV

0. 1 9

0.03

FMPV

0.27*

-0.02 FMPV

0.19* Female Alcohol Problems 0.34* Female Drinking 0.62* 0.47*

0.05 Female Alcohol Problems 0.15* Female Drinking

2 = 153.11 d f = 154 , p = 0.5051

Fit Indices :
RESIDUAL CORRS * Male & Female Drinking 1995 * Male & Female Drinking 2000 * Male & Female Alcohol Problems 1995 Male & Female Alcohol Problems 2000 (ns) * MFPV & FMPV 1995 * MFPV & FMPV 2000

CFI = 1.000 TLI= 1.001 RMSEA = 0.000 SRMR= 0.033

Fig. 1 Paths for the core set of associations in the model-WHITES N=366

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1995 Male Drinking 0.52* 2000 Male Drinking

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0.47* Male Alcohol Problems 0.05 0.24* MFPV

0.25*

0.30* 0.35* Male Alcohol Problems 0.09 0.01

-0.02

MFPV

0. 14

0.04

FMPV

0.38*

0.01 FMPV

0.02 Female Alcohol Problems 0.14* Female Drinking 0.46* 0.22

0.11* Female Alcohol Problems 0.15* Female Drinking

2 = 188.58 df = 154 , p=0.0303

Fit Indices:
RESIDUAL CORRS * Male & Female Drinking 1995 * Male & Female Drinking 2000 Male & Female Alcohol Problems 1995 (ns) Male & Female Alcohol Problems 2000 (ns) * MFPV & FMPV 1995 * MFPV & FMPV 2000

CFI = 0.965 TLI= 0.947 RMSEA = 0.025 SRMR= 0.038

Fig. 2 Paths for the core set of associations in the model-HISPANICS N=348

the models for Whites and Hispanics, respectively. In both figures, statistically significant coefficients and residual correlations (p <0.05) are identified with an asterisk. In the model for Whites, the chi square is 153.11(df =154, p < 0.5051). Because the chi-square statistic is smaller than its degrees of freedom, the CFI is 1 and the root mean square error of approximation (RMSEA) is 0. In the model for Hispanics, the chi square is 188.57 (df =154, p <.0303), the CFI is .965 and the RMSEA is .025. Among Whites (Fig. 1), both male and female drinking has a significant effect on alcohol problems in both 1995 and 2000. The only alcohol variable with a direct effect on an IPV variable is female alcohol problems on FMPV in 1995. All alcohol variables in 1995 have a significant effect on the same behaviors in 2000, independent of gender. Finally, among Whites, MFPV and FMPV in 1995 predict MFPV and FMPV in 2000, respectively. The model for Hispanic couples differs from the model for Whites in important ways (Fig. 2). In 1995, alcohol variables are not significantly associated with MFPV or FMPV. In 2000, female alcohol problems predict FMPV.

This is the only significant association of an alcohol variable with partner violence. Among Hispanics, as among Whites, alcohol variables in 1995 are associated with the same variables in 2000. Finally, as with Whites, MFPV and FMPV in 1995 predict MFPV and FMPV in 2000, respectively. In addition, and unique to Hispanics, FMPV in 1995 predicts MFPV in 2000. The Wald test was conducted to see whether the paths among the core violence variables, including the crosspaths, are significantly different between the two ethnic groups. The results indicated no significant differences between the two ethnic groups except for the cross path between 1995 FMPV and 2000 MFPV (Wald test: value 5.1, df =1, p value 0.02).

Discussion The two models described above show gender-specific as well as ethnic-specific results. The relationships between drinking and alcohol problems, as well as the relationships

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between these alcohol variables and MFPV and FMPV are not static, changing across ethnic groups and from 1995 to 2000. The greatest comparability across the two models is in the relationships between 1995 and 2000 data. These associations show that once a behavior is present, it tends to predict that same behavior at a future time. This is clearly seen in the paths between the drinking measure in 1995 and 2000, alcohol problems in 1995 and 2000, and MFPV and FMPV in 1995 and 2000. This is consistent with longitudinal research in the general behavioral sciences field and on the alcohol field (Field and Caetano 2003). Another common observation across the models is that the coefficients for associations in 1995 are usually larger than those for the same relationship in 2000. The most likely explanation for this difference is that in 2000 the analysis controls for the longitudinal effect of the 1995 variables on 2000 status, and 1995 baseline data do not have such controls (only sociodemographic control variables). For example, it is possible that because drinking problems in 2000 are partly explained by the presence of drinking problems 5 years earlier, the association between drinking and problems in 2000 is not as strong as that in 1995. In general, this suggests that the magnitude of crosssectional associations could be overestimated in those cases when the initiation of the behaviors under analysis precedes the time of the cross-sectional data collection. Differences in the pattern of associations between 1995 and 2000 data can also be explained by the instability of alcohol problems and intimate partner violence in general population data, constituted by alcohol problems and MFPV and FMPV of a milder and more transitory nature than those seen in clinical populations. An important point worth discussing in more detail is the association between drinking, alcohol problems and MPFV and FMPV in each ethnic group. The models show no direct effect of drinking on MFPV or FMPV in either ethnic group. Regarding alcohol problems, among Whites, female alcohol problems are associated with FMPV only in the 1995 data. This had been previously reported by Cunradi et al. (1999, 2000). For Hispanics, female alcohol problems predict FMPV in 2000. These findings partially contradict previous results in the literature (Leonard and Jacob 1988; Leonard 1993; Kantor 1993; Fals-Stewart et al. 2005; Stuart et al. 2006), in regard to the association between drinking and MFPV and FMPV. The most likely explanation for this lack of association between drinking and partner violence, and alcohol problems and partner violence for males is the typical level of alcohol consumption, alcohol problems and the type of violence observed in general population samples. In these samples most alcohol consumption is relatively moderate, most individuals report one alcohol problem only, and most MFPV or FMPV is moderate rather than severe. Much of the link between drinking and violence has been

established in institutional samples that typically have higher levels of drinking and alcohol problems as well as more severe partner violence. It is also possible that the categorical measure of drinking in the analysis was not sensitive enough, and failed to capture the association between drinking and violence reported in previous studies. The lack of a direct link between drinking and MFPV and FMPV and the direct effect of drinking problems on IPV among women (White females in 1995, Hispanic females in 2000) can be interpreted in different ways. This pattern of relationships suggests that the factor triggering FMPV is not alcohol per se but the added stress brought by alcohol problems to couples lives. It could also be that there are unknown factors (omitted variables) linked both to an increased tendency to perpetrate partner violence and to the development of alcohol problems, which lead to FMPV. But then, why is it that the effect of alcohol problems on FMPV varies with gender, ethnicity, and survey wave? These differences are difficult to interpret. Other factors that can potentially explain this difference in association between alcohol problems and MFPV and FMPV across ethnic groups are ethnic-specific sources of stress, gender roles, power balance and the dominant pattern of relationships for couples. Family life and structure among Hispanics are different from those among Whites. Hispanic family life is more enmeshed and families are constituted by several generations living together. This may help minimize incidents of intimate partner violence. Among Hispanics, it is also important to take into consideration factors such as acculturation (Caetano et al. 2000b, 2004), machismo and marianismo, and family-centered values that contribute to keeping relationships intact in spite of violence (MalleyMorrison and Hines 2004). Finally, other reasons why most of the associations between drinking, alcohol problems and IPV tested in the analysis are not statistically significant is perhaps that the models being tested include a number of potential confounders of these associations, many of which had not been considered in previous analyses. For instance, most other research has not included variables representing sociodemographic, family history and drinking-related attributes from both male and female in the couple. Associations between drinking, alcohol problems and IPV are tenuous in general population samples, and it is therefore also possible that the analysis lacked power to detect existing associations. This study has several strengths. It collected information on IPV from both partners independently. The evidence in the literature is that interviews with both partners enhance considerably the probability of identification of spousal violence (Straus and Smith 1990a; Szinovacz and Egley 1995). Bilingual interviews were conducted, and oversampling of Hispanics allowed for ethnic group-specific analyses. The longitudinal design allows for consideration

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J Fam Viol (2008) 23:3745 Caetano, R., Schafer, J., Clark, C., Cunradi, C., & Raspberry, K. (2000b). Intimate partner violence, acculturation, and alcohol consumption among Hispanic couples in the United States. Journal of Interpersonal Violence, 15, 3045. Caetano, R., Schafer, J., & Cunradi, C. (2001). Alcohol-related intimate partner violence among white, black and Hispanics couples in the United States. Alcohol Research and Health, 25, 5865. Cunradi, C., Caetano, R., Clark, C., & Schafer, J. (1999). Alcoholrelated problems and intimate partner violence among White, Black and Hispanic couples in the U.S. Alcoholism Clinical and Experimental Research, 23, 14921501. Cunradi, C., Caetano, R., Clark, C., & Schafer, J. (2000). Neighborhood poverty as a predictor of intimate partner violence among white, black and Hispanic couples in the US: A multilevel analysis. Annals of Epidemiology, 10, 97308. Dawson, D. A., & Room, R. (2000). Towards agreement on ways to measure and report drinking patterns and alcohol-related problems in adult general population surveys: The Skarpo conference overview. Journal of Substance Abuse, 12, 121. Fals-Stewart, W., Leonard, K. E., & Birchler, G. R. (2005). The occurrence of male-to-female intimate partner violence on days of mens drinking: The moderating effects of antisocial personality disorder. Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology, 73, 239248. Field, C., & Caetano, R. (2003). Longitudinal model predicting partner violence among white, black, and Hispanic couples in the United States. Alcoholism Clinical and Experimental Research, 27, 14511458. Grisso, J. A., Schwarz, D. F., Miles, C. G., & Holmes, J. H. (1996). Injuries among inner-city minority women: A population-based longitudinal study. American Journal of Public Health, 86, 6770. Grisso, J. A., Wishner, A. R., Schwarz, D. F., Weene, B. A., Holmes, J. H., & Sutton, R. L. (1991). A population-based study of injuries in inner-city women. American Journal of Epidemiology, 134, 5968. Hotaling, G. T., & Sugarman, D. B. (1986). An analysis of risk markers in husband to wife violence: The current state of knowledge. Violence and Victims, 1, 101124. Hu, L., & Bentler, P. M. (1999). Cutoff criteria for fit indices in covariance structure analysis: Conventional versus new alternatives. Structural Equation Modeling, 6, 155. Jasinski, J. L. (2001). Physical violence among Anglo, African American, and Hispanic couples: Ethnic differences in persistence and cessation. Violence and Victims, 16, 479490. Kantor, G. K. (1993). Refining the brushstrokes in portraits of alcohol and wife assaults. In S. E. Martin (Ed.), Alcohol and interpersonal violence: Fostering multidisciplinary perspectives (pp. 281290). Rockville, MD: U.S. Department of Health and Human Services. Kantor, G. K., & Straus, M. A. (1987). The drunken bum theory of wife beating. Social Problems, 34, 213230. Kellerman, A. L., & Mercy, J. A. (1992). Men, women and murder: Gender-specific differences in rates of fatal violence and victimization. Journal of Trauma, 33, 15. Leonard, K. E. (1993). Drinking patterns and intoxication in marital violence: Review, critique, and future directions for research. In S. E. Martin (Ed.), Alcohol and interpersonal violence: Fostering multidisciplinary perspectives (pp. 253280). Rockville, MD: U.S. Department of Health and Human Services. Leonard, K. E. (2005). Alcohol and intimate partner violence: When can we say that heavy drinking is a contributing cause of violence? Addiction, 100, 422425. Leonard, K. E., & Jacob, T. (1988). Alcohol, alcoholism, and family violence. In V. D. Van Hasselt, R. L. Morrison, A. S. Bellach, & M. D. Herson (Eds.), Handbook of family violence (pp. 383406). New York: Plenum Press.

of time order as well as for the control of past behavior on present behavior. However, this design also had limitations. Data collection took place at two points in time. At each of these points data were collected for the past 12 months prior to the survey and as a result, life-course or information pertaining to the entire 5-year interval between baseline and follow-up are not available. More cross-sectional effects in 2000 might have been significant, even holding 1995 variables constant, if the sample sizes had been larger. Other limitations of the study are: 15% of the eligible couples at baseline refused to participate. At follow-up, the proportion of originally eligible couples not interviewed was 28%. Selection biases may be present if in 1995 or 2000 non-participating couples were more likely to have experienced IPV. Also, the analyses did not consider the frequency of violence. Finally, analysis of intimate partner violence based on a sample of intact couples may underestimate this violence in the general population because couples who separated due to IPV are not included in the analysis. Limitations of the CTS, the scale used to assess intimate partner violence, have also been discussed in the literature. These include lack of assessment of the context and of the consequences of violent acts committed by husbands and wives (Straus 1990a, b).
Acknowledgements Work on this paper was supported by a grant (R37-AA10908) from the National Institute on Alcohol Abuse and Alcoholism to the University of Texas School of Public Health. Data collection also had the support of a National Alcohol Research Center grant (AA05595) from the National Institute on Alcohol Abuse and Alcoholism to the Alcohol Research Group, Public Health Institute, Berkeley, California.

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