Saline and Alkaline soils

Booklet No. 39 Soil Science: SSS - 12

Contents Preface I. Introduction II. Salinity and Alkalinity III. Causes of Salt Accumulation IV. Effect of Salinity and Alkalinity on Plant Growth V. Crop Tolerance to Salt Affected Soils VI. Reclamation of Salt Affected Soils VII. Use of Saline and Alkaline Soils VIII. Management of Saline and Alkaline Soils IX. Sampling Soil and Water for Salinity Appraisal X. Information sheet to accompany a soil sample Preface Alkalinity can aptly be called leprosy of soil. This is the problem, once infested into the soil, keeps on aggravating and dwindling the productivity of soil. Therefore, a meticulous study of this serious soil problem is necessary. This booklet attempts to deal with soil salinity and alkalinity problem exhaustively in lucid language. Dr. K. T. Chandy, Agricultural & Environmental Education I. Introduction National Commission on Agriculture (1976) estimated that out of 328 million hectares of total geographical area of the country, 17.69 million hectares of land is degraded. Saline and alkaline soils alone account for more than 7 million hectares of degraded land. Reclamation of saline and alkaline soils has become necessary in the wake of growing food grain requirement to meet the needs of rapidly increasing population. Most of this land is concentrated in three states namely U.P., Haryana and Punjab. Roughly an area of about 12% to the net area sown is alkaline in Punjab and 7% and4% in Haryana and Uttar Pradesh respectively. Besides these three states, West Bengal, Bihar, orissa, Maharashtra, Tamil Nadu, Madhya Pradesh, Andhra Pradesh, Gujarat, Delhi and Rajasthan also have saline and alkaline soils in scattered patches. These soils are generally confined to areas with average annual rainfall of 55 cm to 100 cm. The saline and alkaline soils of India can be broadly grouped in 4 major tracts. --The arid tract of Rajasthan and Gujarat. --Semi-arid alluvial tracts of Punjab, Haryana and Uttar Pradesh. --The arid and semi-arid tracts of southern states. --The coastal alluvium. II. Salinity and Alkalinity Salinity and alkalinity are two different terms and, there- fore, saline soils and alkaline soils also differ from each other. Knowledge of this difference is essential to chalk out a correct reclamation programme. The difference lies in the type of salts present in the soil. Saline soil contains a very high concentration of calcium chloride, magnesium chloride. calcium carbonate

and magnesium carbonate (salts), whereas alkaline soil contains a high concentration of only one salt called sodium carbonate. Other salts of calcium, magnesium and sodium with chloride, sulphate and carbonate may also be there in the soil. In alkaline soil, concentration of sodium is too high. Gypsum (calcium sulphate) which is the most widely used amendment for salt affected soils, should be used in alkali soils. Using gypsum in saline soil may even aggravate the problem. Based on the type and concentration of salts, salt affected soils are classified into following three groups. A. Saline soils As discussed above, soils containing excess amount of water soluble salts are called saline soils. The concentration of salt in the root-zone of soil, goes so high that it badly affects plant growth. Looking from a distant place, these soils give a milky white or whitish-grey appearance. Therefore, sometimes these soils are also referred to as 'white alkali soils: Salt concentration of these soils is expressed in terms of electrical conductivity (unit m mhos/cm). Electrical conductivity of saline soils is always more than 4 millimhos/centimeter. Their pH (soil reaction), is more than 7 but always less than 8.5. It is feared that introduction of new irrigation projects, canal irrigation system, etc. may lead to increase in salinity probleld, especially if proper soil management and arrangement of drainage system is not made. B. Alkaline soils A number of elements in their ionic form i.e. extremely minute electrically charged particles remain adhered to soil particles. These elements are exchangeable with other elements found in soil water. When the concentration of sodium (Na) in the soil goes so high that it occupies more than 15% of the total exchangeable site surface of soil particles, soil is said to be alkaline and sodium in this state is called exchangeable sodium percentage (ESP). Concentration of salts other than sodium carbonate is low in this soil. Therefore, electrical conductivity is also lower than 4 m.mhos/cm. The pH of the soil is always more than 8.5. Calcium carbonate, mixed with soil water and organic matter, imparts black colour to the soil. Sub-soil of alkali soils often contains a hard pan which inhibits the downward movement of water. C. Saline-alkali soils These soils contain all types of salts including sodium salt. Electrical conductivity of these soils is more than 4 m.mhos/cm and pH more than 8.5. They also develop a hard pan in sub-soil. They are grey in colour. Table 1: Characteristics of saline, alkaline, and saline-alkaline soils Sl.No. 1 2 3 Soil Saline soil Alkali soil Saline-alkali soil Electrical Conductivity (mmhos/cm) >4 <4 >4 Exch. Of sod. (%) >15 >15 >15 pH >8.5 >8.5 >8.5

A visual diagnosis of salt affected soils is possible by looking at the colour of the soil. Completely white soils are saline, grey are saline-alkali and black are alkali soils. Presence of hard pan is also a distinguishing character of alkaline soils. III. Causes of Salt Accumulation

A number of factors are responsible for the formation of saline and alkaline soils. These factors are mainly geological, climatic and hydrological in nature. They are discussed below. A. Geological factors Geological factors relate to the origin of the soils. Some soils are formed from basic parent material (rocks-basalt, gabro, etc); therefore, saline in nature. Some soils contain salt layers in sub-soil. When such soils are deep cultivated, these salts come up to the surface soil. Some saline soils are also believed to have been formed by deposition of salts carried down by rivers from hill rocks. Soils of coastal zones, which were once inundated by sea water and now are within the reach of sea breeze are also saline. B. Climatic factors Soluble salts accumulate whenever evaporation exceeds total precipitation (rain) either alone or in combination with irrigation. Total evaporation in arid zones reaches 1500-3000 mm per year which often exceeds the total precipitation received even for a number of years. C. Hydrological factors Water is the chief transporting agent for salts and its evaporation gives rise to accumulation of salts in the soil. At flood plains, deltas, coastal areas, lakes and regions of high water table, surface movement of water is negligible. Water, therefore, evaporates leaving the salts on the surface. This process also brings up salts from the lower horizons if the moisture regime is connected with ground water. In fact, this is the most important cause of Stalinization. If the depth of water-table below the soil surface is less than 120 cm, Stalinization of surface soil may occur. Ascending water table towards the surface dissolves salts falling in the way and leaves them on the soil surface after evaporation. Movement of water from lower soil layers to surface layers takes place through capillaries (narrow tubular water path ways formed by the arrangement of soil particles). Chances of Stalinization increase if the ground water is salty (salt content more than 2 g/litre). The arid and semi-arid areas of the country have often poor quality ground water. The use of saline ground water for irrigation has accentuated the problem of salt accumulation in several areas. It is not rare to find such examples at many places of Punjab, Haryana, Rajasthan and Gujarat having shallow depth of utilizable saline groundwater which has already created problems of soil salinity. The problem is further aggravated where the ground water has high sodium content. The fact that the introduction of canal irrigation system has been the principal cause of extension of reh (salt) in many parts of the country ,is now well established. This is not because canal water is salty but because water table of the surrounding soils is increased and the native salts are pushed up towards soil surface. Removal of plan cover also increases evaporation of water from soil surface and, therefore, Stalinization is increased. IV. Effect of Salinity and Alkalinity on Plant Growth Salt affected soils do not allow satisfactory plant growth due to many reasons. 1. Concentration of salts outside the roots goes so high that . roots cannot absorb water and, therefore, plant will dry. 2. In salt affected soils plants suffer disbalance of nutrients. Some essential nutrients become unavailable, whereas some other nutrients are available in excess. Therefore, plants suffer both deficiency as 'Nell toxicity of plant i. nutrients. In alkali soil, sodium becomes toxic to the plant due to its excessive solubility or availability.

3. Soil structure is destroyed. Excessive sodium in soil results .in dispersal of soil particles. Soil does not provide suitable physical condition for plant growth. 4. A hard pan develops in alkaline sub-soil which hampers the extension of plant roots and downward movement of water. 5. Amount of organic matter and population of soil organisms go down to an unfavourable level. Soil loses its fertility and plant growth is restricted in such soils. V. Crop Tolerance to Salt Affected Soils No adequate research has been carried out to investigate the performance of different crops on salt affected soils. Some crops grow pretty well in salt affected soils, while others do not grow at all. It depends on factors such as type and variety of crop, type of salt present in the soil and its concentration, etc. The knowledge about crop tolerance to saline and alkaline soils is largely born out of the experience on farmers field, general performance and total out-turn of the crop on saline alkaline soils. It can be briefly discussed as under. A. Tolerance of field crops 1. High salt tolerant Sesbania, rice, sugarcane, oats, sugarbeet, berseem, lucern, senji, fenugreek, barley. 2. Medium salt tolerant Castor, cotton, sorghum, pearl millet, maize, mustard, wheat, bajra. 3. Low salt tolerant Pulses, pigeon pea, sunnhemp, gram, peas, linseed, sesamum. B. Varietal tolerance --Paddy: coarse varieties like Kranti and Saket 4, IR-8, Jaya, PR-I06, P-.2-21, Satha, Jhona. -- Jowar: M-47-3, GadraRoad, Pokaran, Texas, Hybrid-610, IS- 541, J-718, PJ-4-R, Sweet Sudan, M-34-1, T-l. --Bajra: Khatani, Pal Manihari, Agra,JetStaI, T-55,Bikaner, T-5. --Wheat: HD-2009(Arjun), WH-711, HD-1982, HD-1553. --Sugarcane: Co 205, Co-286, Co-280, pa5 -2878, Co-210, Co-331,Co-312,Co-321,Co-513,Co290,Co421,CoS- . 109, Bo-10,Bo-24,Bo-3. --Cotton: Short staple varieties f; C. Tolerance of vegetables --Salt tolerant -Garden beet, asparagus, spinach, cabbage, tomato and cole crops. -- Salt sensitive -Radish, celery, green beans and tuber vegetables. D. Tolerance of grasses High -Chloris guyana (rhodes grass), Cynodon dactylon (doob grass) and Paspalum notatum. Medium -Brachiaris mutica (paragrass),Cynodon plectostachys (giant Star)

Low -Panicum antidotale (blue panic), Cenchrus ciliaris, Dichanthium annulatum, Leptochloa fusea. E. Forest trees and shrubs Acacia nilotica (babul), Butea monosperma (dhak), Prosopis spicigera (khejri), Acacia catechu (khair), Azadirachta indica (neem), Cordia lalifalia (lasora), Dalbergia sissoo (sisum), Albizzia lebbec (siris), Termindlia belleria (bahera), Emblica officinalis (aonla). F. Fruit trees With a few exceptions most of the fruit trees are sensitive to salinity and prone to leaf injury due to accumulation of sodium and chloride. Stone fruit trees, citrus, strawberry avocado and papaya are very sensitive to salinity. Date palm is highly salt tolerant while grape is medium tolerant. VI. Reclamation of Salt Affected Soils A successful reclamation technique involves complete removal of excess salts from root zone and prevention of the reclaimed land from reversion to its previous state. Harmful salts being soluble can be removed by leaching With water Which is the chief means of their transport. In alkaline soils an acid forming amendment is necessarily required to be applied before leaching, in order to flush out sodium from the soil. Before starting reclamation work, one must get his soil tested from nearby soil testing centre. This is essential to know the type of salt present, pH and electrical conductivity of the soil. The type and amount of amendments should be determined according to the soil testing report. A. Principles underlying different methods To determine what type of reclamation procedure will suit a particular kind of soil, it is necessary to know the principles underlying the various methods that are employed to reclaim saline and alkaline soils. Broadly, the methods can be grouped as follows. 1. Physical and hydrotechnical amelioration Physical amelioration means giving mechanical treatment to improve physical nature of saline and alkaline soils. This involves deep ploughing, sub-soiling, sand filling and profile turning. These treatments improve permeability of the soil to water by loosening and breaking the hard clay pan found in subsoil of alkaline soils. Sub-soiling and profile turning can be done by chisel (a big plough) drawn by powerful tractor provided the hard pan lies within 40-100 cm depth from the surface. Sand filling which is done to improve water and air permeability can be done by spreading a layer of sand and ploughing the top soil. After the suitable mechanical treatment of the soil, leach- ing and drainage with good quality water are carried out. This forms hydro-technical part of the method. Hydro-technical part of the method is an essential part of all methods of rec1amation whether physical, chemical or biological. The excess quantity and undesirable quality of water can safely be disposed off through drainage and leaching. Some factors like presence of hard pan in sub-soil, dispersed soil particles, very high water table and very fine clay texture of soil may create obstruction to subsurface drainage and infiltration of water. These situations are, therefore, corrected before drainage and infiltration are carried out. The quality of underground water found in alkaline areas is often good and it can be used for irrigation. If high water table is a problem in such

areas, establishing tube wells can be justified. It serves two purposes: (a) provides good quality irrigation water which can also be used for leaching the salts and (b) reduction in water table which facilitates the process of leaching. If the underlying water of alkali soils is saline, surface drainage is recommended in which rain water or water from other sources is made to stand in the field for some time and then drained out of field. The salts dissolved in water are also drained out of field along with drainage water. 2. Biological amelioration All the growing plants and their residues or any other organic residues have ameliorative effect on saline and alkaline soils. Roots of growing plants intercept ascending seepage water, thus prevent the upward movement of salts. Shading effect of plant foliage reduces evaporation from the soil surface and, therefore, discourages upward movement of salty water from deep soil layers. Dead plant and animal residues undergo the process of decomposition and carbon dioxide (CO2) is released. This CO2 dissolves in soil water and forms on acid. Many other organic acids are also produced. These acids counter- act salinity and alkalinity of the soil and push the soil reaction towards 'neutrality'. Biological activity can be stimulated by simply allowing vegetation to grow on salt affected soils. Experiments with green manuring, farmyard manure, compost, molasses, press mud, Argemone mexicana (a weed) and blue-green algae (biofertilizer) have given encouraging results. Combined use of farmyard manure (@ 10 tonnes/ha) and gypsum (@2.5 tonnes/ha) is very useful for correcting alkali soils. Application of 5 tonnes of molasses combined with 5 tonnes of press mud per acre, 3-4 weeks before sowing or transplanting, followed by flood irriga tion has shown good results. Molasses and press mud are byproducts of sugar industry and are available in the areas located near sugarcane processing plants. 3. Chemical amelioration For alkali soils in which sodium swarms around each and every soil particle, it is necessary to flush out sodium from soil particles to soil solution before leaching the soil. Application of a soluble calcium compound such as gypsum or any other acidifier like pyrite and sulphur must be made before hydro-technical treatment of soil replacement of sodium by calcium can be shown by the following equation. Ca++ Soil water + Na+ soil particle----> Na+Soil water + Ca++ Soil Particle Soil water laden with sodium molecules is then drained or leached out of soil. Gypsum is by far the most commonly used chemical amendment. This is sold by the government to the farmers at a highly subsidized rate (25% of original cost). Amounts of other chemical amendments which can replace one tonne gypsum have been shown in table 2. For saline-alkaline soils which contain, along with sodium, a large amount of calcium, use of acid forming amendments like sulphur, iron sulphate, pyrite and sulphuric acid should be made. Use of gypsum may even aggravate the problem. When acidifiers are added in the soil, they dissolve in water and form strong acids. These acids solubilise native calcium which then replaces sodium from soil particles. Most of the soils in India are poor in calcium. Therefore, the use of gypsum is widely adopted. Table 2: Gypsum equivalents of some chemical amendments used for reclaiming alkali soils

Sl.no 1 2 3 4 5 6 7

Amendment Gypsum Sulphuric acid Sulphur Iron sulphate Aluminium sulphate Lime sulphur Pyrite

Wt. In tones,eqivalent to one tonne of gypsum 1.00 0.57 0.19 1.62 1.29 0.76 0.63

B. Procedure Central Soil Salinity Research Institute, Karnal has developed a procedure which can be successfully adopted for reclamation of saline and alkaline soils. The procedure involves following steps in sequence. 1. Bunding and land leveling Strong earthen bunds of 35-40 cm height should be erected around the field boundary about 70-75 days before the onset of monsoon. Field area should be divided into small plots of 0.4 ha size. Bunding prevents inflow or outflow of water from the fields. Field should be completely leveled to avoid any localization of salts. Raised spots of the field can be marked by giving a light irrigation to the field in the beginning. A gentle slope of about 0.1 % towards the drainage channel helps in draining out excess water. A trench should be dug across the slope of the plot for draining out water. The trench can be 60-75 cm deep and width may vary according to the size of the plot and intensity of leaching with water. 2. Provision of irrigation water It is often observed that ground water of alkaline areas is of good quality. Tubewells (which are preferable to canal water irrigation) should be installed in these areas to ensure desired water supply. A 10 cm delivery tubewell gives a discharge of about 10 litres/ second and can command an area of about 4 to 5 hectare. 3. Drainage Areas where alkali soils are extensive, usually receive a I. rainfall of about 700-800 mm annually. Most of this rainfall occurs in rainy season i.e. in the months of July, August and September. Every effort should be made to conserve the rainwater in the agricultural fields. This can be best accomplished by growing rice in the kharif season. If properly bunded, about 15- 20 cm rain water can be collected in the bunded rice field at a time. This reduces the need for surface drainage. However, the water which cannot be stored in the field must be drained out. 4. Application of soil amendments Gypsum is used as an amendment. Its quantity should be determined through proper soil analysis. It is, therefore, advisable to obtain representative soil samples after the fields have been leveled and properly bunded so as to work out the required amount of an amendment. For highly alkaline soils lying barren, 15 tonnes/ha gypsum is required. For soil analysis, the farmer should establish contact with a local soil testing laboratory. The powdered gypsum (2 mm particle size or sieved by 10 mesh screen) should ~ applied 10-15 days before paddy transplanting. It can be spread evenly in the field and mixed with top 10-15 cm soil by 2-3 shallow ploughings. The amount of the gypsum to be applied

greatly depends upon the soil texture and type of the crop to be sown. Fine textured clay soil needs more gypsum than light textured soil. Deep rooted crops require more gypsum than shallow rooted ones. 5. Leaching . In this process, salts are made to dissolve in the standing water of the field and then allowed to leach down in the soil. Thus, upper 20-25 cm soil (rhizosphere) is freed from salts. As explained earlier, amendment used in alkali soil liberates sodium from soil particles and soluble sodium salts come out in soil water. This sodium rich water must be leached down in the soil. This is done by impounding water in the field. A flood irrigation should be given just after the application of gypsum and water should be made to stand in the field for about 4-5 days. During this period a slow downward movement of water along with salts dissolved in it takes place. If water is available in plenty, drainage of sodium laden water should be carried out and the drained water should be disposed off safely. 6. Cultivation Complete reclamation of an alkali soil may take several years. It is, therefore, advisable to start cultivation soon after the application of gypsum in the soil. Rice-wheat rotation has been found to be the most effective for alkali soils under reclamation process. Cultivation on such soils should start with dhaincha (Sesbania aculeata) as green manure for subsequent paddy crop. About 40- 45 days old dhaincha should be turned down and allowed to decompose for about one week. Then paddy seedlings should be transplanted in the field. High yielding varieties of paddy such as IR-8, Jaya and PR-I06 have been found suitable during initial stages of reclamation. The best time of transplanting is between 15 June and 15 July. Three to four seedlings per hill should be transplanted with hilI to hilI distance of 15 cm. There is no need to puddle the soil in first year. The crop wilI require about 150 kg nitrogen and 25 kg zinc sulphate per hectare. There is no need of applying phosphatic or potassic fertilizers in first year. If green manuring has been practised, only 100 kg N/ha may be enough. After transplanting, 4.5 cm standing water should be kept for a few days. After 10-15 days of transplanting water should be drained out and the field is exposed to fresh air for 2-3 days and then again flood irrigated. Field should be kept submerged until the crop is near maturity. Paddy should be followed by wheat crop. Wheat varieties such as HD-2009, WH- 711 and HD-1982 are recommended for alkali soils under reclamation. Sowing is done during first fortnight of November as paddy is harvested during first week of October itself and there is enough time left for field preparation. Nitrogen should be given @ 120-140kg/ha. If possible, potash @ 50 kg/ha may also be given. Spraying of3% urea solution on 45 days old crop has also been found beneficial, especially in water scarcity conditions. Crop should be properly irrigated. First irrigation is done 25-28 days after sowing. It should be noted that light but frequent irrigations are more beneficial. VII. Use of Saline and Alkaline Soils A. Tree plantation Pits of 120-150 cm depth and 15 cm diameter are dug out in salt affected fields at an appropriate distance. These holes are called auger-holes as they can be dug out by manually or mechanically operated auger. If available, neutral, fertile soil should be used to fill the augerholes. If only alkali soil is available, mix 3.3 kg gypsum and 7-8 kg farmyard manure with .such soil and fill the pit. To fill up 1000 auger-holes of 150 x 15 cm size, a trench of 10 m length, 2 m

width and 30 cm depth can provide sufficient quantity of soil. In termite infested areas 100- 200 g BHC per pit should also be mixed along with the filling mixture. Selection of trees depends upon the purpose of planting and local agro-climatic conditions. Some successfully experimented tree species are: Acacia nilotica -Babul Prosopis julifera -Mesquite Casuarina equisetifolia -Tortor Sesbania aegiptica -Dhaincha Albizzia lebbec -Siris Azadirachta indica -Noom Eucalyptus tereticornis -Safeda B. Cultivation of Karnal grass Karnal grass brings about improvement in physical and chemical properties of the soil because of its extensive root growth which improves the aggregation of soil particles, thus increasing the permeability of alkali soil. As a result of root respiration and decomposition carbon dioxide (CO2 is released. This CO2 along with water, solubilises the soil calcium and thus, accelerates the process :>f reclamation. Kamal grass can be planted any time from March to August where irrigation facilities are available. However, the best time of planting is a few days before the onset of monsoon. A well ploughed field should be supplied with 20 kg N and 20 kg zinc sulphate per hectare. Stem cuttings having at least three nodes are inserted in the soil at 20-25 cm distance. One-third portion of the cuttings is left exposed in the air. Just after transplanting light irrigation is essential. The grass can grow well even in submerged condition, therefore, no drainage is required. Two-three cuts can be had at an interval of 30 days and used for cattle feeding. C. Cultivation of sugarbeet Sugarbeet crop grown in alkali soil serves as a scavanger of sodium. The main varieties grown for this purpose are Ramon- skaya -06, Dobroviea-C, M-marinapoly and M-magnapoly which can be grown in rotation with paddy. D. Cultivation of saftal As a good managerial requirement, one leguminous crop must be included in the crop rotation. Saftal is a leguminous crop fairly resistant to salts. Better results can be obtained if Berseem is replaced by saftal from rice-berseem rotation. E. Growing Coix lachryma-jobi (Job's tear millet) Commonly known as job's tear, it is a newly recognized beneficial millet crop, native to south east Asia. In India, this plant is found growing wild in Assam, Andhra Pradesh, Karnataka, Orissa, M.P., U.P., Maharashtra and Tamilnadu. In different regions, it is known by different names as koga, giral, golugu, gurgur, sangti and gargara. It looks some what like maize plant especially during the early stages of growth. One cut of this grass can be had and served to cattle. VIII. Management of Saline and Alkaline Soils Management of saline and alkaline soils involves those special mechanical and agronomic practices which help keep down harmful effects of salts and alkali during and after

the reclamation to avoid re-salinization or reversion of the land to its previous state. Following points should be given attention in order to manage these soils successfully. --Soils should be properly leveled to ensure uniform distribution of salts throughout the field. --Till the soil carefully within a narrow range of moisture regime and avoid heavy tillage machinery. --To loosen deep sub-soil layer, deep ploughing and sub- soiling (deep soil turning) is useful (up to 35 cm). If sub- soil is more alkaline than surface soil, sub-soiling should not be done. In this situation, deep ripping without turning the soil may prove helpful. --Practices should be so planned as to suit the germination of i the seed because germination stage of the plant is very ! susceptible to salts. --Frequent and light irrigations are better than a few and heavy ones. Ponding and flooding methods have been found to be better than furrow method of irrigation. Sprinkling can be done in small fields. --There should be slight slope towards the direction of the water flow so that excess water can be easily drained out. --For irrigated crops like cotton, planting can be done through dibbling in single row or ridges at depths greater than the conventional ones to avoid salinity hazard and once there are signs of seedling emergence, the top of the ridge can be stirred mechanically to help the seedlings come up. --In the initial years more salt tolerant crops are grown and land should never be left fallow. --At-least one legume (especially for green manuring) must be included in the crop rotation. --Resistant crops or resistant varieties should be selected. --Treatment of seeds before sowing with mild salt solution increases the salt tolerance of the crop. Soaking paddy seeds in 0.1 per cent salt solution considerably increases the salt tolerance of paddy crop. -Acid forming fertilizers such as ammonium sulphate, ammonium chloride, etc. should be preferred for newly reclaimed alkali soils. Foliar application of urea is also recommended. -Afforestation and pasture development by digging holes of 60-90 cm x 120 cm size (diameter x depth) can be done at an appropriate distance. IX. Sampling Soil and Water for Salinity Appraisal. A representative sample of soils weighing about 500-750 gm is taken from one ocre area. Such a sample is obtained from a mixture of 8-10 randomly taken soil samples from an acre of field. The depth of sampling depends upon the kind of crop to be , grown and the type of soil. It varies from 15 cm to 1.5 m. Use khurpa or augur for vertically cutting out slice of soil sample. Care should be taken that sample is not taken just after rains, irrigation, fertilizer application, organic matter application and from near the irrigation canal, drains, bunds, manure pits, shady yards, etc. Water sample is taken when irrigation water is moving in channels. About 500 ml water is collected in plastic or glass containers. X. Information sheet to accompany a soil sample 1. Name of the farmer 2. Address: 3. Field No. Sample Sample Source of sampled No. depth irrigation 4. Crops grown Yield Fertilizer used Irrigation or

obtained kg/ha 5. General field conditions a. Texture of the soil b. Permeability to water c. Sub-soil hard layer d. Leveling conditions e. Depth of water table f. Drainage conditions g. Crop symptoms and problems h. Any other information

non irrigated

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