Chap13 Fading Channels I

Digital Communications
Chapter 13 Fading Channels I: Characterization and Signaling

Po-Ning Chen
Institute of Communication Engineering
National Chiao-Tung University, Taiwan
Digital Communications: Chapter 13 Ver 2010.09.06 Po-Ning Chen 1 / 110
13.1 Characterization of fading multipath
channels
The multipath fading channels with additive noise
Time spread phenomenon of multipath channels
(Unpredictable) Time-variant factors
Delay
Number of spreads
Size of the receive pulses
Transmitted signal
s(t) = Re|s
(t)e
2f
c
t
|
Received signal in absence of additive noise
r (t) =

c(; t)s(t )d
=

c(; t)Res
(t )e
2f
c
(t)
_d
= Re__
c(; t)e
2f
c
(t )d_e
2f
c
t
_
= Re__s
(t) c(; t)e

2f
c
- - -
c
(;t)
_e
2f
c
t
_
Note that now it is not appropriate to write s
(t} c
(t}
because t and are now specically for time argument and
convolution argument!
We should perhaps write s
(t} c
(} and s
(t} c
(; t},
which respectively denote:
s
(t} c
(} =
(}s
(t }d
and
s
(t} c
(; t} =
(; t}s
(t }d.
From the previous slide, we know
c
(; t} = c(; t}e
2f
c
and c(; t} = |c
(; t}|.
Rayleigh and Rician
The measurement suggests that c
(; t} is a 2-D Gaussain
random process in t (not in ), which can be supported by the
central limit theorem (CLT) because it is the the sum eect
of many paths.
If zero mean, |c
(; t}| is Rayleigh distributed. The

channel is said to be a Rayleigh fading channel
If nonzero mean, |c
(; t}| is Rician distributed. The

channel is said to be a Rician fading channel
When diversity technique is used, c
(; t} can be well modeled

by Nakagami m-distribution.
Detail of these distributions can be found in Section 2.3.
13.1-1 Channel correlation functions and
power spectra
Assumption (WSS)
Assume c
(; t} is WSS in t.
R
c
( , ; t} = Ec
( ; t + t}c
(; t}}
is only a function of time dierence t.
Assumption (Uncorrelated scattering or US of a WSS channel)
For , assume c
( ; t
1
} and c
(; t
2
} are uncorrelated for
any t
1
, t
2
.
is the convolution argument and actually represents the
delay for a certain path.
Assumption (Math denition of US)
R
c
( , ; t} = R
c
(; t}( }
Discussions
It may appear unnatural to dene the autocorrelation
function of a channel impulse response using the Dirac
delta function.
However, we have already learned that is the
convolution argument, and (} is the impulse response
of the identity channel. This hints somehow the
connection between channel impulse response and
Dirac delta function.
Recall that a WSS white (noise) process z(} is dened
based on
E|z(}z
( + }| =
N
0
2
(}.
Discussions
We can extensionally view that the autocorrelation function
of a 2-dimensional WSS white noise z(; t) is dened as
E|z(; t
1
)z
( + ; t
2
)| =
N
0
(t
1
, t
2
)
2
().
US indicates that the accumulated power correlation from all
other paths is essentially zero!
Some researchers interpret US as zero-correlation
scattering. So, from this, they dont interpret it as
E|z(; t
1
)z
( + ; t
2
)| = E|z(; t
1
)|E|z
( + ; t
2
)| = 0,
which requires zero-mean assumption but simply say
E|z(; t
1
)z
( + ; t
2
)| = 0 when 0.
Multipath intensity prole of an US-WSS channel
The multipath intensity prole or delay power
spectrum for a US-WSS multipath fading channel is
given by:
R
c
(} = R
c
e
ll
(; t = 0} .
It can be interpreted as the average signal power
remained after delay :
Multipath spread of an US-WSS channel
The multipath spread or delay spread of a US-WSS
multipath fading channel
The range of over which R
c
() is essentially nonzero;
it is usually denoted by T
m
.
Each corresponds to one path.
No Tx power will remain at Rx after for path with delay
> T
m
.
Transfer function of a multipath fading channel
The transfer function of a channel impulse response c
(; t} is
the Fourier transform with respect to the convolutional
argument :
C
(f ; t} =

(; t}e
2f
d
Property: If c
(; t} is WSS; then so is C
(f ; t}.
The autocorrelation function of WSS C
(f ; t} is equal to:
R
C
f , f ; t} = E|C
f ; t + t}C
(f ; t}|
With an additional US assumption,
R
C
f , f ; t}
= E|C
f ; t + t}C
(f ; t}|
= E_
( ; t + t}e
2
f
d
(; t}e
2f
d_
=

R
c
(; t}( }e
2(f
f )
dd
=

R
c
(; t} e
2
f f
1
d
1
= R
C
(f ; t}
For a US-WSS multipath fading channel,
R
C
(f ; t} = E|C
(f + f ; t + t}C
(f ; t}|
This is often called spaced-frequency, spaced-time
correlation function of a US-WSS channel.
Coherent bandwidth
R
C
(f ; t} =
R
c
(; t} e
2(f )
d
For the case of t = 0, we have
R
C
(f }
- --
spaced-frequency
correlation function
=

R
c
(} e
2(f )
d
Recall that R
c
(} = 0 outside |0, T
m
}.
In freq domain, (f }
c
=
1
T
m
is correspondingly called
coherent bandwidth.
Example.
Give R
c
(} = 10
7
(10
7
} for 0 < 100 ns. Then,
R
C
(f } =
10
7
4
2
(f }
2
[e
210
7
f
1)
1
2f
.
R
C
(f )
R
C
(0)
R
c
(}
Coherent bandwidth
Since the channel output due to input s
(t} is equal to:

r
(f } = s
(f }C
(f ; t},
where we abuse the notations to denote the Fourier transforms
of r
(t} and s
(t} as r
(f } and s
(f }, we would say
r
(f } = s
(f }C
(f ; t}
will have weak (power) aection on
r
(f + f } = s
(f + f }C
(f + f ; t}
when f > (f }
c
.
If signal transmitted bandwidth
B > (f )
c
, the channel is called
frequency selective.
If signal transmitted bandwidth
B < (f )
c
, the channel is called
frequency non-selective.
For frequency selective channels, the signal shape is more
severely distorted than that of frequency non-selective
channels.
Criterion for frequency selectivity:
B > (f }
c

1
T
>
1
T
m
T < T
m
.
Time varying characterization: Doppler
Doppler eect appears via the argument t.
Doppler power spectrum of a US-WSS channel
The Doppler power spectrum is
S
C
(} =
R
C
(f = 0; t}e
2(t)
d(t},
where is referred to as the Doppler frequency.
B
d
= Doppler spread is the range such that S
C
(} is
essentially zero.
(t}
c
=
1
B
d
is called the coherent time.
If symbol period T > (t}
c
, the channel is classied as
Fast Fading.
I.e., channel statistics changes within one symbol!
If symbol period T < (t}
c
, the channel is classied as
Slow Fading.
Scattering function
Summary:
R
c
(; t} Channel autocorrelation function

1-D FT:
R
C
(f ; t} = F
R
c
(; t}}
Spaced-freq
spaced-time
correlation func
S(; } = F
t
R
c
(; t}} Scattering function

2D FT: ??? = F
,t
R
c
(; t}}
R
C
(f ; t}
1-D FT:
??? = F
f
R
C
(f ; t}}
S
C
(f ; } = F
t
R
C
(f ; t}}
Doppler power
spectrum (f = 0)
2D FT: S(; } = F
f ,t
R
C
(f ; t}}
Scattering function
The scattering function can be used to identify delay
spread and Doppler spread at the same time.
Example. Medium-range tropospheric scatter
channel
Example study of delay spread
The median delay spread is the 50% value, meaning that
50% of all channels has a delay spread that is lower than the
median value. Clearly, the median value is not so interesting
for designing a wireless link, because you want to guarantee
that the link works for at least 90% or 99% of all channels.
Therefore the second column gives the measured maximum
delay spread values. The reason to use maximum delay
spread instead of a 90% or 99% value is that many papers
only mention the maximum value. From the papers that do
present cumulative distribution functions of their measured
delay spreads, it can be deduced that the 99% value is only a
few percent smaller than the maximum delay spread.
Measured delay spreads in frequency range of 800M to 1.5
GHz (surveyed by Richard van Nee)
Measured delay spreads in frequency range of 1.8 GHz to 2.4
GHz (surveyed by Richard van Nee)
Measured delay spreads in frequency range of 4 GHz to 6 GHz
(surveyed by Richard van Nee)
Conclusion by Richard van Nee: Measurements done at
dierent frequencies show the multipath channel
characteristics are almost the same from 1 to 5 GHz.
Jakes model: Example 13.1-3
Jakes model
A widely used model for Doppler power spectrum is the
so-called Jakes model (Jakes, 1974)
R
C
(t} = J
0
(2f
m
(t}}
and
S
C
(} =

1
f
m
1
1(f
m
)
2
, || f
m
0, otherwise
where
f
m
= vf
c
]c is the maximum Doppler shift
v is the vehicle speed (m/s)
c is the light speed (3 10
8
m/s)
f
c
is the carrier frequency
J
0
(} is the zero-order Bessel function
of the rst kind.
Jakes model: Example 13.1-3
Dierence in path length
L =
_
(Lsin())
2
+ (Lcos() + v t)
2
L
=
_
L
2
+ v
2
(t)
2
+ 2L v t cos() L
Phase change = 2
L
(cf
c
)
Estimated Doppler shift
m
= lim
t0
1
2
t
=
1
c]f
c
lim
t0
_
L
2
+ v
2
(t)
2
+ 2L v t cos() L
t
=
vf
c
c
cos() = f
m
cos()
Example. v = 108 km/hour, f
c
= 5 GHz and c = 1.08 10
9
km/hour.

m
= 500cos() Hz.
This is ok because
500 Hz
5GHz
= 0.1 ppm.
Jakes model
Here, a rough (and no so rigorous) derivation is provided for
Jakes model.
Just to give you a rough idea of how this model is obtained.
Suppose (t) is the delay
of some path.
(t) = lim
t0
(t+t)(t)
t
= lim
t0
L+L
c

L
c
t
= lim
t0
L
ct
=
v
c
cos()
(t)
v
c
cos()t +
Assume c(; t) c(t)() and is independent of c(t).
c
(; t) c(t)()e
2f
c
(t)
= c(t)()e
2f
c
v
c
cos()t+
= c(t)()e
2f
c
e
2f
m
cos()t
R
c
(; t) =

E|c
( ; t + t)c
(; t)| d
= Ec(t + t)( )e
2f
c

e
2f
m
cos()(t+t)
c(t)()e
2f
c
e
2f
m
cos()t
_
= E|c(t)c(t + t)| Ee
2f
m
cos()t
_ ()
Recall R
c
( , ; t) = R
c
(; t)( ).
R
C
(f = 0; t)
=

R
c
(; t)d
=

E|c(t)c(t + t)| Ee
2f
m
cos()t
_ ()d
= E|c(t)c(t + t)| Ee
2f
m
cos()t
_
= E|c(t)c(t + t)| J
0
(2f
m
(t)),
where the last step is valid if is uniformly distributed over
|, ).
can be treated as uniformly distributed over |, } and
independent of attenuation and delay path .
Channel model from IEEE 802.11 Handbook
A consistent channel model is required to allow
comparison among dierent WLAN systems.
The IEEE 802.11 Working Group adopted the following
channel model as the baseline for predicting multipath for
modulations used in IEEE 802.11a and IEEE 802.11b,
which is ideal for software simulations.
The phase is uniformly distributed.
The magnitude is Rayleigh distributed with average
power decaying exponentially.
c
(; t} =
i
max
1
i =0
i
e

i
( iT
s
}
where
T
s
sampling period
i
e

i
N(0,
2
i
]2} + N(0,
2
i
]2}
2
i
=
2
0
e
iT
s
rms
2
0
= 1 e
T
s
rms
R
c
() =

E|c
( ; t)c
(; t)| d
=
i
max
1
i =0
E[
2
i
( iT
s
)( ) d
=
i
max
1
i =0
E[
2
i
( iT
s
)
=
i
max
1
i =0
2
0
e
iT
s
rms
( iT
s
)
By this example, I want to introduce the rms delay. By denition,
the eective rms delay is
T
2
rms
=

2
R
c
()d
R
c
()d
_
R
c
()d
R
c
()d
_
2
=

i
max
1
i =0
(iT
s
)
2
2
0
e
iT
s
rms
i
max
1
i =0

2
0
e
iT
s
rms
i
max
1
i =0
(iT
s
)
2
0
e
iT
s
rms
i
max
1
i =0

2
0
e
iT
s
rms
2
We wish to choose i
max
such that T
rms

rms
.
Let
rms
=

rms
T
s
,

T
rms
=
T
rms
T
s
and

i
max
=
i
max

rms
.
We obtain
T
rms
=
_
e
1
rms
(1 e
1
rms
)
2

i
2
max
e
i
max
(1 e
i
max
)
2
1

2
rms
=
_
_
2
rms

1
12
+
1
240
1

2
rms
+ _

i
2
max
e
i
max
(1 e
i
max
)
2
1

2
rms
Taking

T
rms
=
_

2
rms

1
12
and

i
2
max
e
i
max
(1e
i
max
)
2
=
1
240
yield
i
max
= 10.1072. . . (or equivalently, i
max
= 10
rms
T
s
).
Typical Multipath Delay Spread for Indoor environment (Table 8-1
of IEEE 802.11 Handbook)
13.1-2 Statistical models for fading
channels
In addition to zero-mean Gaussian (Rayleigh), non-zero-mean
Gaussian (Rice) and Nakagami-m distributions, there are other
models for c
(; t} have been proposed in literature.

Example.
Channels with a direct path and a single multipath
component, such as airplane-to-ground communications
c
(; t} = (} + (t}(
0
(t}}
where controls the power in the direct path and is
named specular component, and (t} is modeled as
zero-mean Gaussian.
Example.
Microwave LOS radio channels used for long-distance
voice and video transmission by telephone companies in
the 6 GHz band (Rummler 1979)
c
(} = (} e
2f
0
(
0
}
where
overall attenuation parameter

shape parameter due to multipath components
0
time delay
f
0
frequency of the fade minimum, i.e., f
0
= arg min
f R
|C
(f }|
Rummler found that
1

2
f (} (1 }
2.3
3
log(} Gaussian distributed (i.e., lognormal
distributed)
4
0
6.3 ns
Deep fading phenomenon: At f = f
0
, the so-called deep fading occurs.
13.2 The eect of signal characteristics on
the choice of a channel model
Usually, we prefer slowly fading and frequency
non-selectivity.
So we wish to choose symbol time T and transmission
bandwidth B such that
T < (t}
c
and B < (f }
c
Hence, using BT = 1, we wish
T
(t}
c
B
(f }
c
= B
d
T
m
< 1.
The term B
d
T
m
is an essential channel parameter and is called
spread factor.
Unverspread versus overspread
Underspread B
d
T
m
< 1
Overspread B
d
T
m
> 1
13.3 Frequency-nonslective, slowly fading
channel
For a frequency-nonslective, slowly fading channel, i.e.,
T
m
<
1
B
= T < (t}
c
,
the signal spectrum s
(f } almost unchange by C
(f ; t}; hence,
C
(f ; t} C
(0; t} within the signal bandwidth

and it is almost time-invariant; hence,
C
(f ; t} C
(0} within the signal bandwidth

This gives
r
(t} = c
(; t} s
(t} + z(t}
=

(f ; t}s
(f }e
2ft
df + z(t}
(0}s
(f }e
2ft
df + z(t}
= C
(0}s
(t} + z(t}
Assume that the phase of C
(0} = e

can be perfectly
estimated and compensated. The channel model becomes:
r
(t} = s
(t} + z(t}.
After demodulation, we obtain
r = s + n.
Question: What will the error probability be under random ?
Case 1: Equal-prior BPSK
r =
E + n
The optimal decision is r 0, regardless of .
Thus,
Prerror|} = Q [
_
2
b
)
where
b
=
b
(} =
2
E]N
0
.
Given that is Rayleigh distributed,
b
(} is
2
-distributed
with two degrees of freedom; hence,
P
e,BPSK
=

0
Prerror|}f (}d
=

0
Q [
_
2
b
)f (
b
}d
b
P
e,BPSK
=

0
Q [
_
2
b
)
1

b
e
b

b
- - -
f (
b
)
d
b
, where
b
= E|
b
|
=
1
2

1
2

b
1 +
b
_ =
1
2(1 +
b
+
_

2
b
+
b
}

1
4
b
when
b
large_
Case 2: Equal-prior BFSK
Similarly, for BFSK,
r = __
E
0
_ or _
0
E
__ + n
The optimal decision is r
1
r
2
, regardless of .
P
e,BFSK
=

0
Prerror|}f (}d
=

0
Q (
b
} f (
b
}d
b
=
1
2

1
2

b
2 +
b
_ =
1
2 +
b
+
_

2
b
+ 2
b
1
2
b
when
b
large_
Case 3 & 4: BDPSK & Noncoherent BFSK
P
e,BDPSK
=

0
Prerror|}f (}d
=

0
1
2
e
b
f (
b
}d
b
=
1
2(1 +
b
}

1
2
b
when
b
large
and
P
e,noncoherent BFSK
=

0
Prerror|}f (}d
=

0
1
2
e
b
2
f (
b
}d
b
=
1
2 +
b
1

b
when
b
large
P
e
under AWGN P
e
under Approx P
e
under
Rayleigh fading Rayleigh fading
BPSK Q(
2
b
)
1
2
{1
_

b
1+
b
)
1
4
b
BFSK Q(
b
)
1
2
{1
_

b
2+
b
)
1
2
b
BDPSK
1
2
e
b
1
2(1+
b
)
1
2
b
Noncohrent
BFSK
1
2
e
b
2 1
2+
b
1

b
BPSK is 3dB better than
BDPSK/BFSK; 6dB
better than noncoherent
BFSK.
P
e
decreases inversely
proportional with SNR
under minor fading.
P
e
decreases exponentially
with SNR
when no fading.
To achieve P
e
= 10
4
the system must provide
an SNR higher than
35dB, which is
not practically possible!
So alternative solution
should be used to
compensate the fading
such as the diversity
technique.
Nakagami fading
If Nakagami-m fading,
Turin et al. (1972) and Suzuki (1977) have shown that the
Nakagami-m distribution is the best-t for urban radio multipath
channels.
f (
b
} =
m
m
(m)
m
b
m1
b
e
m
b

b
, where
b
= E|
2
|E
b
]N
0
.
m < 1: Worst than Rayleigh fading in performance
m = 1: Rayleigh fading
m > 1: Better than Rayleigh fading in performance
Prob density function of Nakagami-m
BPSK performance under Nakagami-m fading
P
e,BPSK
=
0
Q {
2
b
)
m
m
(m)
m
b
m1
b
e
m
b

b
- - -
f (
b
)
d
b
In some channel, the system performance may degrade even
worse such as Rummlers model in slide 13-48, where deep
fading occurs at some frequency.
|C
(f )|
The lowest is equal to (1 ), which is itself a random variable (which
makes the performance worse as we have seen from Rayleigh example
study) even if f
0
is xed!
13.4 Diversity techniques for fading
multipath channels
Solutions to compensate deep fading
Frequency diversity
Separation of carriers (f )
c
= 1]T
m
to obtain
uncorrelation in signal replicas.
Time diversity
Separation of time slots (t)
c
= 1]B
d
to obtain
uncorrelation in signal replicas.
Space diversity (Multiple receiver antennas)
Spaced suciently far apart to ensure received signals
faded independently (usually, > 10 wavelengths)
RAKE correlator or RAKE matched lter (Price and
Green 1958)
It is named wideband approach, since it is usually
applied to situation where signal bandwidth is much
greater than the coherent bandwidth (f )
c
.
It is clear for the rst three diversities that we will have L
identical replicas at the Rx.
The idea is that as long as not all of them are deep-faded, the
demodulation is ok.
For the last one, where B (f }
c
which results in a
frequency selective channel,
L =
B
(f }
c
.
Detail will be given later.
13.4-1 Binary signals
Assumption
1
L identical and independent channels.
2
Each channel is frequency-nonselective and slowly
fading with Rayleigh-distributed envelope.
3
Zero-mean additive white Gaussian background noise.
4
Assume the phase-shift can be perfectly compensated.
5
Assume the attenuation
k
}
L
k=1
can be perfectly
estimated at Rx.
Hence,
r
k
=
k
s + n
k
k = 1, 2, . . . , L
How to combine these L outputs when making decision?
Maximal ratio combiner (Brennan 1959)
r =
L
k=1
k
r
k
=
L
k=1
2
k
s +
L
k=1
k
n
k
.
Idea behind maximal ratio combiner
Trust more on the strong signals and trust less on the
weak signal.
Advantage of maximal ratio combiner
Theoretically tractable; so we can predict how good the
system can achieve without performing simulations.
Case 1: Equal-prior BPSK
r =
2
E + n, where =
_
L
k=1
2
k
and n =
L
k=1
k
n
k
The optimal decision is r 0, regardless of .
Thus,
Prerror|
k
}
L
k=1
} = Q [
_
2
b
)
where
b
=
b
(} = (
4
E}](
2
N
0
} =
2
E]N
0
.
Given that
k
}
L
k=1
is i.i.d. Rayleigh distributed,
b
(} is
2
-distributed with 2L degrees of freedom; hence,
P
e,BPSK
=

0

0
Prerror|
k
}
L
k=1
}f (
1
, . . . ,
L
}d
1
d
L
=

0
Q [
_
2
b
)f (
b
}d
b
P
e,BPSK
=

0
Q {
_
2
b
)
1
(L 1)!
L
c
L1
b
e
b

c
- - -
f (
b
)
d
b
where
c
= E|
2
k
|E
b
]N
0
= _
1
2
_
L
L1
k=0
_
L 1 + k
k
__
1 +
2
_
k
where =

c
1 +
c
_ _
2L 1
L
__
1
4
c
_
L
when
c
large_
where we have
1
2
=
1
2(1+
c
+

2
c
+
c
)

1
4
c
and
1+
2
1.
Case 2: Equal-prior BFSK
Similarly, for BFSK,
r = __
E
0
_ or _
0
E
__ + n, where =
_
L
k=1
2
k
The optimal decision is r
1
r
2
, regardless of .
P
e,BFSK
=

0
Q (
b
) f (
b
)d
b
= _
1
2
_
L
L1
k=0
_
L 1 + k
k
__
1 +
2
_
k
but =

c
2 +
c
_ _
1
2
c
_
L
_
2L 1
L
_ when
c
large_
Case 3: BDPSK
From slide 4-180 with k being time index,
m = arg max
1m2
Re{r
(k1)
r
(k)
e

m
_
= arg max _Re{r
(k1)
r
(k)
_
-- -
m=1
, Re{r
(k1)
r
(k)
_
- --
m=2
_
Now with L previous receptions and L current receptions,
m = arg max( U
-
m=1
, U
m=2
)
where
U =
L
k=1
Re{r
(t1)
k
)
r
(t)
k
_
=
L
k=1
Re{
k
s
(t1)
+ n
(t1)
k
)
{
k
s
(t)
+ n
(t)
k
)_
which closely resembles maximal ratio combining.
With some lengthy derivation, we obtain
P
e,BDPSK
= _
1
2
_
L
L1
k=0
_
L 1 + k
k
__
1 +
2
_
k
but =

c
1 +
c
_
1
2
c
_
L
_
2L 1
L
_ when
c
large.
Case 4: Noncoherent FSK
Recall from slide 4-162:
The Noncoherent ML computes
m = arg max
1mM
r
s
m,
From slide 4-169,

s
1,
= {

2E
s
0 0 )
s
2,
= { 0
2E
s
0 )
= { )
s
M,
= { 0 0

2E
s
)
Hence,
m = arg max
1mM
|r
m,
| .
Now we have k diversities/channels:
r
k
=
r
k,1
r
k,M
=
k
s + n
k
k = 1, 2, . . . , L
Instead of maximal ratio combining, we do square-law
combining:
m = arg max
1mM
L
k=1
|r
k,m
|
2
.
P
e,noncoherent BFSK
= _
1
2
_
L
L1
k=0
_
L 1 + k
k
__
1 +
2
_
k
but =

c
2 +
c
_
1

c
_
L
_
2L 1
L
_ when
c
large.
Summary (what the theoretical results indicate?)
With Lth order diversity, the POE decreases inversely with
Lth power of the SNR.
Comparing the prob density functions of
b
for 1-diversity (no
diversity) Nakagami fading and L-diversity Rayleigh fading,
we found that
f (
b
} =
1
(m}(
b
]m}
m
m1
b
e
b
(
b
m)
1-divert Nakagami
f (
b
} =
1
(L}(
b
]L}
L
L1
b
e
b
(
b
mL
L-divert Rayleigh.
We can then conclude:
L-diversity in Rayleigh fading = 1-diversity in Nakagami-L
or further
mL-diversity in Rayleigh fading = L-diversity in Nakagami-m
13.4-2 Multiple signals
For M-ary signal (without diversity), the symbol error rate P
e
can
be derived as
P
e
=
(1)
L1
(1
2
)
L
(L 1)!
_

L1
b
L1
_
1
b
2
_

M
(M 1)
sin(]M)
_
b
2
cos
2
(]M)
cot
1
cos(]M)
_
b
2
cos
2
(]M)
b=1
M1
log
2
(M) sin
2
(M)
1
2M
b
M-ary PSK
M1
log
2
(M) sin
2
(M)
1
M
b
M-ary DPSK
where
=

_

c
1+
c
M-ary PSK

c
1+
c
M-ary DPSK
and in this case, the system SNR
t
=
b
log
2
(M) = L
c
.
PSK is about 3dB
better than DPSK
for all M.
DPSK performance
with diversity
Bit error P
b
is
calculated based on
Gray coding.
Larger M, worse P
b
except for equal P
b
at M = 2, 4.
13.4-3 M-ary orthogonal signals
Here, the derivation assumes that both passband and
lowpass equivalent signals are orthogonal; hence, the
frequency separation is 1]T rather than 1](2T}.
Based on lowpass orthogonality, L-diversity square-law
combining,
P
e
=
1
(L 1}!
M1
m=1
(1}
m+1
{
M1
m
)
(1 + m+ m
c
}
L
m(L1)
k=0
k,m
(L 1 + k}! _
1 +
c
1 + m+ m
c
_
k
where
k,m
satises
_
L1
k=0
U
k
k!
_
m
=
m(L1)
k=0
k,m
U
k
.
M = 2 case:
Let
t
= L
c
be
the total system
power.
For xed
t
,
there is an L
that minimizes P
e
.
This hints that

c
= 3
will give the best
performance.
M = 4 case:
Let
t
= L
c
be
the total system
power.
For xed
t
,
there is an L
that minimizes P
e
.
This hints that

c
= 3
will give the best
performance.
Discussions:
Larger M, better performance
but larger bandwidth.
Larger L, better performance.
An increase in L
is more ecient
in performance gain
than an increase
in M.
13.5 Digital signaling over a
frequency-selective, slowly fading channel
13.5.1 A tapped-delay-line channel model
Assumption (Time-invariant channel)
c
(; t} = c
(}
Assumption (Bandlimited signal)
s
(t} is band-limited, i.e., |s
(f }| = 0 for |f | > W]2

In such case, we shall add a lowpass lter at the Rx.
where L(f } =

1, |f | W]2
0 otherwise
.
r
(t} =

(f }C
(f }e
2ft
df + z
W
(t}
For a bandlimited C
(f }, sampling theorem gives:
(t} =

n=
c
_
n
W
_sinc _W _t
n
W
__
C
(f } =
(t}e
2ft
dt
=
1
W
n=
c
_
n
W
_e
2fnW
, |f | W]2
0, otherwise
r
(t) =

(f )C
(f )e
2ft
df + z
W
(t)
=
1
W
n=
c
_
n
W
_
W2
W2
s
(f )e
2f (tnW)
df + z
W
(t)
=
1
W
n=
c
_
n
W
_s
_t
n
W
_ + z
W
(t)
=

n=
c
n
s
_t
n
W
_ + z
W
(t), where c
n
=
1
W
c
_
n
W
_
For a time-varying channel, we replace c
() and C
(f ) by c
(; t)
and C
(f ; t) and obtain
r
(t) =

n=
c
n
(t) s
_t
n
W
_ + z
W
(t)
where c
n
=
1
W
c
{
n
W
; t) .
Statistically, c
() = 0 for > T
m
and < 0.
So, c
() is assumed band-limited and is also statistically time-limited!

Hence, c
n
= 0 for n < 0 and n > T
m
W (since = n]W > T
m
).
r
(t) =
T
m
W
n=0
c
n
(t) s
_t
n
W
_ + z
W
(t)
For convenience, the text re-index the system as
r
(t) =
L
k=1
c
k
(t) s
_t
k
W
_ + z
W
(t).
13.5-2 The RAKE demodulator
Assumption (Gaussian and US (uncorrelated scattering))
c
k
(t)
L
k=1
complex i.i.d. Gaussian and can be perfectly estimated
by Rx.
So the Rx can regard the transmitted signal as one of
v
1,
(t) =
L
k=1
c
k
(t) s
1,
{t
k
W
)
v
M,
(t) =
L
k=1
c
k
(t) s
M,
{t
k
W
)
So slide 4-162 said:
Coherent MAP detection
m = arg max
1mM
Rer
v
m,
_ = arg max
1mM
Re_
T
0
r
(t)v
m,
(t)dt_
= arg max
1mM
Re_
L
k=1
T
0
r
(t)c
k
(t)s
m,
_t
k
W
_dt_
- - -
U
m
Discussions on assumptions:We assume:
s
(t) is band-limited to W.
c
() is causal and time-limited to T

m
and, at the same time,
band-limited to W.
W (f )
c
=
1
T
m
(i.e., L WT
m
1) as stated in page 879
in textbook.
The denition of U
m
requires T T
m
(See page 871 in
textbook) such that the longest delayed version
s
(t L]W) = s
(t WT
m
]W) = s
(t T
m
)
is still well-conned within the integration range |0, T). As a
result, the signal bandwidth is much larger than 1]T; RAKE
is used in the demodulation of spread-spectrum signals!
WT WT
m
1 W
1
T
.
M = 2 case
The receiver collects
the signal energy from
all the received paths,
which is somewhat anal-
ogous to the garden
rake that is used to
gather together leaves,
hays, etc. Consequently,
the name RAKE re-
ceiver has been coined
for this receiver struc-
ture by Price and Green
(1958). (I use s
m,
, but the text
uses s
,m
.)
Alternative realization of RAKE receiver
The previous structure requires M delay lines.
We can reduce the number of the delay lines to one by the
following derivation.
Let u = t
t
W
.
U
m
= Re_
L
k=1
T
0
r
(t}c
k
(t}s
m,
_t
k
W
_dt_
= Re_
L
k=1
T
0
r
_u +
k
W
_c
k
_u +
k
W
_s
m,
(u} dt_
Performance of RAKE receiver
Suppose c
k
(t) = c
k
. Then,
U
m
= Re_
L
k=1
T
0
r
(t)c
k
s
m,
_t
k
W
_dt_
= Re_
L
k=1
T
0
_
L
n=1
c
n
s
1,
_t
n
W
_ + z
W
(t)_c
k
s
m,
_t
k
W
_dt_
= Re_
L
k=1
L
n=1
c
n
c
k
T
0
s
1,
_t
k
W
_s
m,
_t
k
W
_dt_
+Re_
L
k=1
T
0
z
W
(t)c
k
s
m,
_t
k
W
_dt_
Assumption (Add-and-delay property)
The transmitted signal is orthogonal to its shifted
counterparts.
Under T T
m
,

T
0
s
1,
{t
k
W
) s
m,
{t
k
W
) dt is almost
independent of k,
and n
k
= Re
T
0
z
W
(t}s
m,
{t
k
W
) dt__
L
k=1
Gaussian
white because s
m,
{t
k
W
)}
L
k=1
orthogonal;
hence, with
k
= |c
k
|,
U
m
= Re_
L
k=1
|c
k
|
2
T
0
s
1,
(t} s
m,
(t} dt_
+Re_
L
k=1
c
k
T
0
z
W
(t}s
m,
_t
k
W
_dt_
=
L
k=1
2
k
Re|s
1,
(t}, s
m,
(t}| +
L
k=1
k
n
k
.
Therefore, the performance of RAKE is the same as the
L-diversity maximal ratio combiner if
k
}
L
k=1
i.i.d.
However,
k
= |c
k
|}
L
k=1
may not be identically distributed.
In such case, we can still obtain the pdf of
b
=
L
k=1
k
(if
M = 2) from
characteristic function of
k

k
( } =
1
1
k
characteristic function of
b
=
L
k=1
k

L
k=1
k
( } =
L
k=1
1
1
k
The pdf of is then given by the Fourier transform of
characteristic function:
f (} =
L
k=1
k

k
e

k
where
k
=
L
i =1,i k

k

k

i
.
Then,
P
e
=
1
2
L
k=1
k
[1
_

k
1+
k
) {
2L1
L
)
L
k=1
1
4
k
, BPSK, RAKE
1
2
L
k=1
k
[1
_

k
2+
k
) {
2L1
L
)
L
k=1
1
2
k
, BFSK, RAKE
Estimation of c
k
For orthogonal signaling, we can estimate c
n
via
T
0
r
_t +
n
W
_{s
1,
(t} + + s
M,
(t}) dt
=
L
k=1
c
k
T
0
s
m,
_t +
n
W

k
W
_{s
1,
(t} + + s
M,
(t}) dt
+
T
0
z _t +
n
W
_{s
1,
(t} + + s
M,
(t}) dt
=
L
k=1
c
k
T
0
s
m,
_t +
n
W

k
W
_s
m,
(t}dt
+
T
0
z _t +
n
W
_{s
1,
(t} + + s
M,
(t}) dt (Orthogonality)
= c
n
T
0
|s
m,
(t} |
2
dt + noise term (Add-and-delay)
M = 2 case
Decision-feedback estimator
This previous estimator only works for orthogonal signaling.
For, e.g., PAM signal with
s
(t} = I g(t} where I 1, 3, . . . , (M 1}},

we can estimate c
n
via
T
0
r
_t +
n
W
_g
(t}
=

T
0
_
L
k=1
c
k
I g _t +
n
W

k
W
_ + z _t +
n
W
__g
(t}
=
L
k=1
c
k
I
T
0
g _t +
n
W

k
W
_g
(t}dt + noise term

= c
n
I
T
0
|g (t} |
2
dt + noise term (Add-and-delay)
Final notes
Usually it requires
(t)
c
T
> 100 in order to have an accurate
estimate of c
n
}
L
n=1
.
Note that for DPSK and FSK with square-law combiner, it is
unnecessary to estimate c
n
}
L
n=1
.
So, they have no further performance loss due to an
inaccurate estimate of c
n
}
L
n=1
.

Chap13 Fading Channels I

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Chap13 Fading Channels I

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Digital Communications

Chapter 13 Fading Channels I: Characterization and Signaling

(t) c(; t)e

(; t}| is Rayleigh distributed. The

(; t}| is Rician distributed. The

(; t} can be well modeled

(t} is equal to:

(; t} Channel autocorrelation function

(; t}} Scattering function

(; t} have been proposed in literature.

overall attenuation parameter

(0; t} within the signal bandwidth

(0} within the signal bandwidth

From slide 4-169,

(t} is band-limited, i.e., |s

(f }| = 0 for |f | > W]2

(f }, sampling theorem gives:

() is assumed band-limited and is also statistically time-limited!

() is causal and time-limited to T

(t} = I g(t} where I 1, 3, . . . , (M 1}},

(t}dt + noise term

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