Academic Year

2012-2013
Dr Ben Mehenni
UoG-
11/6/2012


Fundamentals of
Wind Energy Technology






EM3S29: Sustainable Energy Technology
We know the science. We have predicted the threats.
Its time for action.
California Governors- Arnold Shwarzeneger
The Best in Life are Free !
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Solar



Air
Wind

Rain Water
sea,
river
Wave, Tide
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ound
Geo-thermal
Recycles Rubbish
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Love, Friendship, Freedom etc.


2

An occluded mesocyclone tornado
Wind distribution


Introduction
Wind is the flow of gases on a large scale. On Earth, wind consists of the bulk movement of air.
In meteorology, winds are often referred to according to their strength, and the direction from
which the wind is blowing.
The two main causes of large scale atmospheric circulation are the differential heating
between the equator and the poles, and the rotation of the planet (Coriolis effect).
Within the tropics, thermal low circulations over terrain and high plateaus can drive monsoon
circulations. In coastal areas the sea breeze/land
breeze cycle can define local winds; in areas that have
variable terrain, mountain and valley breezes can
dominate local winds.
Wind is caused by differences in pressure. When a
difference in pressure exists, the air is accelerated
from higher to lower pressure. On a rotating planet
the air will be deflected by the Coriolis effect, except
exactly on the equator.
Globally, the two major driving factors of large scale
winds (the atmospheric circulation) are:
- The differential heating between the equator
and the poles (difference in absorption of
solar energy leading to buoyancy forces) and
- The rotation of the planet.
Thus, indirectly Wind Energy is Solar Energy!
Outside the tropics and aloft from frictional effects of
the earth surface, the large-scale winds tend to approach geostrophic balance. Near the
Earth's surface, friction causes the wind to be slower
than it would be otherwise. Surface friction also causes
winds to blow more inward into low pressure areas.
Winds defined by an equilibrium of physical forces are
used in the decomposition and analysis of wind profiles
as shown in sections below. They are useful for
simplifying the
atmospheric equations of
motion and for making
qualitative arguments
about the horizontal and
vertical distribution of
winds.

P V = n R T
3

A windmill style of anemometer


Measurement
Wind direction is reported by the direction from which it originates. For
example, a northerly wind blows from the north to the south. Weather vanes
pivot to indicate the direction of the wind.
Wind speed is measured by anemometers, most commonly
using rotating cups or propellers. When a high measurement
frequency is needed (such as in research applications), wind
can be measured by the propagation speed of ultrasound
signals or by the effect of ventilation on the resistance of a
heated wire. Another type of anemometer uses pitot tubes that
take advantage of the pressure differential between an inner
tube and an outer tube that is exposed to the wind to
determine the dynamic pressure, which is then used to
compute the wind speed.
Sustained wind speeds are reported globally at a 10 meters
height and are averaged over a 10 minute time frame.
Remote sensing techniques for wind include SODAR, Doppler LIDARs and RADARs, which can
measure the Doppler shift of electromagnetic radiation scattered or reflected off suspended
aerosols or molecules, and radiometers and radars can be used to measure the surface
roughness of the ocean from space or airplanes. Ocean roughness can be used to estimate
wind velocity close to the sea surface over oceans. Geostationary satellite imagery can be used
to estimate the winds throughout the atmosphere based upon how far clouds move from one
image to the next.
Beaufort wind force scale provides an empirical
description of wind speed based on observed sea
conditions. The scale has 17 levels. There are
general terms that differentiate winds of different
average speeds as shown in the table below used
by Regional Specialized Meteorological Centers
worldwide:







4

Wind plotting within a station model
General wind classifications Tropical cyclone classifications (all winds are 10-minute averages)
Beaufort
scale
[16]
10-minute
sustained winds
(knots)
General
term
N Indian
Ocean
IMD
SW Indian
Ocean
MF
Australia
BOM
SW Pacific
FMS
NW
Pacific
JMA
NW
Pacific
JTWC
NE Pacific & N
Atlantic
NHC & CPHC
0 <1 Calm
Depression
Tropical
disturbance
Tropical low
Tropical
depression
Tropical
depression
Tropical
depression
Tropical depression
1 13 Light air
2 46 Light breeze
3 710 Gentle breeze
4 1116
Moderate
breeze
5 1721 Fresh breeze
6 2227 Strong breeze
7
2829
Moderate
gale
Deep
depression
Tropical
depression
3033
8 3440 Fresh gale
Cyclonic storm
Moderate
tropical storm
Tropical cyclone
(1)
Tropical
cyclone (1)
Tropical
storm
Tropical
storm
Tropical storm
9 4147 Strong gale
10 4855 Whole gale
Severe cyclonic
storm
Severe tropical
storm
Tropical cyclone
(2)
Tropical
cyclone (2)
Severe
tropical storm
11 5663 Storm
12 6472
Hurricane
Very severe
cyclonic storm
Tropical cyclone
Severe tropical
cyclone (3)
Severe tropical
cyclone (3)
Typhoon
Typhoon
Hurricane (1)
13 7385 Hurricane (2)
14 8689
Severe tropical
cyclone (4)
Severe tropical
cyclone (4)
Major hurricane (3)
15 9099
Intense tropical
cyclone
16 100106
Major hurricane (4)
17
107114
Severe tropical
cyclone (5)
Severe tropical
cyclone (5)
115119
Very intense
tropical cyclone
Super
typhoon
>120
Super cyclonic
storm
Major hurricane (5)

The station model plotted on surface weather maps uses a wind barb to show both wind
direction and speed. The wind barb shows the
speed using "flags" on the end.
- Each half of a flag depicts 5 knots (9.3 km/h) of
wind.
- Each full flag depicts 10 knots (19 km/h) of
wind.
- Each pennant (filled triangle) depicts 50 knots
(93 km/h) of wind.
Winds are depicted as blowing from the direction
the barb is facing. Therefore, a northeast wind will
be depicted with a line extending from the cloud
circle to the northeast, with flags indicating wind
speed on the northeast end of this line. Once
plotted on a map, an analysis of isotachs (lines of
equal wind speeds) can be accomplished. Isotachs
are particularly useful in diagnosing the location of
the jet stream on upper level constant pressure
charts.


10 knots = 5 m/s
5


Sea breeze (occurs at daytime
Land breeze (occurs at night)
Mountain wave schematic. The wind flows towards
a mountain and produces a first oscillation (A). A
second wave occurs further away and higher. The
lenticular clouds form at the peak of the waves (B).
Sea and land breezes
In coastal regions, sea breezes and land breezes can be important factors in a location's
prevailing winds. The sea is warmed by the sun
more slowly because of water's greater specific
heat compared to land. As the temperature of the
surface of the land rises, the land heats the air
above it by conduction. The warm air is less dense
than the surrounding environment and so it rises.
This causes a pressure gradient of about
2 millibars from the ocean to the land. The cooler
air above the sea, now with higher sea level
pressure, flows inland into the lower pressure,
creating a cooler breeze near the coast. When
large-scale winds are calm, the strength of the sea
breeze is directly proportional to the temperature
difference between the land mass and the sea. If an
offshore wind of 8 knots (4m/s) exists, the sea
breeze is not likely to develop.
At night, the land cools off more quickly than the ocean because of differences in their specific
heat values. When the temperature onshore cools below the temperature offshore, the
pressure over the water will be lower than that of the land. Thus establishing a land breeze as
long as an onshore wind is not strong enough to oppose it.
Near mountains
Over elevated surfaces, heating of the ground exceeds the
heating of the surrounding air at the same altitude,
creating an associated thermal low over the terrain and
changing the wind circulation of the region. In areas
where there is rugged topography that significantly
interrupts the environmental wind flow, the wind
circulation between mountains and valleys is the most
important contributor to the prevailing winds. Hills and
valleys substantially distort the airflow by increasing
friction between the atmosphere and landmass by acting
as a physical block to the flow, deflecting the wind
parallel to the range just upstream of the topography,
which is known as a barrier jet. This barrier jet can
increase the low level wind by 45 percent. Wind direction
also changes because of the contour of the land.
Jagged terrain combines to produce unpredictable flow
patterns and turbulence. Strong updrafts, downdrafts and
eddies develop as the air flows over hills and down
valleys.
6

The kinetic energy increases at the expense of the
fluid pressure, as shown by the difference in height
of the two columns of water

Hodograph plot of wind vectors at various
heights in the troposphere, which is used
to diagnose vertical wind shear

The total amount of economically extractable power available from the wind is considerably more than present human power use
from all sources. An estimated 72 TeraWatt (TW) of wind power on the Earth potentially can be commercially viable, compared
to about 15 TW average global power consumption from all sources in 2005. Not all the energy of the wind flowing past a given
point can be recovered (see Betz' law).

If there is a pass in the mountain range, winds will rush
through the pass with considerable speed because of the
Bernoulli principle that describes an inverse
relationship between speed and pressure.
In fluid dynamics, Bernoulli's principle states that for an
inviscid (no viscosity) flow, an increase in the speed of the
fluid occurs simultaneously with a decrease in pressure or a
decrease in the fluid's potential energy. The airflow can
remain turbulent and erratic for some distance
downwind into the flatter countryside. Cool winds
accelerating through mountain gaps have been given
regional names.
Wind power density
A yardstick used to determine the best locations for wind energy
development is referred to as Wind Power Density (WPD). It is a
calculation relating to the effective force of the wind at a particular
location, frequently expressed in terms of the elevation above
ground level over a period of time. It takes into account wind
velocity and mass. Color coded maps are prepared for a particular
area are described as, for example, "mean annual power density at
50 meters.
One study indicates that an entirely renewable energy supply
based on 70 percent wind is attainable at today's power prices by
linking wind farms with an HVDC supergrid. At the end of 2008, worldwide nameplate
capacity of wind-powered generators was 120.8 Gigawatts.
Wind shear
Wind shear or wind gradient, is a difference in wind speed
and direction over a relatively short distance in the Earth's
atmosphere. Wind shear can be broken down into vertical
and horizontal components, with horizontal wind shear
seen across weather fronts and near the coast, and vertical
shear typically near the surface. It is a phenomenon
occurring over a very small distance caused by
thunderstorms, weather fronts, areas of locally higher low
level winds referred to as low level jets, near mountains,
radiation inversions that occur because of clear skies and
calm winds, buildings, wind turbines, and sailboats.

Distribution of wind speed
7


Wind Rose


The strength of wind varies, and an average value for a given location does not alone indicate
the amount of energy a wind turbine could produce
there. To assess the frequency of wind speeds at a
particular location, a probability distribution
function is often fit to the observed data. Different
locations will have different wind speed
distributions. The Weibull model closely mirrors
the actual distribution of hourly wind speeds at
many locations. If the Weibull factor (k=2) then
distribution becomes the Rayleigh distribution
often used as a less accurate, but simpler model (as
will be shown in the following sections).
Capacity factor
The net capacity factor of a power plant is the ratio of the actual output of a power plant over
a period of time and its output if it had operated at full nameplate capacity the entire time. To
calculate the capacity factor, total energy the plant produced during a period of time and
divide by the energy the plant would have produced at full capacity. Capacity factors vary
greatly depending on the type of fuel that is used and the design of the plant. The capacity
factor should not be confused with the availability factor or with efficiency.
Sample calculations
Baseload power plant
A base load power plant with a capacity of 1,000 MW might produce 648,000 megawatt-hours
in a 30-day month. The number of megawatt-hours that would have been produced had the
plant been operating at full capacity can be determined by multiplying the plant's maximum
capacity by the number of hours in the time period. 1,000 MW X 30 days X 24 hours/day is
720,000 megawatt-hours. The capacity factor is determined by dividing the actual output with
the maximum possible output. In this case, the capacity factor is: 0.9 (90%).

Hydroelectric dam
As of 2010, Three Gorges Dam is the largest power generating station in the world by
nameplate capacity. In 2009, not yet fully complete, it had 26 main generator units @ 700 MW
and two auxiliary generator units @ 50 MW for a total installed capacity of 18,300 MW. Total
generation in 2009 was 79.47 TWh, for a capacity factor of: just under 50%:

Hoover Dam has a nameplate capacity of 2080 MW and an annual generation averaging 4.2
TWh. (The annual generation has varied between a high of 10.348 TWh in 1984, and a low of
2.648 TWh in 1956.) Taking the average figure for annual generation gives a capacity factor
of:
Wind farm
8



For wind:


Betz limit:
Betz's law is a theory about the maximum possible energy to be derived from a "hydraulic wind engine", or a wind
turbine well before the advent of the modern 3-blade wind turbine that generates electricity
The Burton Wold Wind Farm consists of ten Enercon E70-E4 wind turbines @ 2MW
nameplate capacity for a total installed capacity of 20 MW. In 2008 the wind farm generated
43,416 Megawatt-hours of electricity. Note 2008 was a leap year. The capacity factor for this
wind farm is:

under 25%:
Reasons for reduced capacity factor
There are several reasons why a plant would have a capacity factor lower than 100%:
- The first reason is that it might be out of service or operating at reduced output for part of the time
due to equipment failures or routine maintenance. This accounts for most of the unused capacity of base
load power plants. Base load plants have the lowest costs per unit of electricity because they are
designed for maximum efficiency and are operated continuously at high output. Geothermal plants,
nuclear plants, coal plants and bioenergy plants that burn solid material are almost always operated as
base load plants.

- The second reason that a plant would have a capacity factor lower than 100% is that output is curtailed
because the electricity is not needed or because the price of electricity is too low to make production
economical. This accounts for most of the unused capacity of peaking power plants. Peaking plants may
operate for only a few hours per year or up to several hours per day. Their electricity is relatively
expensive. It is uneconomical, even wasteful, to make a peaking power plant as efficient as a base load
plant because they do not operate enough to pay for the extra equipment cost, and perhaps not enough
to offset the embodied energy of the additional components.
- A third reason is a variation on the second: the operators of a hydroelectric dam may uprate its
nameplate capacity by adding more generator units. Since the supply of fuel (i.e. water) remains
unchanged, the up-rated dam obtains a higher peak output in exchange for a lower capacity factor.
Because hydro plants are highly dispatchable, they are able to act as load following power plants.
Having a higher peak capacity allows a dam's operators to sell more of the annual output of electricity
during the hours of highest electricity demand (and thus the highest spot price). In practical terms, up-
rating a dam allows it to balance a larger amount of intermittent energy sources on the grid such as
wind farms and solar power plants, and to compensate for unscheduled shutdowns of baseload power
plants, or brief surges in demand for electricity.

present turbine no with wind the in power
turbine a wind by extracted power
=
P
C
3
2
1

= v A P
D w

3
2
1

=
v A
P
C
D
P

593 . 0
27
16
= =
MAX
P
C
9


Distribution of wind speed (red) and energy (blue). The histogram
shows measured data, while the curve is the Rayleigh model
distribution for the same average wind speed. Energy is the Betz limit
through a 100 m diameter circle facing directly into the wind.
Wind Energy
Because so much power is generated by higher wind speed, much of the energy comes in
short bursts. The example sample implies that half of the energy available arrived in just 15%
of the operating time. The consequence is that wind energy is not as consistent as fuel-fired
power plants. Thus, wind power is seen primarily as a fuel saver rather for base load plant
than a capacity saver.
Making wind power more consistent requires that
various existing technologies and methods be
extended, in particular the use of stronger inter-
regional transmission lines to link widely
distributed wind farms. Problems of variability are
addressed by grid energy storage, batteries,
pumped-storage hydroelectricity and energy
demand management.
Wind regimes are usually represented by Weibull
Probability Distribution (like Poissons Law in
statistics)


This is the probability that a particular wind speed (v) will occur over a given time period.
k = Shape Parameter
C = Scale Parameter (m/s)

If we rearrange the previous equation we can find expressions for the probability that the
wind speed (V) will be less than a particular wind speed (Vw)

and an expression for the probability that the wind speed (V) will be greater than a particular
wind speed (Vw)


Energy yield from a wind turbine:

When used with the power curve of a wind turbine, the Weibull distribution allows us to
calculate the energy yield of that wind turbine. First we use the Weibull distribution to
calculate the amount of time that particular wind speeds are likely to occur for over the
course of the year using the following formula(1) above. By evaluating the formula at different
wind speeds the length of time in hours that each wind speed occurs for over the year can be
estimated (see tutorial).
Electricity generation
In a wind farm, individual turbines are interconnected with a medium voltage (often 34.5 kV),
power collection system and a transmission/distribution network. At a substation, this
medium-voltage electric current is increased in voltage with a transformer for connection to
the high voltage electric power transmission system.
Note: Any surplus power produced by small (wind farm) micro-generators can, in some jurisdictions, be
fed into the network grid and sold to the utility companies, producing a retail credit for the micro-
generators' owners to offset their energy costs.
( ) ( )( )
( )
k
C v k
e C v C k v p
/ 1
/ /

=
( )
( )
) 1 ( 1
/
k
C Vw
e Vw V Q

= <
( )
( )
) 2 (
/
k
C Vw
e Vw V Q

= >
10

Components of a horizontal axis wind turbine
(gearbox, rotor shaft and brake assembly) being lifted
into position

Wind turbine Technologies
A wind turbine is a rotary device
that extracts energy from the wind.
When the mechanical energy is
converted to electricity, the machine
is called a wind generator, wind
turbine, wind turbine generator
(WTG), wind power unit (WPU),
wind energy converter (WEC), or
aero-generator.
Wind turbines can rotate about
either a horizontal or a vertical axis.
Horizontal axis
Horizontal-axis wind turbines (HAWT) have the main rotor shaft and electrical generator at
the top of a tower, and must be pointed into the wind. Small turbines are pointed by a simple
wind vane, while large turbines generally use a
wind sensor coupled with a servo motor. Most
have a gearbox, which turns the slow rotation of
the blades into a quicker rotation that is more
suitable to drive an electrical generator.
Since a tower produces turbulence behind it, the
turbine is usually pointed upwind of the tower.
Turbine blades are made stiff to prevent the
blades from being pushed into the tower by high
winds. Additionally, the blades are placed a
considerable distance in front of the tower and
are sometimes tilted forward into the wind a
small amount.
Downwind machines have been built, despite the problem of turbulence (mast wake), because
they don't need an additional mechanism for keeping them in line with the wind, and because
in high winds the blades can be allowed to bend which reduces their swept area and thus
their wind resistance. Since cyclic (that is repetitive) turbulence may lead to fatigue failures
most HAWTs are upwind machines.
They typically had many blades, operated at tip speed ratios, to
match their rated output and usually have good starting torque for
the generators used, charging storage batteries, to provide power.
Such devices are still used in locations where it is too costly to bring in commercial power.



11

Three bladed wind turbine
Modern wind turbines
Turbines used in wind farms for commercial
production of electric power are usually three-bladed
and pointed into the wind by computer-controlled
motors. These have high tip speeds, high efficiency,
and low torque ripple, which contribute to good
reliability. The blades are usually colored light gray
to blend in with the clouds and range in length from
20-40m or more. The tubular steel towers range from
60-90m tall. The blades rotate at 10-22 rpm. At 22
rpm, the tip speed exceeds 91 m/s. A gear box is
commonly used for stepping up the speed of the
generator (1500 3000 rpm), although designs may
also use direct drive of an annular generator. Some models operate at constant speed, but
more energy can be collected by variable-speed turbines which use a solid-state power
converter to interface to the transmission system. All turbines are equipped with protective
features to avoid damage at high wind speeds, by feathering the blades into the wind which
ceases their rotation, supplemented by brakes.
Advantages

Disadvantages

Variable blade pitch, which gives the turbine
blades the optimum angle of attack. Allowing
the angle of attack to be remotely adjusted
gives greater control, so the turbine collects
the maximum amount of wind energy for the
time of day and season.
The tall tower base allows access to stronger
wind in sites with wind shear. In some wind
shear sites, the wind speed can increase by 20%
and the power output by 34% for every 10
meters in elevation.
High efficiency, since the blades always move
perpendicular to the wind, receiving power
through the whole rotation.
The face of a horizontal axis blade is struck by
the wind at a consistent angle regardless of the
position in its rotation. This results in a
consistent lateral wind loading over the course
of a rotation, reducing vibration and audible
noise coupled to the tower or mount.

The tall towers and blades up to 45m long are
difficult to transport. Transportation can now
amount to 20% of equipment costs.
Tall HAWTs are difficult to install, needing very
tall and expensive cranes and skilled operators.
Massive tower construction is required to support
the heavy blades, gearbox, and generator.
Reflections from tall HAWTs may affect side lobes
of radar installations creating signal clutter,
although filtering can suppress it.
Their height makes them obtrusively visible across
large areas, disrupting the appearance of the
landscape and sometimes creating local opposition.
Downwind variants suffer from fatigue and
structural failure caused by turbulence when a
blade passes through the tower's wind shadow (for
this reason, the majority of HAWTs use an
upwind design, with the rotor facing the wind in
front of the tower).
HAWTs require an additional yaw control
mechanism to turn the blades and nacelle toward
the wind.
In order to minimize fatigue loads due to wake
turbulence*, wind turbines are usually sited a
distance of 5 rotor diameters away from each
other, but the spacing depends on the
manufacturer and the turbine model.
Suffer cyclic stresses and vibration

*Wake turbulence is turbulence that forms behind the turbine body (as in an aircraft as it passes through the air).
12

Darrieus Eggbeater" wind turbine VAWT
A helical twisted VAWT-Giromill
Windmill with rotating sails-Savonius
Vertical axis design
Vertical-axis wind turbines (or VAWTs) have the main rotor shaft arranged vertically. Key
advantages of this arrangement are that the turbine does not need to be pointed into the wind
to be effective. This is an advantage on sites where the wind direction is highly variable.
With a vertical axis, the generator and gearbox can be placed near the ground, so the tower
doesn't need to support it, and it is more accessible for maintenance. Drawbacks are that
some designs produce pulsating torque.
It is difficult to mount vertical-axis turbines on towers, meaning they are often installed
nearer to the base on which they rest, such as the ground or a building rooftop. The wind
speed is slower at a lower altitude, so less wind energy is available for a given size turbine. Air
flow near the ground and other objects can create turbulent flow, which can introduce issues
of vibration, including noise and bearing wear which may increase the maintenance or
shorten the service life. However, when a turbine is mounted on a rooftop, the building
generally redirects wind over the roof with a doubling of the wind speed at the turbine.
Subtypes
Darrieus wind turbine Eggbeater" turbines, were named after the
French inventor, Georges Darrieus. They have good efficiency, but
produce large torque ripple and cyclical stress on the tower, which
contributes to poor reliability. They also generally require some
external power source, or an additional Savonius rotor to start
turning, because the starting torque is very low. The torque ripple is
reduced by using three or more blades which results in a higher
solidity for the rotor. Solidity is measured by blade area divided by
the rotor area. Newer turbines are not held up by guy-wires but have
an external superstructure connected to the top bearing.
Giromill
A subtype of Darrieus turbine with straight, as opposed to curved,
blades is shown. The cycloturbine variety has variable pitch to
reduce the torque pulsation and is self-starting. The advantages of
variable pitch are: high starting torque; a wide, relatively flat
torque curve; a lower blade speed ratio; a higher coefficient of
performance; more efficient operation in turbulent winds; and a
lower blade speed ratio which lowers blade bending stresses.
Straight, V, or curved blades may be used.
Savonius wind turbine
These are drag-type devices with two (or more) scoops that are
used in anemometers, Flettner vents (commonly seen on bus and
van roofs), and in some high-reliability low-efficiency power
turbines. They are always self-starting if there are at least three
scoops. They sometimes have long helical scoops to give a smooth
torque.
13

The Musgrove Wind Turbine-Carmarthen Bay
The Musgrove wind turbine
The blades are vertical for normal power generation but tip or
turn about a horizontal point for control or shut down (i.e.
furled or unfurled-reefed).

Musgrove Vertical-Axis Turbines The VAWT-450 (130 kW)
machine (blades shown as reefed; in operation these become
vertical). The gear-box and generator were at ground level.










Advantages

Disadvantages

A massive tower structure is less
frequently used, as VAWTs are more
frequently mounted with the lower
bearing mounted near the ground.
Designs without yaw mechanisms
are possible with fixed pitch rotor
designs.
The generator of a VAWT can be
located nearer the ground, making it
easier to maintain the moving parts.
VAWTs have lower wind startup
speeds than HAWTs. Typically, they
start creating electricity at 10 km/h.
VAWTs may be built at locations
where taller structures are
prohibited.
VAWTs situated close to the ground
can take advantage of locations
where plateaus-flat highlands,
hilltops, ridgelines, and passes funnel
the wind and increase its velocity.
VAWTs may have a lower noise
signature.

A VAWT that uses guy-wires* to hold it in place puts stress
on the bottom bearing as all the weight of the rotor is on the
bearing. Guy wires attached to the top bearing increase
downward thrust in wind gusts. Solving this problem
requires a superstructure to hold a top bearing in place to
eliminate the downward thrusts of gust events in guy wired
models.
The stress in each blade due to wind loading changes sign
twice during each revolution as the apparent wind direction
moves through 360 degrees. This reversal of the stress
increases the likelihood of blade failure by fatigue.
While VAWTs' components are located on the ground, they
are also located under the weight of the structure above it,
which can make changing out parts very difficult if the
structure is not designed properly.
Having rotors located close to the ground where wind speeds
are lower due to the ground's surface drag, VAWTs may not
produce as much energy at a given site as a HAWT with the
same footprint or height.
In contrast, all vertical axis wind turbines, and most
proposed airborne wind turbine designs, involve various
types of reciprocating actions, requiring airfoil surfaces to
backtrack against the wind for part of the cycle. Backtracking
against the wind leads to inherently lower efficiency.
*A guy-wire or guy-rope, or simply a guy, is a tensioned cable designed to add stability to structures
14

Turbine design and construction
Wind turbines convert wind energy to electricity for distribution. Conventional horizontal
axis turbines can be divided into three components.

Wind turbines are designed to exploit the wind energy that exists at a location. Aerodynamic
modeling is used to determine the optimum tower height, number of blades, blade shape and
control systems (pitch, stall).
Wind turbine blades are shaped to generate the maximum power from the wind at the
minimum cost. Primarily the design is driven by the aerodynamic requirements, but
economics mean that the blade shape is a compromise to keep the cost of construction
reasonable. In particular, the blade tends to be thicker than the aerodynamic optimum close
to the root, where the stresses due to bending are greatest.
The power available from the wind varies as the cube of the wind speed ( P= V
3
), so twice
the wind speed means eight times the power. This is why sites have to be selected carefully:
below about 5m/s (10mph) wind speed there is not sufficient power in the wind to be useful.
Conversely, strong gusts provide extremely high levels of power, but it is not economically
viable to build machines to be able to make the most of the power peaks as their capacity
would be wasted most of the time. So the ideal is a site with steady winds and a machine that
is able to make the most of the lighter winds whilst surviving the strongest gusts.
All these effects lead to varying loads on the blades of a turbine as they rotate, and mean that
the aerodynamic and structural design needs to cope with conditions that are rarely optimal.
By extracting power, the turbine itself has an effect on the wind: downwind of the turbine the
air moves more slowly than upwind. The wind starts to slow down even before it reaches the
blades, reducing the wind speed through the disc (the imaginary circle formed by the blade
tips, also called the swept area) and hence reducing the available power. So there is an
optimum amount of power to extract from a given disc diameter: try to take too much and the
wind will slow down too much, reducing the available power. In fact the ideal is to reduce the
wind speed by about two thirds downwind of the turbine, though even then the wind just
before the turbine will have lost about a third of its speed. This allows a theoretical maximum
of 59% of the winds power to be captured (this is called Betzs limit). In practice only 40-50%
is achieved by current designs.

The rotor component, which is approximately 20% of the wind turbine cost, includes the blades for
converting wind energy to low speed rotational energy.

The generator component, which is approximately 34% of the wind turbine cost, includes the
electrical generator, the control electronics, and most likely a gearbox component for converting the
low speed incoming rotation to high speed rotation suitable for generating electricity.

The structural support component, which is approximately 15% of the wind turbine cost, includes
the tower and rotor yaw mechanism.

Conceptually, wind turbines may also be used in conjunction with a large vertical solar updraft tower
to extract the energy due to air heated by the sun.
15


Blade at low, medium & high angles of attack

The total blade area as a fraction of the total swept disc area is called the solidity, and
aerodynamically there is an optimum solidity for a given tip speed; the higher the number of
blades, the narrower each one must be. In practice the optimum solidity is low (only a few
percent) which means that even with only three blades, each one must be very narrow. To slip
through the air easily the blades must be thin relative to their width, so the limited solidity
also limits the thickness of the blades. Furthermore, it becomes difficult to build the blades
strong enough if they are too thin, or the cost per blade increases significantly as more
expensive materials are required.
For this reason, most large machines do not have more than three blades. The other factor
influencing the number of blades is aesthetics: it is generally accepted that three-bladed
turbines are less visually disturbing than one- or two-bladed designs.
How blades capture wind power
Wind turbine blades work by generating lift
due to their shape. The more curved side
generates low air pressures while high
pressure air pushes on the other side of the
aerofoil. The net result is a lift force
perpendicular to the direction of flow of the
air.
The lift force increases as the blade is turned to present itself at a greater angle to the wind.
This is called the angle of attack. At very large angles of attack the blade stalls and the lift
decreases again. So there is an optimum angle of attack to generate the maximum lift.
There is, unfortunately, also a retarding force on the blade: the drag. This is the force parallel
to the wind flow, and also increases with
angle of attack. If the aerofoil shape is good,
the lift force is much bigger than the drag,
but at very high angles of attack, especially
when the blade stalls, the drag increases
dramatically. So at an angle slightly less than
the maximum lift angle, the blade reaches its
maximum lift/drag ratio. The best operating
point will be between these two angles.
Since the drag is in the downwind direction,
it may seem that it wouldnt matter for a
wind turbine as the drag would be parallel
to the turbine axis, so wouldnt slow the
rotor down. It would just create thrust, the
force that acts parallel to the turbine axis
hence has no tendency to speed up or slow
down the rotor. When the rotor is stationary
(e.g. just before start-up), this is indeed the
case. However the blades own movement
through the air means that, as far as the
blade is concerned, the wind is blowing from
a different angle. This is called apparent
16






wind. The apparent wind is stronger than the true wind but its angle is less favourable: it
rotates the angles of the lift and drag to reduce the effect of lift force pulling the blade round
and increase the effect of drag slowing it down. It also means that the lift force contributes to
the thrust on the rotor.
Twist
The closer to the tip of the blade you get,
the faster the blade is moving through the
air and so the greater the apparent wind
angle is. Thus the blade needs to be
turned further at the tips than at the root,
in other words it must be built with a
twist along its length. Typically the twist
is around 10-20 from root to tip. The
requirement to twist the blade has implications on the ease of manufacture.
Because the tip of the blade is moving
faster than the root, it passes through more
volume of air, hence must generate a
greater lift force to slow that air down
enough. In reality the blade can be
narrower close to the tip than near the root
and still generate enough lift.

The optimum tapering of the blade
planform as it goes outboard can be
calculated; roughly speaking the chord
should be inverse to the radius. This
relationship breaks down close to the root
and tip, where the optimum shape changes
to account for tip losses.

We can define a speed ratio such that
relates the tip speed of the rotor (the
tangential velocity of the rotor tip) to the
undisturbed wind speed.
r = the radius of the blade (m)
=angular velocity (r.p.m)
Tip speed ratio (TSR) is a dimensionless
Variable

We can see that for a certain value of TSR
Cp is a maximum.
This means that to achieve maximum
power extraction from the wind the
rotational speed of the turbine should be
allowed to vary with the incoming wind
speed

17




Rotational speed

The speed at which the turbine rotates is a
fundamental choice in the design, and is
defined in terms of the speed of the blade
tips relative to the free wind speed (i.e.
before the wind is slowed down by the
turbine). This is called the Tip Speed
Ratio(TSR).
High tip speed ratio means the
aerodynamic force on the blades (due to lift
and drag) is almost parallel to the rotor
axis, so relies on a good lift/drag ratio. The
lift/drag ratio can be affected severely by dirt or roughness on the blades.
Blade Planform
Because the lift force on the blades
generates torque, it has an equal but
opposite effect on the wind, tending to push
it around tangentially in the other direction.
The result is that the air downwind of the
turbine has swirl, i.e. it spins in the
opposite direction to the blades. That swirl
represents lost power so reduces the
available power that can be extracted from
the wind.
Power and pitch control
For an economical design, the
maximum performance of the
generator and gearbox need to be
limited to an appropriate level for
the turbines operating environment.
The ideal situation is for the turbine
to be able to extract as much power
as possible from the wind up to the
rated power of the generator, then
limit the power extraction at that
level as the wind increases further.
Stall control

If the blades angle is kept constant, the turbine is unable to respond to changes in wind
speed. Not only does this make it impossible to maintain an optimum angle of attack to
generate the maximum power at varying wind speeds, the only way to depower the machine
in high wind speeds is by relying on the blades to stall (known as passive stall control). This
doesnt give the perfectly flat power curve above the rated wind speed shown in the graph
18

above, so to limit the maximum power, a passive stall-controlled turbine will usually be
operating somewhat below its maximum potential.
Pitch Control
If instead the blades are attached via a bearing that allows the angle of attack to be varied
(active pitch control), the blades can be angled to maintain optimum efficiency right up to the
design wind speed (at which the generator is producing its rated output). Above that wind
speed they can be feathered, i.e. rotated in pitch to decrease their angle of attack and hence
their lift, so controlling the power. In survival conditions, the turbine can be stopped
altogether and the blades feathered to produce no turning force at all.

19


A wind farm
A wind farm is a group of wind turbines in the same location used for production of electric
power. Individual turbines are interconnected with a medium voltage (usually 34.5 kV) power
collection system and communications network. At a substation, this medium-voltage
electrical current is increased in voltage with a transformer for connection to the high voltage
transmission system.
A large wind farm may consist of a few dozen to several hundred individual wind turbines,
and cover an extended area of hundreds of square miles, but the land between the turbines
may be used for agricultural or other purposes. A wind farm may be located off-shore to take
advantage of strong winds blowing over the surface of an ocean or lake.
Location planning
As mentioned above, a quantity called the Wind Power Density (WPD) is used to select
locations for wind energy development. The WPD is a calculation relating to the effective force
of the wind at a particular location, frequently expressed in term of the elevation above
ground level over a period of time. It takes into account velocity and mass. Colour-coded maps
are prepared for a particular area describing, for example, "Mean Annual Power Density, at 50
Meters." The results of the above calculation are used in an index developed by the National
Renewable Energy Lab and referred to as "NREL CLASS." The larger the WPD calculation the
higher it is rated by class.
Wind farm sighting can be highly controversial, particularly when sites are picturesque or
environmentally sensitive. Related factors may include having substantial bird life, or
requiring roads to be built through pristine areas. The areas where wind farms are built are
generally non-residential, due to noise concerns and setback requirements.
Access to the power grid is also a factor. The further from the power grid, the more
transmission lines will be needed to span from the farm directly to the power grid.
Alternatively, transformers will have to be built on the premises, depending upon the types of
turbines being used
Usually sites are preselected on basis of a wind atlas, and
validated with wind measurements. Meteorological wind
data alone is usually not sufficient for accurate siting of a
large wind power project. Collection of site specific data
for wind speed and direction is crucial to determining site
potential. Local winds are often monitored for a year or
more, and detailed wind maps constructed before wind
generators are installed.
To collect wind data, a meteorological tower is installed with instruments at various heights
along the tower. All towers include anemometers to determine the wind speed and wind
vanes to determine the direction. The towers generally vary in height from 30 to 60 meters.
The towers primarily are guyed steel-pipe structures which are used for one to two years to
collect data and then are disassembled and removed. Data is collected by a data-logging
device, which stores and transmits data for analysis. The siting of turbines during installation
(a process known as micro-siting) because a difference of 30 m can nearly double energy
production.
20

Onshore turbine
For smaller installations where such data collection is too expensive or time consuming, the
normal way that developers prospect for wind-power sites is to look for trees or vegetation
that are permanently "cast" or deformed by the prevailing winds. Another way is to use a
wind-speed survey map, or historical data from a nearby meteorological station, although
these methods are less reliable.
Altitude
The wind blows faster at higher altitudes because of the reduced influence of drag at the
surface or nearer ground. The increase in velocity with altitude is most dramatic away from
the surface and is affected by topography, surface roughness, and upwind obstacles such as
trees or buildings. Typically, the increase of wind speeds with increasing height follows a
wind profile power law, which predicts that wind speed rises proportionally to the seventh
root of altitude.
Wind park effect
The "wind park effect" refers to the loss of output due to mutual interference among turbines.
Wind farms have many turbines, and each extracts some of the energy of the wind. Where
land area is sufficient, turbines are spaced three to five rotor diameters apart perpendicular to
the prevailing wind, and five to ten rotor diameters apart in the direction of the prevailing
wind, to minimize efficiency loss. The loss can be as low as 2% of the combined "nameplate"
rating of the turbines.
Utility-scale wind farms must have access to transmission lines to transport energy. The wind
farm developer may be obligated to install extra equipment or control systems in the wind
farm to meet the technical standards set by the operator of a transmission line. The company
or person that develops the wind farm can then sell the power on the grid through the
transmission lines.
Types
Onshore
Onshore turbine installations in hilly or
mountainous regions tend to be on
ridgelines generally three kilometers or
more inland from the nearest shoreline.
This is done to exploit the so-called
topographic acceleration as the wind
accelerates over a ridge. The additional
wind speeds gained in this way make a
significant difference to the amount of
energy that is produced. Great attention
must be paid to the exact positions of
the turbines (a process known as micro-
siting) because a difference of 30 m can
sometimes mean a doubling in output.

21

Offshore turbine
Nearshore turbine
Nearshore
Nearshore turbine installations are on land
within three kilometres of a shoreline or, on
water within ten kilometres of land. These
areas are good sites for turbine installation,
because of wind produced by convection due
to differential heating of land and sea each
day. Wind speeds in these zones share the
characteristics of both onshore and offshore
wind, depending on the prevailing wind
direction.
Offshore
Offshore wind development zones are
generally considered to be ten kilometers or
more from land. Offshore wind turbines are
less obtrusive than turbines on land, as
their apparent size and noise is mitigated by
distance. Because water has less surface
roughness than land (especially deeper
water), the average wind speed is usually
considerably higher over open water.
Capacity factors (utilisation rates) are
considerably higher than for onshore and
nearshore locations.
Transporting large wind turbine components (tower sections, nacelles, and blades) is much
easier over water than on land, because ships and barges can handle large loads more easily
than trucks/lorries or trains. On land, large goods vehicles must negotiate bends on roadways,
which fixes the maximum length of a wind turbine blade that can move from point to point on
the road network; no such limitation exists for transport on open water.
Offshore wind turbines will probably continue to be the largest turbines in operation, since
the high fixed costs of the installation are spread over more energy production, reducing the
average cost. Turbine components (rotor blades, tower sections) can be transported by barge,
making large parts easier to transport offshore than on land, where turn clearances and
underpass clearances of available roads limit the size of turbine components that can be
moved by truck. Similarly, large construction cranes are difficult to move to remote wind
farms on land, but crane vessels easily move over water. Offshore wind farms tend to be quite
large, often involving over 100 turbines.

22


Fixed-bottom, foundation-based tower technologies
In some cases, floating wind turbine were piloted to suitable areas (deep waters) and used to
generate electricity. However, I some areas with extended shallow continental shelves (water
not deeper than 40m), windy but without Category 4 or higher storms, fixed-bottom turbines
are now available and practical to install. As of 2009, the economic feasibility of shallow-
water offshore wind technologies is well understood. With empirical data obtained from
fixed-bottom installations off many countries for over a decade now, representative costs are
well understood. Shallow-water turbines cost between 1.6-2.5 million per MegaWatt to
install, according to the World Energy Council.
Offshore installation Monopile (i.e. gigantic) wind turbines are generally more expensive than
onshore installations but this depends on the attributes of the site. Offshore fixed-bottom
towers are generally taller than onshore towers once the submerged height is included.
Offshore foundations may be more expensive to build.
Power transmission from offshore turbines is through undersea cable, often using high
voltage direct current operation if significant distance is to be covered.
Offshore saltwater environments also raise maintenance costs by corroding the towers,
although some are outfitted with extensive corrosion protection measures including coatings
and cathodic protection, which may not be required in fresh water locations. Repairs and
maintenance are usually more costly than on onshore turbines, motivating operators to
reduce the number of wind turbines for a given total power by installing the largest available
units.
Grid management
Induction generators, often used for wind power, require reactive power for excitation so
substations used in wind-power collection systems include substantial capacitor banks for
power factor correction. Different types of wind turbine generators behave differently during
transmission grid disturbances, so extensive modelling of the dynamic electromechanical
characteristics of a new wind farm is required by transmission system operators to ensure
predictable stable behaviour during system faults. In particular, induction generators cannot
support the system voltage during faults, unlike steam or hydro turbine-driven synchronous
generators. Doubly-fed machines generally have more desirable properties for grid
interconnection.
Transmission systems operators will supply a wind farm developer with a grid code to specify
the requirements for interconnection to the transmission grid. This will include power factor,
constancy of frequency and dynamic behaviour of the wind farm turbines during a system
fault.
Capacity factor
Since wind speed is not constant, a wind farm's
annual energy production is never as much as the
sum of the generator nameplate ratings multiplied
by the total hours in a year. The ratio of actual
23

productivity in a year to this theoretical maximum is called the capacity factor.
Typical capacity factors are 2040%, with values at the upper end of the range in particularly favourable sites.
For example, a 1 MW turbine with a capacity factor of 35% will not produce: 1 24 365 =8,760 MWh in a year
but only:
1 0.35 24 365 = 3,066 MWh,
averaging to 0.35 MW. Online data is available for some locations and the capacity factor can be calculated from
the yearly output.
Unlike fueled generating plants, the capacity factor is limited by the inherent properties of
wind. Capacity factors of other types of power plant are based mostly on fuel cost, with a
small amount of downtime for maintenance. Nuclear plants have low incremental fuel cost,
and so are run at full output and achieve a 90% capacity factor. Plants with higher fuel cost
are throttled back to follow load. Gas turbine plants using natural gas as fuel may be very
expensive to operate and may be run only to meet peak power demand. A gas turbine plant
may have an annual capacity factor of 525% due to relatively high energy production cost.
The capacity factor achieved by the wind turbine fleet is shown to be increasing as the
technology improves. The capacity factor achieved by new wind turbines in 2004 and 2005
reached 36%.
Penetration
Wind energy "penetration" refers to the fraction of energy produced by wind compared with
the total available generation capacity. There is no generally accepted "maximum" level of
wind penetration. The limit for a particular grid will depend on the existing generating plants,
pricing mechanisms, capacity for storage or demand management, and other factors. An
interconnected electricity grid will already include reserve generating and transmission
capacity to allow for equipment failures; this reserve capacity can also serve to regulate for
the varying power generation by wind plants. Studies have indicated that 20% of the total
electrical energy consumption may be incorporated with minimal difficulty. These studies
have been for locations with geographically dispersed wind farms, some degree of
dispatchable energy, or hydropower with storage capacity, demand management, and
interconnection to a large grid area export of electricity when needed. Beyond this level, there
are few technical limits, but the economic implications become more significant. Electrical
utilities continue to study the effects of large (20% or more) scale penetration of wind
generation on system stability and economics.
Intermittency and penetration limits
Electricity generated from wind power can be highly variable at several different timescales:
from hour to hour, daily, and seasonally. Annual variation also exists, but is not as significant.
Related to variability is the short-term (hourly or daily) predictability of wind plant output.
Like other electricity sources, wind energy must be "scheduled". Wind power forecasting
methods are used, but predictability of wind plant output remains low for short-term
operation.

24

Annual Wind Power Generation (TWh) and total electricity consumption (TWh) for 10 largest countries

2005 2006 2007 2008 2009

Nation
W
i
n
d

p
o
w
e
r

C
a
p
a
c
i
t
y


f
a
c
t
o
r

%

T
o
t
a
l

D
e
m
a
n
d

W
i
n
d

p
o
w
e
r



C
a
p
a
c
i
t
y

F
a
c
t
o
r

%

T
o
t
a
l

D
e
m
a
n
d

W
i
n
d

p
o
w
e
r

C
a
p
a
c
i
t
y

F
a
c
t
o
r

%

T
o
t
a
l

D
e
m
a
n
d

W
i
n
d

p
o
w
e
r

C
a
p
a
c
i
t
y

F
a
c
t
o
r

%

T
o
t
a
l

D
e
m
a
n
d

W
i
n
d

p
o
w
e
r

C
a
p
a
c
i
t
y

F
a
c
t
o
r

%

T
o
t
a
l

D
e
m
a
n
d

1 United
States
17.8 22.2% 0.4% 4048.9 26.6 26.1% 0.7% 4058.1 34.5 23.4% 0.8% 4149.9 52.0 23.5% 1.3% 4108.6 70.8

1.8% 3951.1
2
Germany
27.2 16.9% 5.1% 533.7 30.7 17.0% 5.4% 569.9 38.5 19.7% 6.6% 584.9 40.4 19.3 6.6% 611.9 37.2

6.4% 581.3
3
Spain
20.7 23.5% 7.9% 260.7 22.9 22.4% 8.5% 268.8 27.2 20.5% 9.8% 276.8 31.4 21.7% 11.1% 282.1 36.6

13.7% 267.0
4
India
6.3 16.2% 0.9% 679.2 7.6 13.8% 1.0% 726.7 14.7 21.0% 1.9% 774.7 14.8 17.6% 1.77% 834.3

5
China
1.9 17.2% 0.1% 2474.7 3.7 16.2% 0.1% 2834.4 5.6 10.6% 0.2% 3255.9 12.8
[76]
12.0% 0.4% 3426.8 26.9 12.2% 0.74% 3640.3
6
Italy
2.3 15.3% 0.7% 330.4 3.0 16.1% 0.9% 337.5 4.0
[]
16.7% 1.2% 339.9 4.9 15.7% 1.4% 339.5

7
France
0.9 13.6% 0.2% 482.4 2.2 16.0% 0.5% 478.4 4.0 18.6% 0.8% 480.3 5.6 18.8% 1.1% 494.5 7.8 20.2% 1.6% 486
8
United
Kingdom
2.9 24.0% 0.8% 355.0 4.2 23.2% 1.2% 352.9 5.3 27.5% 1.5% 352.0 7.1 30.4% 2.0% 350.5

9
Portugal
1.7 19.0% 3.6% 47.9 2.9 19.3% 5.9% 49.2 4.0 21.2% 8.0% 50.1 5.7 22.7% 11.3% 50.6 7.5

15.0% 49.9
10
Denmark
6.6 24.0% 18.5% 35.7 6.1 22.2% 16.8% 36.4 7.2 26.3% 19.7% 36.4 .9 24.9% 19.1% 36.2



W
o
r
l
d


t
o
t
a
l

(TWh) 99.5 19.2% 0.6% 15,746 124.9 19.2% 0.7% 16,790 173.3 21.1% 0.9% 19,853
[]
260 24.5% 1.5%

340

2.0%



25

Power analysis
Due to ever increasing sizes of turbines which hit maximum power at lower speeds energy
produced has been rising faster than nameplate power capacity. Energy more than doubled
between 2006 and 2008 in the table above, yet nameplate capacity (table on left) grew by
63% in the same period.
Environmental effects
Compared to the environmental effects of traditional energy sources, the environmental
effects of wind power are relatively minor. Wind power consumes no fuel, and emits no air
pollution, unlike fossil fuel power sources. The energy consumed to manufacture and
transport the materials used to build a wind power plant is equal to the new energy produced
by the plant within a few months of operation. The initial carbon dioxide emission from
energy used in the installation is "paid back" within about 2.5 years of operation for offshore
turbines.
Danger to wild life and livestock (birds and bats and cattle) has been a concern in some
locations. However, studies show that the number of birds killed by wind turbines is very low
compared to the number of those that die as a result of certain other ways of generating
electricity and especially of the environmental impacts of using non-clean power sources
Noise has also been an issue. Law suits and complaints have been filed, citing noise, vibrations
and resulting lost property values in homes and businesses located close to industrial wind
turbines. With careful implanting of the wind turbines, along with use of noise reducing-
modifications for the design can improve their acceptance.

26


Appendix-A
Wind Power- How Much Energy Will My System Generate?
Most manufacturers rate their turbines by the amount of power they can safely produce at a particular wind speed, usually
chosen between 24 mph (10.5 m/s) and 36 mph (16 m/ s). The following formula illustrates factors that are important to the
performance of a wind turbine:

Where:
P = Power output, kilowatts
Cp = Maximum power coefficient, ranging from 0.25 to 0.45, dimension less (theoretical maximum = 0.59)
= Air density, lb/ft3
A = Rotor swept area, ft2 or D2/4 (D is the rotor diameter in ft, =
3.1416)
V = Wind speed, mph
k = 0.000133 A constant to yield power in kilowatts. (Multiplying the
above kilowatt answer by 1.340 converts it to horse-power [i.e., 1 kW =
1.340 horsepower]).
The rotor swept area, A, is important because the rotor is the part of the
turbine that captures the wind energy.
So, the larger the rotor, the more energy it can capture. The air density, , changes slightly with air temperature and with
elevation. The ratings for wind turbines are based on standard conditions of 59 F (15 C) at sea level. A density correction
should be made for higher elevations as shown in the Air Density Change with Elevation graph. A correction for temperature
is typically not needed for predicting the long-term performance of a wind turbine. Although the calculation of wind power
illustrates important features about wind turbines, the best mea-sure of wind turbine performance is annual energy output.
The difference between power and energy is that power (kilowatts [kW]) is the rate at which electricity is consumed, while
energy (kilowatt-hours [kWh]) is the quantity consumed. An estimate of the annual energy output from your wind turbine,
kWh/year, is the best way to determine whether a particular wind turbine and tower will produce enough electricity to meet
your needs. A wind turbine manufacturer can help you estimate the energy production you can expect. They will use a
calculation based on the particular wind turbine power curve, the average annual wind speed at your site, the height of the
tower that you plan to use, and the frequency distribution of the windan estimate of the number of hours that the wind will
blow at each speed during an average year. They should also adjust this calculation for the elevation of your site. Contact a
wind turbine manufacturer or dealer for assistance with this calculation. To get a preliminary estimate of the performance of
a particular wind turbine, use the formula below:

Where:
AEO = Annual energy output, kWh/year
D = Rotor diameter, feet
V = Annual average wind speed, mph
Notice that the wind speed, V, has an exponent of 3 applied to it. This means that even a small increase in wind speed results in a
large increase in power. That is why a taller tower will increase the productivity of any wind turbine by giving it access to higher
wind speeds as shown in the Wind Speeds Increase with Height graph
P = k Cp A V
3

AEO = 0.01328 D
2
V
3