Water and Environmental Engineering Department of Chemical Engineering

Comparative analysis of sub-surface drainage solutions in Maxaquene A

Master Thesis by

Jaime Palalane

June 2010

Vattenfrsrjnings och Avloppsteknik Institutionen fr Kemiteknik Lunds Universitet

Water and Environmental Engineering Department of Chemical Engineering Lund University, Sweden

Comparative analysis of sub-surface drainage solutions in Maxaquene A

Master Thesis number: 2010-xy by

Jaime Palalane
Water and Environmental Engineering Department of Chemical Engineering June 2010

Supervisor: Co-supervisors:

Dr. Viveka Lindstrn (LTH) Auxiliary Professor Dinis Juzo (UEM) Auxiliary Professor Nelson Matsinhe (UEM) Professor Jes la Cour Jansen (LTH)

Examiner:

Picture on front page: 1. Aerial view of Maxaquene A neighbourhood from Google Earth

Postal address: P.O. Box: 124 SE - 221 00 Lund Sweden

Visiting address: Getingevgen 60

Telephone: +46 46-222 82 85 +46 46-222 00 00 Telefax: +46 46-222 45 26 Web page: www.vateknik.lth.se

We ourselves feel that what we are doing is just a drop in the ocean. But the ocean would be less because of that missing drop. (Mother Theresa of Calcutta)

Dedication: During my study period in Lund I was blessed with the birth of two nephews, one god daughter, one niece and one cousin. The distance did not allow me to fully share the joy of their lives and their first days on earth. I dedicate my thesis to Noah, Alexander, Martina, Thayanne and Kayonga, hoping that it can be an inspiration for them to study to reach and overcome this achievement.

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ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
First of all, I would like to give thanks to God for is guidance and the blessing of wisdom which helped me to make the right choices in my life and opened many doors which made possible to reach this moment. Second, I want to express my gratitude to my parents for their great support in all different phases of my education and socialization processes and to my girlfriend, Selma, for all her encouragement and unconditional love shared in all moments during my studies in Lund. To my examiner Professor Jes la Cour Jansen my deep gratitude for all attention, guidance and teachings in different phases of this thesis work. To Dr. Viveka Lindtrn I want to express my gratitude for their attention in the initial phase and preparatory work for this thesis project. The data collection and field tests would not be possible without the fruitful contribution and supervision of Auxiliary Professor Dinis Juzo to whom I give a big thank. To Auxiliary Professor Nelson Matsinhe, the Coordinator of Water Quality Project, I want to thank him for all its support before and during my study period in Lund, and for his help on the selection of a topic for this thesis. I also want to express my gratitude to Municipal Council of Maputo City which allowed this study to take place inside its area of jurisdiction, specially for Engineers Fernando Nhampossa, Evans Mambo and Rafissone from Water and Sanitation Directorate for their openness and support in different phases of this thesis project. The field work activities were supported by Maxaquene A Secretary, Noroeste I and Noroeste II schools. It also counted with the precious support of field work assistants Pedro Mussane, Pascoal Faftine, Fernado Mahoze from Maxaquene A, Alfredo Manuel and Josefe Viagem from Eduardo Mondlane University (UEM). I am grateful for their contribution. My appreciation extends to Swedish International Development and Cooperation Agency and UEM, for supporting my Master Studies in Sweden at Lund University though the Water Quality Project, and for the opportunity to enrich my knowledge and learning by differences. To all my colleagues and corridor mates who during this two years enriched my list of friends, tack s mycket for the moments and experiences shared, and for helping my socialization far from home.

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SUMMARY
All over the world, new drainage approaches and solutions have been studied and introduced as a way to achieve a more efficient storm water drainage which can satisfactorily contribute to reduce the occurrence of flooding problems and increase the commodity of the local population. A considerable number of peri-urban areas of Maputo City, Mozambique's capital and biggest urban centre, are formed by informal settlements which their spontaneous formation resulted from migratory movements due to political instabilities and gaps between rural and urban areas. A common denominator on these areas is the lack of basic infrastructures as it is the case of storm water drainage systems. Maxaquene A neighbourhood represent this part of the city affected by the absence of an appropriate drainage system, a situation which results in the occurrence of flooding problems aggravated by the high groundwater level in a big portion of its area. This suggests that the construction of open drainage channels to convey the surface runoff does not appear by it self alone as a technological option which can effectively reduce the occurrence of ponding areas and reduce the ponding time. Therefore, sub-surface drainage solutions appear as complementary measures to be considered in order to increase the storm water drainage efficiency. The contribution of a sub-surface solutions, in the case of the present study infiltration trenches with a perforated pipe, to lower the groundwater level and reduce the occurrence of flooding areas in Maxaquene A was analysed comparing its effectiveness with open drainage channels. To accomplish it, a model of the study area was created using the US EPA Storm Water Management Model (SWMM) and calibrated against flows measured in the existing primary drainage channel which serves this neighbourhood. Model input parameters resulted from precipitation, evaporation, atmospheric and water pressure measurements, sieving analysis and field tests to assess the hydraulic conductivity and minimum infiltration capacity. Three different alternatives were simulated and their performance under precipitation events with recurrence times of 2 and 5 years were compared. The first alternatives corresponded to isolated use of open drainage channels or infiltration trenches with perforated pipes, with one additional alternative representing a combined use of both solutions. Results from the computations showed that although the simulated sub-surface solutions give a significant effect in groundwater level reduction, they do not influence the magnitude of the peak runoffs from Maxaquene A subcatchments and peak flows in existing drainage channels. In a similar way, the open drainage channels were effective in reducing peak runoffs and flows but did not have an impact in groundwater level reduction. Therefore, the adoption of combined solutions appears as the most appropriate alternative to deal with flooding problems due to inefficient drainage, before the rainfall intensities and depths which are common in Maputo City. v

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ABBREVIATIONS AND SYMBOLS

ASTM American Society for Testing and Materials BMP Best Management Practices CMCM Maputo City Municipal Council (Conselho Municipal da Cidade de Maputo) DMAS Municipal Directorate of Water and Sanitation (Direco Municipal de gua e Saneamento) DNA National Water Directorate (Direco Nacional de guas) ESF Engineers Without Borders (Engenheiros Sem Fronteiras) INAM National Metereological Institute (Instituto Nacional de Meteorologia) INE National Statistics Institute (Instituto Nacional de Estatstica) LIDS Low Impact Development Solutions MOPH Ministry of Public Works and Housing (Ministrio das Obras Pblicas e Habitao) NGO Non Governmental Organization PEUMM Urban Structure Plan of the Maputo Municipality (Plano de Estrutura Urbana do Municpio de Maputo) SCS US Soil Conservation Service (current Natural Resources Conservation Service) SUDS Sustainable Urban Drainage Systems UEM Universidade Eduardo Mondlane

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INDEX
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS................................................................................................iii SUMMARY..............................................................................................................v ABBREVIATIONS AND SYMBOLS....................................................................................vii INDEX..................................................................................................................ix LIST OF FIGURES.....................................................................................................xi LIST OF TABLES......................................................................................................xii 1 INTRODUCTION....................................................................................................1 1.1 Objectives of the research.................................................................................2 1.2 Overall methodology........................................................................................2 1.3 Study limitations.............................................................................................3 1.4 Thesis structure..............................................................................................3 2 OVERVIEW OF THE STUDY AREA.................................................................................5 2.1 Description of the study area..............................................................................5 2.1.1 Administrative structure...............................................................................5 2.1.2 Social and economic aspects..........................................................................6 2.1.3 Climate...................................................................................................8 2.1.4 Hydrogeology............................................................................................8 2.2 Legal and institutional framework........................................................................8 2.3 Storm water drainage in Maxaquene A................................................................9 3 SUB-SURFACE DRAINAGE SOLUTIONS: PROCESSES AND MODELLING......................................15 3.1 Infiltration pits and trenches as sub-surface drainage solutions....................................15 3.1.1 Dimensioning processes...............................................................................16 3.1.2 Main advantages and disadvantages.................................................................20 3.1.3 Execution and maintenance..........................................................................20 3.2 The Storm Water Management Model...................................................................21 3.3 Different approaches to model sub-surface drainage solutions in SWMM..........................22 3.3.1 Infiltration as dominant process.....................................................................23 3.3.2 Exfiltration as dominant process....................................................................26 3.3.3 Groundwater discharge through lateral flow in SWMM...........................................28 4 MODELLING THE IMPLEMENTATION OF SUB-SURFACE DRAINAGE SOLUTIONS IN MAXAQUENE A WITH SWMM..........................................................................................................33 ix

4.1 Data sources................................................................................................33 4.1.1 Meteorological data...................................................................................33 4.1.2 Water level measurements...........................................................................36 4.1.3 Soil properties..........................................................................................42 4.2 Model creation..............................................................................................43 4.2.1 Subcatchments definition.............................................................................43 4.2.2 Incorporation of the existing hydraulic infrastructures..........................................46 4.2.3 Aquifers and groundwater flow parameters definition...........................................47 4.2.4 Introduction of flow measurements, rain and evaporation series..............................50 4.2.5 SWMM simulation options.............................................................................51 4.3 Model calibration and validation.........................................................................51 4.3.1 Sensitivity analysis.....................................................................................51 4.3.2 Calibration and validation............................................................................53 4.4 Simulation of three different storm water drainage possibilities...................................54 4.4.1 Design rainfalls.........................................................................................55 4.4.2 Alternative 1: Isolated use of open drainage channels...........................................56 4.4.3 Alternative 2: Combination of subsurface solutions and open drainage channels............57 4.4.4 Alternative 3: infiltration trenches with perforated pipes......................................57 5 RESULTS AND DISCUSSION......................................................................................59 5.1 Results.......................................................................................................59 5.1.1 Influence of a drainage channel along Milagre Mabote avenue.................................59 5.1.2 Alternative 1: Isolated use of open drainage channels...........................................60 5.1.3 Alternative 2: Combination of subsurface solutions and open drainage channels............61 5.1.4 Alternative 3: Isolated use of infiltration trenches with perforated pipes....................64 5.2 Discussion....................................................................................................64 5.2.1 Overall methodology, measurements and validity................................................65 5.2.2 Comparative analysis of proposed solutions.......................................................66 5.2.3 Feasibility and cross-cutting issues..................................................................69 5.2.4 Selection matrix.......................................................................................71 6 CONCLUSIONS....................................................................................................73 7 RECOMMENDATIONS.............................................................................................75 7.1 Future research.............................................................................................75 7.2 Proposed actions...........................................................................................75 REFERENCES.........................................................................................................77 APPENDIXES..........................................................................................................81

LIST OF FIGURES
Figure 1: Location of the study area..............................................................................5 Figure 2: Blocks and main infrastructures existent in Maxaquene "A" (Source: Google Earth, 2009).. . .7 Figure 3: Areas covered by a formal sanitation system (Data source: PEUMM, 2009)....................10 Figure 4: Earth drainage channel with illegal connection....................................................12 Figure 5: Inundation area at Noroeste I which receives water from surrounding houses.................12 Figure 6: Normal infiltration trench, infiltration trench with a drain and drainage channel with an under drain..........................................................................................................16 Figure 7: Schematic representation of Hooghoudt equation parameters...................................19 Figure 8: SWMM compartments, objects and main modelled processes....................................22 Figure 9: Schematic representation of an infiltration trench in SWMM (Redrawn after Girons et al., 2009(c))..............................................................................................................24 Figure 10: Schematic representation of the non-linear reservoir model (Redrawn after Huber and Dickinson, 1992)....................................................................................................26 Figure 11: Schematic representation of drainage to a channel (Redrawn after EPA, 2009(b))..........29 Figure 12: Schematic representation of Dupuit-Forcheimer lateral flow (Redrawn after EPA, 1992). .30 Figure 13: Schematic representation of Hooghoudt lateral flow (Modified after EPA, 1992)............31 Figure 14: Rain gage registering mechanism....................................................................34 Figure 15: Evaporation pan at Maputo Observatory............................................................34 Figure 16: Barometer and diver installation at Point 1 in Acordos de Lusaka avenue....................37 Figure 17: Barometer (on left side) and divers used for water level measurements.....................37 Figure 18: Fluctuations in temperature and water level in Point 1 between February 19 and 21......37 Figure 19: Fluctuations in temperature and atmospheric pressure in Point 1 between February 19 and 21.....................................................................................................................38 Figure 20: Negative water level after barometric compensation in Point 2...............................38 Figure 21: Parabolic velocity profile.............................................................................41 Figure 22: Garbage thrown in the main drainage channel....................................................42 Figure 23: Grass growing in channel slopes.....................................................................42 Figure 24: Scheme of existing box-culverts.....................................................................47 Figure 25: Box culvert BC3 at the entrance to street 3.058..................................................47 xi

Figure 26: Influences of changes in hydraulic conductivity and distances between drains in groundwater level and drawdown rate for subcatchment S1B-FA...........................................52 Figure 27: Calibrated and simulated hydrographs.............................................................54 Figure 28: Changes in flows at Point 2 for a drainage channel built along Milagre Mabote avenue. . . .59 Figure 29: Peak flow at secondary drainage channels for a precipitation with 2 years of recurrence time...................................................................................................................61 Figure 30: Peak runoffs at analysed subcatchments for a recurrence time of 2 years...................62 Figure 31: Groundwater flow from subcatchments for Alternative 2 and a recurrence time of 2 years ........................................................................................................................63 Figure 32: Fluctuations in groundwater level for subcatchment S1B-FA....................................63 Figure 33: Changes in drain flow after a precipitation event with a recurrence time of 2 years.......65 Figure 34: Changes in groundwater level with time in analyzed subcatchments..........................67 Figure 35: Garbage deposited inside a drainage channel.....................................................71 Figure 36: Drainage channel cleaned by surrounding residents..............................................71

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LIST OF TABLES
Table 1: Population growth in Maxaquene A and KaMaxaquene District(Data source: PEUMM, 2009) 7 Table 2: Annual precipitation between 2003 and 2007 (Data source: PEUMM, 2009)......................8 Table 3: Considerations on two different approaches to simulate subsurface drainage solutions (Source: Palalane, 2009)...........................................................................................28 Table 4: Rain volume for precipitation events registered between February 15 and March 25 at Maputo Observatory Station.......................................................................................34 Table 5: Measured evaporation depths at Maputo Observatory and Mavalane stations and calculated values for Maxaquene A.........................................................................................35 Table 6: Water depth in cm corresponding to 1 hPa for different temperature values..................39 Table 7: Manning coefficient estimations.......................................................................41 Table 8: Minimum infiltration capacity and hydraulic conductivity values from field tests.............42 Table 9: Created subcatchments and corresponding sub-basins.............................................44 Table 10: Variable parameters values assigned to each subcatchment.....................................45 Table 11: Node's inverted elevation.............................................................................47 Table 12: Variable link parameters..............................................................................48 Table 13: Variable aquifer parameters..........................................................................49 Table 14: Groundwater flow coefficients and parameters used for their estimation.....................50 Table 15: Parameters a and b for analytical IDF expression for Maputo City (Source: DNA, 2003).....55 Table 16: Design Rainfall 12 for 2 and 5 years of recurrence time..........................................56 Table 17: Inverted elevation of nodes added to simulate Alternative 1....................................56 Table 18: Variable parameters for new rectangular open channel links....................................56 Table 19: Variable parameters values for new and modified subcatchments..............................57 Table 20: Inverted elevation for added drain nodes...........................................................57 Table 21: Variable parameters for new drain links added for Alternative 2...............................58 Table 22: Added groundwater flow coefficients and parameters used on their estimation for additional flooding areas considered in model created for Alternative 2..................................58 Table 23: Computed precipitation, runoff, infiltration, evaporation and groundwater flow volumes. 62 Table 24: Changes in runoff peaks when drainage channels are not considered..........................64 Table 25: Associated construction costs for open drainage channels with an under drain (Source: ESF Project)..............................................................................................................69 xiii

Table 26: Associated construction costs for open drainage channels with an under drain (Source: ESF Project)..............................................................................................................72

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1 INTRODUCTION
All over the world the Sustainable Urban Drainage Systems (SUDS) concept is being widely divulged and implemented in storm water drainage. This concept, also linked with the currents of Best Management Practices (BMPs) and Low Impact Development Solutions (LIDS), preach the adoption of solutions which seek to mimic the nature. Some examples are source and on-site control techniques which have been contributing to reduce the quantity and to improve quality of stormwater flows to be conveyed by conventional drainage structures such as pipes and open channels. In Mozambique, there was, since the independence in 1975, a continue rural exodus initially as consequence of the political instability, and currently motivated by social and economic gaps between rural and urban areas which contributed to a rapid growth of the urban centres (CMCM, 2008(a)). Taking as example Maputo, which is the capital and biggest city of the country, according to Muanamoha (2002) cited in CMCM (2008(a)), the annual population growth rate was estimated in 3.6% between 1975 and 1980, mainly motivated by the movement of people from rural areas and other cities looking for new work and formation opportunities as a consequence of the independence. This value increased to 4.5% between 1980 and 1991 as the result of the forced migration caused by the civil war which ended in 1992, being during this period the urban centres the safest areas. A significant reduction of Maputo's population growth rate was observed after the Peace Agreement with 1.7% between 1991 and 1997, and 1.3% for the following ten years period, being these values more likely to be related with the natural population growth rate and not associated to migratory movements (INE, 2009 and Muanamoha, 2002 cited in CMCM, 2008(a)). On its start, this migratory movement towards the cities was not accompanied with delimitation of new settlements and creation of residential areas with basic infrastructures to accommodate the increasing population, inducing an unplanned occupation of the new urban soil and development of spontaneous formation neighbourhoods, also know as informal settlements or slums. In Maputo City, three quarters of the total inhabitants live in these areas where there is a lack of basic services and infrastructures as stormwater drainage systems (CMCM, 2008(b)). Maxaquene A, a neighbourhood located in Maputo City, represents many Mozambican informal settlements characterized by an inefficient drainage and water ponding as a consequence of a high prheatic level. There is also a not well defined urban structure, with accessibility and mobility problems, and unpaved roads and streets which make difficult the adoption of conventional drainage solutions as drainage pipes and opens channels. The present study seeks to evaluate if infiltration trenches associated with perforated pipes (drains) can be considered efficient alternatives for stormwater urban drainage in Maxaquene A and other similar informal settlements. This evaluation is made comparing the performance of this sub-surface drainage solutions with existing and projected systems, identifying their pros and cons. The relevance of this study can be justified with a need to introduce the concept of sustainable urban drainage solutions into the Mozambican context and analyse their benefits comparing with 1

conventional approaches. This can also serve to motivate the inclusion of this principle in municipal postures and other laws.

1.1 Objectives of the research

The present project aim to analyse the degree of reduction of ponding areas occurrence, phreatic level lowering and changes in main drainage channels flows with the introduction of infiltration trenches associated with perforated pipes for stormwater drainage in Maxaquene A neighbourhood, comparing with open drainage solutions. To accomplish the above proposed objective the following research questions were setted: What can be the influence of subsurface drainage solutions on the magnitude of ponding areas and groundwater level in Maxaquene A, and peak flow and time for peak in existing drainage infrastructures serving this neighbourhood? Are the proposed sub-surface drainage solutions feasible considering their technical performance, financial and social aspects and relevant local cross-cutting issues?

1.2 Overall methodology

To accomplish the stated objective of this research was oriented in different steps as follows. Preparatory work comprise software learning, contacts with local infrastructures and NGOs to get the required allowance for the work and for collection of relevant information about the study area. On-site observations for mapping of areas prone to inundation, measurements of the phreatic level in these areas and identification of sampling points for soil collection and realization of field tests. Data collection with measurements of atmospheric and absolute water pressure in two different sections of the main drainage channel, acquisition of evaporation and precipitation data from the local meteorological stations, execution of infiltration and permeability tests and collection of soil samplings for sieving and determination of relevant hydrogeological properties. Model creation and calibration followed by the simulation of a possible pre-defined drainage scenario and alternatives of open drainage channels combined with infiltration trenches associated with drains. Analysis and discussion of the results and main findings, considering the technical performance of the proposed solutions, financial and social aspects and other relevant crosscutting issues.

1.3 Study limitations

Ideally this study and the comprised field work should have taken place in a wet year making possible to measure a considerable number of intense rain events. This optimal scenario was not the case of the hydrological year 2009-2010, during which the southern part of Mozambique, where Maputo is located, was affected by a drought intensified by the occurrence of the El Nio phenomenon. This situation, besides the short data collection period, six weeks, with start on middle February until end of March, somehow limited the validity of the created model for severe rainfall events. Administrative and financial constrains made difficult the acquisition of the initial planned number and type of instruments to be used to monitor the water level in the main drainage channel and to measure the rainfall intensities over the area. The alternative solutions adopted, which will be described in the following sections, allowed the realization of this study although in some cases they affected the quality of the collected data.

1.4 Thesis structure

This master thesis is dived in seven chapters which can be grouped to form three main sections. The first introductory section comprises the introduction which includes the objectives and methodology used, followed by a general description of the study on chapter 2. The second section corresponds to the work developed with the third chapter, sub-surface drainage solutions: processes and modelling, presenting the main results of the bibliographic research about the topic and the fourth chapter the model implementation in Maxaquene A. On the last section, the results are critically analysed on the fifth chapter, following the conclusions and recommendations on the last two chapters. Other relevant information, such as procedures of the field work test and SWMM reports for simulated scenarios, were included in the appendixes.

2 OVERVIEW OF THE STUDY AREA

The present study was realized in Maxaquene A a neighbourhood of Mozambique's capital Maputo City. Mozambique is situated in Southern Africa region between the parallels 1027' S and 2651' S, and meridians 3012' E and 4050' E.

2.1 Description of the study area

2.1.1 Administrative structure
Maputo City is one of the eleven provinces of Mozambique, being also its capital and biggest urban centre. It is located along Maputo Bay coast, with the Indian Ocean on its east and south borders, Maputo province's districts of Marracuene on north and Cidade da Matola on west side. Maputo City is divided in seven municipal districts with 61 neighbourhoods (CMCM, 2008(a)). Our study area, Maxaquene A neighbourhood, is part of the recent called KaMaxaquene District (also known as Municipal District 3, see indicated DM3 on Figure 1).

Figure 1: Location of the study area This province covers an extension of 308 km2, and according to the Director Plan for Urban Solid Waste Management in Maputo City (2007 cited in CMCM, 2008(a)), the municipality can be dived in 5

four different areas: cement city with high-rise buildings; sub-urban comprising inner suburbs with high population density and an unplanned occupation of the urban soil; peri-urban, making the transition between the the urbanized area and the countryside, with reduced population density and high population growth rates; and rural, areas such as KaTembe and KaNyaka districts which correspond to 31% and 15% of the total municipal area, respectively. Additionally, there is also a clear distinction between formal and informal settlement in urbanized areas. The first group corresponds to areas which benefited from planned urbanization actions with plots well delimited, basic access conditions and infrastructures in place. The second group, informal settlements, refers to areas occupied without a prior action of urban planning, being characterized by a spontaneous development. Maxaquene A is a sub-urban neighbourhood part of this second group which correspond to 60% of Maputo's area (CMCM, 2008(a)). Although Maputo City is a municipality it has also, since 1980, a status of a province, having besides the Maputo City Municipal Council (CMCM) a Govern of Maputo City. The Municipal Council is headed by a Mayor chosen during municipal elections during which the Municipal Parliament is also elected. The governor of the province is appointed by the country's president. As stated before the municipality is dived in districts which are equally divided in neighbourhoods. Each neighbourhood is composed by different blocks of houses. In for formal settlements with an orthogonal structure, this groups of houses have a form of squares, being designated quarteires. Maxaquene A has 60 blocks with random shapes (Figure 2), having each of them a chief which is part of the local established structure, responding to the elected Head of the Neighbourhood. Its bordering neighbourhoods are Urbanizao through Acordos de Lusaka avenue on west, Maxaquene B through Milagre Mabote avenue on east, Mavalane A through FPLM avenue on north and Malhangalene A through Joaquim Chissano avenue on south. Beside the residential infrastructures, this neighbourhood also has four schools and the Ministry of Agriculture located inside its limits (Figure 2). Three of these schools, Escola Primria Completa das FPLM, Escola Primria Unidade 24 and Escola Primria do 2 Grau Noroeste II, are for primary levels. The other school, Escola Secundria Noroeste I, is for secondary level.

2.1.2 Social and economic aspects

Maputo is described as a hybrid urban city with a mixture of traditional and modern, an important aspect which must be taken into account when studying the area. It represents 0.05% of the country's area with 5.3% of the country's population and between 19% and 20% of the GDP (CMCM, 2008(a)). Ethinic groups from different parts of the country are found in Maputo as well as people with different nationalities as it is the political capital of Mozambique, increasing its cultural diversity. The most spoken native languages in Maputo are Xironga and Xichangana, besides Portuguese which is the official language.

Figure 1: Blocks and main infrastructures existent in Maxaquene "A" (Source: ESF, 2007)

FPLM FPLM Primary School SB Neighbourhood Secretary

ESN1 Noroeste I Secondary School EPU24 Unidade 24 Primary School

EPN2 Noroeste II Primary School MA Ministry of Agriculture

Figure 2: Blocks and main infrastructures existent in Maxaquene "A" (Source: Google Earth, 2009) The average monthly income per person was estimated in 827 MZN (around 35 USD) during the Household Budget Survey in 2003 (ESDEM, 2003). The Work Force Survey realized in 2004, indicated that in Maputo the unemployment rate was around 44.2% for women and 35.3% for men. Another important figure is that 64.4% of the employed people work in the informal sector. Maxaquene A is part of the group of most dense neighbourhoods with more than 28000 inhabitants/km2 (Table 1). However, it was noticed a negative population growth in this neighbourhood during the period 1997-2007, a typical trend for cement city. This situation was only observed in two out of eight neighbourhoods which are part of District KaMaxaquene, which had an annual average growth rate of 0.6 % (CMCM, 2008(a)). Table 1: Population growth in Maxaquene A and KaMaxaquene District(Data source: PEUMM, 2009) Zone Name Maxaquen A (Neighbourhood) KaMaxaquene (District) Area (km2) 0.8 12.2 Population (inhabitants) 1997 22 809 210 551 2007 22 750 223 688 Population density (inhab./km2) 1997 28 511 17 258 2007 28 438 18 335 Relative Average population growth rate increment (%) (%) 1997-2007 - 0.3 6.2 1997-2007 - 0.03 0.62

2.1.3 Climate
Mozambique is situated on intertropical and subtropical zones of the southern hemisphere with an annual average precipitation around 950 mm (Vaz,2006). The proximity to the Indian Ocean is one of the main factors which influences the variability of many climate elements in Mozambique. This is noticeable in a great extent in Maputo Municipality which is a coastal city. The climate in Maputo City is tropical humid with rains more predominant during the warm period, with highest values in January and February. According to Muchangos (1994 cited in CMCM, 2008(a)), the average maximum diurnal temperature is 28.7 C, which its maximum of 30.9 C in February, and the average minimum diurnal temperature is 17.4 C, with its minimum of 11.9 C in July. The rain season extends from October to March and the dry season between April and September. Annual precipitation values registered between 2003 and 2007 are presented in Table 2. Table 2: Annual precipitation between 2003 and 2007 (Data source: PEUMM, 2009) Year Precipitation (mm) 2003 360 2004 861 2005 535 2006 916 2007 805

2.1.4 Hydrogeology
According to the Hydrogeological Map of Mozambique, Maputo City have hydrogeological units which belong to two main categories: predominantly intergranular aquifers (continuous and generally unconsolidated) and local aquifers (intergranular or fissured) (CMCM, 2008(a)). Geological units from the first category covers the western part of the Municipal District 3 where Maxaquene A is located, being characterized by sands with medium and fine size, and sometimes very fine, with eolic and marine origin (CMCM, 2008(a)). In terms of stratigraphy, Maputo City is characterized by two aquifers separated by an semipermeable and an impermeable base. The recharge is mainly by rain water infiltration varying between 150 and 250 mm/yr (IWACO, 1986 cited in CMCM, 2008(a)). Field tests carried for the project indicated minimal infiltration rates varying from 0.9 to 6.6 cm/h (Appendix 3) and hydraulic conductivity values from 8 to 54 cm/d (Appendix 4). Results from sieving analysis indicated the occurrence of well sorted fine sands (Appendix 2).

2.2 Legal and institutional framework

The wastewater and storm water drainage system in Maputo is managed by two units. The first unit is the Municipal Directorate of Water and Sanitation (DMAS), part of Maputo City Infrastructures Council, which is responsible for the so called System 1. The second entity is the Maputo Drainage Cabinet (GDM) subordinated to the National Water Directorate (DNA) which is part of the Public Works and Housing Ministry (MOPH), being responsible for System 2. This institutional arrangement was created before the municipalization, being each unit responsible for a certain geographic area of the city. In December 2007, was signed an agreement between MOPH and CMCM for the unification of 8

this two entities, with GDM being incorporated into the municipal structure, as part of the decentralization process (Portal do Governo de Moambique, 2007). The National Water Directorate is the primary agency for water resources, water supply and sanitation management, planning and policy making (Matsinhe, 2008). The Water Law (Law 16/91, 3 August) and National Water Policy (Resolution 7/95, 8 August), developed by this agency, are the main guides for all interventions in water sector. Other two specific regulations to guide the works on water and sanitation are: Regulation of public systems for water supply and wastewater drainage (Decree 30/2003, 1 July; DNA, 2003) Regulation of building systems for water supply and wastewater drainage (Decree 15/2004, 15 July 2004; DNA, 2004(a))

2.3 Storm water drainage in Maxaquene A

On its natural conception, the drainage system of Maputo City comprises sub-basins which discharge directly to Maputo Bay and a wide basin in the higher part of the city which drain to Infulene Valley (CMCM, 2008(a)). This conception was used to design and built the existing storm water drainage systems with 17 outfalls in different points along the coastal line, through which the storm water is discharged without treatment. For wastewater, septic tanks and pit latrines are the most common solutions as the sewage network (with further treatment at Infulene station dimensioned for 90,000 inhabitants) only serves a reduced central part of the city, where the oldest neighbourhoods are located (Figure 3). As introduced on the previous section, two different systems serve the area of Maputo City: System 1 built during the forty's serving the oldest part of the town and managed by DMAS, and System 2 built between 1982 and 1989, managed by GDM (DNA, 2004(b)). The initial project for System 1 comprised septic tanks for wastewater, with their effluent discharged into combined pipes which were also receive grey water and storm water intercepted by gutters. Currently and with the introduction of the new regulation for drainage systems in buildings, there is an increasing number of houses directly connected to combined drainage pipes without pre-treatment in septic tanks. System 2 is mainly separative, with a reduced development as combined system. Maxaquene A is part of the many neighbourhoods without a former drainage system, being partially served by separative system of trapezoidal open drainage channels (Figure 3), with a total extension of 16 km for storm water drainage, covering also Malhangalene A and B, Urbanizao, Munhuana and Xipamanine neighbouhoods (CMCM, 2008(a)). This open system drains the stormwater from the biggest urban drainage basin, denominated Basin A, which is part of System 2 currently managed by DNA. The sub-basin A1, located to the north of the main channel is characterized by a flat drainage area with many soil depressions, being Maxaquene A part of this sub-basin (DNA, 2004(b)).

Figure 3: Areas covered by a formal sanitation system (Data source: PEUMM, 2009) Although there are the two main open channels belonging to System 2 serving the study area, along Joaquim Chissano avenue (Channel 1) and Acordos de Lusaka avenue (Channel 2), Maxaquene A is greatly affected by storm water drainage problems, with the following main causes identified for this situation. Absence of secondary an tertiary drainage infrastructures to convey the water to the existing main drainage channel; Flat terrain slope, with occurrence of depressions, following steep upstream contributing areas from Maxaquene B and a small portion of Maxaquene D neighbourhood, causing accumulation of runoff from these two neighbourhoods in Maxaquene A; High phreatic level and reduced permeability as the neighbourhood arose in a previous swampy area; Absence of a urban structure with well defined paved roads and streets, and high housing and population density which make the construction of basic infrastructures difficult and contributes to reduce the infiltration capacity of the soils;

10

Deficient solid waste collection system and low educational level of the inhabitants causing solid waste deposition in existing drainage infrastructures, and drained water to transport considerable amounts of garbage and sediments.

The factors above mentioned were identified in two previous studies about drainage problems in Maxaquene A. The first study was Maxaquene A Drainage Project, elaborated by the Engineering Studies Centre from Eduardo Mondlane University (UEM) in 1996, request by CARE International. The second study was the Project of Urbanization and Environmental Sanitation with Appropriate Technologies to Maxaquene A in Maputo City, developed as a thesis project by Ferran Allan Salat, a student from Universitat Politcnica de Catalunya in Spain in collaboration with Engineers Without Borders (ESF) project in Mozambique, in 2007. Both studies considered a combination of open drainage channels with under perforated pipes as the most appropriate solutions for storm water drainage in Maxaquene A. Therefore, the present study, which aims to study the influence of the introduction or not of sub-surface drainage solutions, considered and adopted part of the findings of these two antecedent studies. Maxaquene A Drainage Project was not implemented due do lack of funds from the initial identified donor. The ESF project in Maxaquene A built, in 2009, a secondary rectangular open drainage channel along street 3034 and two contributing tertiary drainage channels, and started the works for a second open drainage channel along street 3038, all with perforated pipes as subterranean drains. The absence of a wastewater drainage system causes the disposal or discharge of grey water on streets and existent storm water drainage infrastructures, a practice which is allowed by the local authorities, being the discharge of toilet water forbidden as it is a risk to public health and causes spreading of nauseating smells. Septic tanks and pit latrines are the most common solutions adopted for wastewater disposal. In areas prone to inundation and with a high phreatic level, elevated pit latrines have been used. Besides the grey water, there is also a considerable number of points where leakage of drinking water pipes occur during the supply period when the pipes are under pressure. This leakage originates an additional surface runoff to be conveyed by the existing infrastructures. Grey water discharged into drainage infrastructures with additional leakage from drinking water pipes contribute to keep a permanent flow in drainage channels, being difficulty to observe these structures completely dry even during long periods without precipitation. Another important contribution from Maxaquene A to Channel 2, along Acordos de Lusaka avenue, comes from two pipes with a diameter of 0.6 m which drains the yards of schools Noroeste I and II, and the perforated drains from street 3034 and under construction on street 3038. These findings show that even five days after the ceasing of a precipitation event the surface and subsurface water flow from the neighbourhood to the main drainage channel do not cease completely. Before this scenario of storm water drainage problems with absence of appropriate infrastructures to minimize their impacts, the locals are forced to find precarious solutions to relief their suffering. The most frequent solutions used by the locals are: 11

Opening of small earth channels along the streets which are linked to their yards to convey the surface water ponded in these areas;

Opening of holes and illegal connections to existing drainage channels (Figure 4); Opening of holes in walls which protect public infrastructures so that the water can flow out of their properties, ponding in public areas, a situation which is observed in Noroeste I and II, schools with open recreational spaces for sports and leisure (Figure 5);

Use of old tyres, blocks, stones and other object to make inundated streets transitable.

The extreme cases of water ponding in houses and yards forced the locals to abandon their properties and plots. Some examples are houses found in block 49 where it is also possible to observe that the existing primary school, Unidade 24, limited its constructed area as the remaining part of its plot is flooded during a considerable period of the year. The mapping of areas prone to inundation identified that blocks 11, 15, 17, 21, 24, 25 and 26 close to Noroeste I, blocks 26, 28, 29, 30, 31, 32 and 33 close to Noroeste II an 48 and 49 close to Unidade 24 are the most affected by water ponding problems. Ponded stagnant waters are focus and ideal location for mosquitoes reproduction contributing to spread health problems such as malaria which is the main cause of inactivity in Mozambique. On the other hand, absence of storm water drainage infrastructures create erosion problems, special in narrow and steep streets, and contribute to transport and deposition of sediments in existing drainage infrastructures.

Figure 4: Earth drainage channel with illegal connection

Figure 5: Inundation area at Noroeste I which receives water from surrounding houses

The neighbourhood of Maxaquene A was selected to represent areas with stormwater drainage problems as it is a subcatchment with defined limits and with the possibility of introducing the proposed solutions to overcome the problem of stormwater ponding. Additionally, it is possible to 12

account the runoff from the catchment, measuring the flow in two existing main drainage channels, located in two bordering roads at Joaquim Chissano and Acordos de Lusaka avenues (Figure 2).

13

14

3 SUB-SURFACE DRAINAGE SOLUTIONS: PROCESSES AND MODELLING

An urban area can be defined as a space of concentrated human activity characterized by extensive impervious areas which resulted from the infrastructures (houses, roads and streets) built in order to provide good life standards to its citizens with housing, mobility and transport facilities (Lima, 2009). This statement helps to understand one of the most important hydrological effects of urbanization, the increase in runoff, which, on its term, demands drainage infrastructures to couple with it. In informal settlements, characterized by an unplanned occupation of the urban soil, the absence of drainage systems results in water ponding and flood problems after rainfall events. In Maxaquene A, a former swampy area, the flooding problem is aggravated by the high groundwater level, preventing infiltration to occur and increasing the time of permanence of water on the surface, prior to its evaporation or percolation into the soil. Therefore, an effective storm water drainage intervention in this neighbourhood requires actions to lead not only with surface water, runoff, but also with sub-surface flows, to drain and reduce the groundwater water level.

3.1 Infiltration pits and trenches as sub-surface drainage solutions

Maintain public health and prevent flooding are the two main historical principles behind the construction of storm sewers from their early time, with capacity and the need to convey water to final disposal as quick as possible being the main concerns when the drainage systems were dimensioned (Rauch et al., 2005; Stahre, 2006). According to Niemczynowicz (1999), this traditional approach remained until 1970s when there was a shift to a storage approach with detention, retention and recharge as the main principles. The same author states that an increased concern about storm water as a source of pollution and the need to protect natural water cycle and ecological systems, during the 1980s 1990s, lead to the introduction of local source control solutions, combining flow attenuation and treatment. Infiltration pits (soakaways in some terminologies) and infiltration trenches are two alternative systems developed as a result of this increased awareness about the need to compensate and neutralize the effects of urban infrastructures in hydrological cycle. They have been used as source control (private land) and onsite control (public land) solutions for storm water drainage (Lima, 2009; Stahre, 2006). They consist of an excavated pit or trench filled with coarse gravel or another porous material, being the storage volume given by the effective volume of the porous. The porous materials provide also a preferential way for quick water infiltration and drainage. Infiltration trenches have a longitudinal development with reduced width and depth when compared with their length, differing from infiltration pits for which the length, width or diameter do not differ considerable from their depths, being small localized solutions. Although their main use its to intercept and infiltrate de runoff contributing to reduce the volume of water to be conveyed by conventional drainage solutions, during its percolation into the soil the 15

quality of the runoff is also improved. However, the present work is more focused only in quantity, not deepening the effects of these solutions in water quality. A pre-condition to use infiltration pits or trenches is to have a groundwater level lower than the base of the coarse filling (Stahre, 2006). However, in some case this pre-condition is not fulfilled, as it is in Maxaquene A which is a neighbourhood with a high phreatic level. Therefore, exfiltration will occur, instead of infiltration, as water will flow from the neighbouring soil into the pit or trench. This setup contributes to lower the groundwater level in areas surrounding the pit or trench, making infiltration of surface water into these areas possible. The groundwater level can be lowered providing that a pipe drain exist to empty the pit or trench by draining out all water stored in and flowing into these infrastructures. For the situation described above, although the infiltration pit and trench will continue to intercept and infiltrate surface water, their main inflow will come from exfiltration, horizontal flow from groundwater. Therefore, the terminology sub-surface drainage solutions was adopted, being the studied solution designated infiltration trench with a drain. Some references use the terminology French drain to designate infiltration trench with a perforated pipe inside it, used in construction and land drainage (SPAB, 2009). Besides the two possible setup presented above, sub-surface solutions can also be combined with surface drainage solutions, building open drainage channels with drains below them (Figure 7). This combined solution is commonly used in Mozambique for drainage in areas with high phreatic level. This was the solution adopted by the ESF project in Maxaquene A and was also implemented during the works for the construction of the second lane of Joaquim Chissano avenue, west limit of our study area.

Figure 6: Normal infiltration trench, infiltration trench with a drain and drainage channel with an under drain

3.1.1 Dimensioning processes

The dimensioning of infiltration trenches and pits differs if deep ground water condition is considered or not. Therefore, the two possible situations will be presented separately. The discussion is mainly based in infiltration trenches, focus of the present study and also because infiltration pits can be considered a variation of the first, having a more reduced length. 16

Deep groundwater level When ground water is deep enough, infiltration and storage of generated runoffs are the main processes to be accounted for. According to Mecklenburg (1996 cited in Tucci, 2001), the minimum volume for runoff treatment demand a storage of 31 mm of runoff per drained hectare and a drain time equal or lower than 48 hours, giving the following expression to compute the bottom area of the trench.

Amin =
with: Amin bottom area of the trench

V Eq. 1 ET

E exfiltration rate which correspond to soil infiltration rate at trench bottom V storage volume provided by trench porous spaces (trench volume less stone volume) T drain time The site where the trench is installed must have a natural soil (not filled or compacted) with infiltration rates between 1.3 and 6.0 cm/h. The minimum trench depth must be 0.6 m with its bottom 1.5 m above the mean groundwater level. The length is imposed by the available implantation area. Its use is only recommended to drain areas with less than 2 ha. (Mecklenburg, 1996 cited in Tucci, 2001; Lima, 2009) Another approach to dimension infiltration pits and trenches is based on the rain-envelope-method (Mikkelsen & Jacobsen, 1993 cited in Lima, 2009). The dimensioning procedure consists on determining the maximum difference between the affluent cumulative volume, with its origin in the precipitation event using the rational formula (Equation 2), and the infiltration cumulative volume for a certain effective drained area and precipitation duration (Equation 3).

V p t = ci pAt Eq. 2
V inf t =i infAinf Eq. 3
with: Vp precipitated volume Vinf infiltrated volume c runoff coefficient ip precipitation intensity for a certain duration t and recurrence time iinf infiltration rate t duration of the rainfall A area of the basin draining for the pit or trench Ainf effective trench infiltration area 17

Therefore, the trench or pit volume will be given by the maximum difference between the accumulated affluent volume curve and accumulated infiltration volume curve. The dimensioning is an iterative process with the following proposed steps (Lima, 2009): 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. Estimate the precipitated affluent volume using Equation 2 Adopt trench initial dimensions Compute the infiltrated volume using Equation 3 Draw the cumulative affluent and infiltrated volumes curves Find the point corresponding to the maximum volume difference between the two curves Calculate the trench volume dividing the maximum volume difference by the porosity Compare calculated trench or pit volume with the volume dimensioned at step 2. If the difference is considerable the new dimension should be adopted using the calculated trench volume, and the dimensioning process will be repeated from step 2. Shallow groundwater level If groundwater level is above the bottom of the the pit or trench and drains are used, the storage provided by the trench will not be the most important dimensioning variable. Therefore, the most relevant factor will be the desired drawdown in groundwater level, which will determine the trench or pit spacing. Another important point is to have a drain pipe which can efficiently convey the inflow from the trench. If the pit or trench has also to provide some storage, it will only be possible on the upper part of the trench above the water level inside the drain. To dimension the drain spacing the Hooghoudt equation is often used, being represented by the following expression (DPI, 2001; Huber & Dickinson, 1992):

8 K f2 h d 4 K f1 h2 Eq. 4 L= q q
2

and the equivalent depth (d) from:

L 2 D 1 D d =8 /[ ln ] Eq. 5 8DL 2 r0
With the following parameters which are represented on Figure 7: L spacing between drains (m) d depth of equivalent layer (m) D depth of impermeable layer below drains (m) h water table height midway between drains at drains level (m) Kf1 soil permeability above drains (m/d) Kf2 soil permeability below drains (m/d) 18

q drainage factor or required drainage rate (m/d) r0 drainage pipe radius (m) d depth of the permissible groundwater level measured from the surface (m) t drain depth (m) The soil permeability below the drains (Kf2) is generally assumed as one tenth of upper layer's permeability (Kf1) or equal to the upper value if there is no soil replacement. The recommended depth for drain installation (t) is between 0.8 and 2.0 m. The drainage factor (q) corresponds to the groundwater recharge rate which equals the infiltration rate in the drained area. It is important to note that the infiltration rate and soil permeability values used correspond to surrounding soil characteristics and not to the trench or pit filling material. The gravel envelope is said to have an hydraulic conductivity between ten to fifteen times of the surrounding soil value. (DPI, n.d.)

Figure 7: Schematic representation of Hooghoudt equation parameters The formulas used to dimension the drain size can differ between manufacturers. Manning and Colebrook White are two of the commonly used equations. Free surface flow is considered. Frequently, manufacturers provide nomograms (or abacus) to facilitate the sizing, from which the drain diameter can be found having as input the dimensioning flow and pipe gradient. The dimensioning flow can be calculated multiplying the drained area by the drainage rate. The gradient will be adopted in conformity with the local topography with a recommended minimal value of 0.25% (1/400). For determination of filter requirements, which can form the trench filling, the US Soil Conservation Service Criteria can be used (DPI, n.d.). This criteria states that materials falling with the following ranges can be applied as filters. d50(filter)/d50(soil) = 12 to 58 d15(filter)/d15(soil) = 12 to 40 19

For uniformly graded filter material and soil, with similar shaped grading curves, a filter is stable within the range: d15(filter)/d85(soil) 5

In conclusion, when groundwater level is above the bottom of the pit or trench and drains are used, the dimensioning process comprises four main steps which can be taken in the following proposed order: 1. 2. Estimation of permeability for catchment soil; Selection of pipe size for the drained flow (function of the required drainage rate) and permissible gradient; 3. 4. Calculation of drain spacing for desired groundwater drawdown and drain depth; Determination of filter requirements.

3.1.2 Main advantages and disadvantages

Infiltration trenches and pits associated with drains are suitable for areas without a conventional drainage pipe system and also areas with high housing and population density as the trenches do not require a straight development and the drain pipes are normally flexible. Theses drainage solutions contribute to reduce the risk of inundation, lowering the groundwater level which on its term make infiltration possible. Storage of runoff is also possible in the upper part of the trench filling material, above the lowered water level, contributing to reduce peak discharges. Infiltration trenches and pits are also referred as contributing to reduce the investment required to build downstream drainage infrastructures. The risk of clogging and soil water contamination are the main disadvantages associated with this infrastructures. Clogging can occurs due to the entrance of fine particles, algae growth and development of microbiological activity. Algae growth and development of microbiological activity are consequence of the supply of nutrients. However, these two types of colmatation are less probable to occur as water can be lower enough and disappear during the dry period contributing to eliminate the bacterial action (Lima, 2009).

3.1.3 Execution and maintenance

Infiltration pits and trenches are placed upstream of conventional storm drainage systems. They have a long and narrow development (Tucci, 1991). The efficiency of infiltration pits and trenches associated with drains is said to decrease during is life time with clogging and reduction in the surrounding soil hydraulic conductivity as the main causes. Prevention and restoration actions, during their construction and maintenance, respectively, must be taken. Some precautions which must be adopted during the execution to prevent operational problems include (Souza, 2002 cited in Lima, 2009; DPI, n.d.): Avoid use of heavy equipment during the construction which can compact the surrounding soil; 20

Use double filter of stone and geotextiles to reduce inflow of fines; Install observation wells to monitor the trench performance; Clean the filling material before its addition to the trench.

3.2 The Storm Water Management Model

The Storm Water Management Model, usually called by its abbreviation SWMM, is a public domain software created by the US Environment Protection Agency (EPA) applied in planning and design of urban storm water drainage infrastructures. The development of SWMM started in 1971 and its last version SWMM 5.0.018 was released in November 2009. (EPA, 2009; Zoppou, 2001) SWMM's modelling capabilities include hydrological, hydraulic and pollutant transport for runoff water quality modelling, being able to handle single and continuous events. SWMM's modus operandi can be simple described as a combination of hydrological models which generate runoff and pollutant loads for a certain rainfall event and antecedent dry conditions. The transport of generated runoff and pollutant loads is defined by modelling rules existent in hydraulic component. Figure 8 illustrates the link established by most relevant processes modelled by SWMM (indicated between arrows) and its four compartments with their main objects indicated below them. (Rossman, 2009) SWMM is often describe as an analyse tool not having automated design capabilities. Another weakness, which is also common in other similar softwares, is its not applicability in operational activities due to the rapid transients in urban environment which is mentioned to difficult the collection and incorporation of data in real-time (Zoppou, 2001). Continuous modelling capability is one important requirement for simulation of infiltration as it take into account antecedent hydrological conditions. SWMM's groundwater model represents the interaction between the vertical water movement through infiltration from subcatchment above the aquifer and groundwater infiltration into the drainage system. SWMM has two hydrological model options to simulate indirect inflow infiltration to drainage pipes or channels: use the groundwater model, activating the aquifer object, or to use the unit hydrography. (Lockie & Joseph, 2008) The adoption of SWMM for this project can be justified by its accessibility, as it is a free software, and simplicity to simulate the main storm water drainage hydrological and hydraulic processes. Although it does not incorporates specific objects to represent infiltration trenches and pits, SUDS which have storage and infiltration as their main processes, can be satisfactorily simulated introducing some modifications in subcatchments, junction nodes and aquifers objects properties.

21

Figure 8: SWMM compartments, objects and main modelled processes

3.3 Different approaches to model sub-surface drainage solutions in SWMM

The Storm Water Management Model, SWMM, was initial developed to simulate urban catchments' combined sewer overflow on which the amount of infiltration is considered insignificant and the occurrence of sub-surface flow not too relevant, as a large portion of urban catchments consists of impervious surfaces (Hubber & Dickinson, 1992; Zoppou, 2000). This can be one of the many reasons why SWMM and other urban storm water softwares do not include specific tools to simulate the performance of SUDS. Although objects and subroutines to represent SUDS in SWMM are under development, according to posts circulated through SWMM users list server, there is no certain date for the release of a SWMM's version which will include SUDS. Considering the increasing use of these solutions, different approaches have been implemented by SWMM users to represent them with current available facilities. One example of a published approach is presented by Bertoni & Cartalini (2007) on their article Representation of infiltration and exfiltration in two types of infiltration drainage devices using SWMM model, document revised during the present study. Additionally, the US EPA published, in the Storm Water Management Model Application Manual (Gironas et al., 2009), worked-out examples explaining how detention ponds, filter strips and infiltration trenches can be modelled using SWMM. 22

As stated above, beside their use in areas where the groundwater level is deep enough to allow infiltration of intercepted runoff, infiltration pits and trenches are also used in areas with high phreatic level, having exfiltration as the main process instead of infiltration. Therefore, the approaches to model these SUDS will differ from one condition to another, being discussed in two separate sections.

3.3.1 Infiltration as dominant process

For deep groundwater level situation, the procedures to simulate infiltration trenches described below were proposed by the Storm Water Management Model Application Manual (Gironas et al., 2009). To simulate the three main important processes occurring in a trench, infiltration, storage and water flow along the trench, correct hydrological properties should be assigned to a complete pervious subcatchment (%Imperv = 0) which will represent the trench. The subcatchment must have a length much greater than its width, having a long and narrow development (Figure 9). Another important point to mention is that in this setup all kind of horizontal flows will be ignored with only vertical infiltration consider to occur. According to the scheme presented in Figure 10, the runoff from upstream subcatchment will be directed to the trench subcatchment. The first main process occurring in the trench to be described is storage, which is represented by the catchment's depth of depression storage on pervious area (Dstore-Perv). The depth corresponding to the trench void volume created by the porosity in mm must be assigned to this parameter. The continuity equation for trench surface can be expressed as:

dV =Q A P E I Eq. 6 dt
with: P precipitation intensity E evaporation I infiltration rate Q surface runoff V water volume stored in surface depressions t time If the rain excess (P E I) exceeds the the storage capacity represented by depression storage depth, surface runoff occurs in the subcatchment representing the trench. So, for a good performance of an infiltration trench, the infiltration rate of the filling material must be higher than the rainfall intensity considered for its sizing. As evaporation is insignificant during the precipitation events, the relative magnitude of precipitation intensity and infiltration rate will be the main factor influencing on trench storage, surface runoff and time required to drain downwards. 23

Figure 9: Schematic representation of an infiltration trench in SWMM (Redrawn after Girons et al., 2009(c)) The second main process to be described is infiltration which in SWMM can be represented by one of the three available infiltration methods: Horton, Green-Amp and SCS curve number. Horton's formula expresses the exponential decay of infiltration with time according to the expression in Equation 7 (Huber & Dickinson, 1992).

f = f f 0 f e t Eq. 7
with: f infiltration rate at time t after the start of precipitation event f0 maximum infiltration rate value f minimum (terminal) infiltration rate value infiltration decay coefficient t elapsed time from the storm start The Green-Ampt equation consider two stages, corresponding to two different situations, to estimate the infiltration rate, before and after soil saturation. The unsaturated stage corresponds to a cumulative infiltration volume for a precipitation event ( F) lower than the required volume to achieve surface saturation (FS). Soil saturation is reached when cumulative infiltration volume equals 24

required volume to achieve surface saturation (F = FS). The infiltration rate (f) will be equal to the rainfall intensity (i), before saturation, and to the infiltration capacity ( fp) when saturation is reached. An expression to compute the infiltration capacity, which is a function of the saturated soil hydraulic conductivity (K), initial moisture deficit (IMD) and average capillary suction at the wetting front (S), is presented on Equation 9. (Huber & Dickinson, 1992) Unsaturated soil (F<FS) f=i

F S=

SIMD Eq. 8 i / K s 1

for i>KS for i<=KS

No calculation Saturated soil (F>=FS) f=fp

f p = K S 1

SIMD F

Eq. 9

The third method to compute infiltration is using the CN parameter from the Soil Conservation Service (SCS) Curve Number (CN). The SCS curve number is a way to express the runoff ( Q) as a function of the precipitation (P), the initial water abstractions (Ia) and the potential maximum retention (S) (Equation 10). The initial water abstraction accounts for interception and infiltration, with surface storage being estimated as 20% of the maximum potential retention, function of the tabled parameter CN which is given by SCS tables (Equation 11). (Gabellani et al., 2008)

P I a 2 Eq. 10 Q= RS I a S = 25.4

100 10 [ mm ] Eq. 11 CN

Changes in infiltration parameters must be considered if a soil or grass layer exist above the trench as they can contribute to reduce the infiltration rate comparatively to a situation with a top formed by porous filling material (Girons et al., 2009). On the other hand, according to the EPA Modelling Concepts and Simulation Manual (Huber, 2006), the infiltration parameters can be adjusted to get higher infiltration values in order yo account for horizontal water losses, as this additional infiltration occurring through the trench lateral walls is not simulated by SWMM. Horton's method appears as the most suitable for cases on which a constant infiltration rate is considered. For those the maximum infiltration rate value must be setted equal to the minimum value (Huber, 2006). All infiltrated water disappears from the system after infiltration when the groundwater option in not active (Girons et al., 2009). As stated above, besides storage and infiltration, the third main process important when representing the trench is the surface runoff which will occurs when the rain excess exceeds the surface storage capacity provided by the depressions. A non-linear reservoir model combining continuity (Equation 6) and kinematic equations is used for subcatchment's runoff computation. See Figure 10 for a schematic representation of the non-linear reservoir model (Huber & Dickinson, 1992). 25

Figure 10: Schematic representation of the non-linear reservoir model (Redrawn after Huber and Dickinson, 1992) Water flowing on trench subcatchment's surface will be conveyed to a specified receiving node or another subcatchment, being the flow characteristics computed using Manning equation (Equation 12). To reduce the surface flow rate low slopes and high Manning values can be assumed.

Q =w
with: Q surface runoff w subcatchment width n Manning coefficient d surface water depth dp depression storage depth s subcatchment slope

1.49 5/ 3 1 / 2 d d p s Eq. 12 n

The descriptions above were mainly based on infiltration trenches. If infiltration pits are simulated, as they do not have a longitudinal development, the surface runoff will not be significant process. All procedures to represent infiltration and storage will be valid for this solution.

3.3.2 Exfiltration as dominant process

For a shallow groundwater level, with water level inside the trench associated with a drain above its bottom, exfiltration in form of lateral groundwater flow into the trench will occur, being more significant than vertical infiltration of the runoff. Therefore, aquifer and groundwater objects must be activated and appropriate hydrogeological properties must be assigned to them in order to represent the interaction between the infiltration pits and trenches associated with drains and groundwater in surrounding soil. 26

The procedures adopted to simulate sub-surface drainage solutions with exfiltration as a dominant process described in this section are based on findings from a project course on Simulation of rainfall-runoff quantity processes using the Storm Water Management Model done by the author as part of his preparatory work for this thesis project. The adopted procedures to represent exfiltration and groundwater flow were based on ideas and individual experiences shared in SWMM mail list server. Another important contribution came from SWMM Manual for its fourth version. This publication contains a detailed description of the SWMM code and a derivation of groundwater parameters to simulate lateral groundwater flow when Hooghdout formula is used on its Appendix V (Huber & Dickinson, 1992). There are two possible approaches to simulate sub-surface drainage solutions for shallow groundwater with exfiltration occurrence. The first possibility is to treat the infiltration pit or trench as a subcatchment and the second to treat these solutions as nodes. As SWMM can only simulate groundwater flow between subcatchments and nodes, if the sub-surface solution is treated as subcatchment it will not be possible to have an interaction between the groundwater level in different upstream subcatchments and the subcatchment representing the infiltration pit or trench. This will imply that only the runoff from upstream subcatchments will be conveyed to the sub-surface solution with the rainfall which will infiltrated on upstream subcatchments not influencing the receiving infiltration pit or trench groundwater level. Groundwater exchange between upstream subcatchments and the infiltration pit or trench can be simulated treating the subsurface drainage solution as a node. However, vertical infiltration can not be accounted for as this property is exclusive for subcatchments not being applicable to nodes. Therefore, this approach is more indicated to infiltration pits which have an reduced horizontal extension when compared with infiltration trenches. This is also recommended when there is a need to estimate the drawdown on the soil surrounding the sub-surface solution, as it is the case of this project. A detailed comparison between the presented approaches is given in Table 3. On similar way to deep groundwater situation, storage in sub-surface solutions can be accounted by the subcatchment's depression storage, which will correspond to the porous volume on the upper part of the trench or pit, above the drain level. If surface runoff is consider to occur over the infiltration trench or pit the correspondent roughness and slope must be assigned to the subcatchment representing these solutions. Water inflow from the infiltration pit or trench into the drain, which consists of a perforated pipe, can be better accounted using the methodology prosed by Rivard et al. (2001, cited in Bertoni & Catalini, 2007). According to this author, the rate of infiltration into the drain follows a similar behaviour of a flow through a hole, which can be represented by the following equation:

Q =C A 2 g H Eq. 13

27

with: Q infiltration flow (m3/s) C hole coefficient (adopted 0.63) A area of the hole which will correspond to the sum of the area of all drain holes in a certain level (m2) H difference between trench and drain water levels (m) Therefore, water from the trench will be diverted to a node with a storage volume (assigned using node storage curve) equal to the porous volume in the trench and with orifices representing the different level of holes in the drain (Bertoni & Catalini, 2007). Table 3: Considerations on two different approaches to simulate subsurface drainage solutions (Source: Palalane, 2009) Processes Groundwater flow between subcatchments Vertical infiltration Storage volume Surface ruonff Sub-surface solution treated as subcatchment Not possible to consider Considered Accounted using subcatchment depression storage depth Considered Modelling extensive infiltration trenches when vertical infiltration is a relevant process and when the groundwater level in surrounding soil is not assessed Sub-surface solution treated as node

Simulated using a common node Not possible to account using a node Considered using a node storage curve (default node area = 1,17 m2) Not possible to account using a node Modelling infiltration pits when horizontal ex-filtration is more relevant than vertical infiltration and when the groundwater in surrounding soil is assessed

Recommended

3.3.3 Groundwater discharge through lateral flow in SWMM

In SWMM, groundwater discharge must be computed to simulate lateral flow from a catchment saturated zone to a receiving water, which is represented by a node (Huber & Dickinson, 1992). Hydrogeological soil properties which are used by SWMM's groundwater subroutine must be assessed and introduced in specific aquifer and groundwater flow editors. According to EPA (1992), this subroutine considers two distinct zones: an upper unsaturated zone where vertical percolation occurs, and an lower saturated which exchanges water with the receiving node. Additionally, the SWMM Manual for its fifth version (Girons et al., 2009), states that the groundwater flow editor establish the link between the aquifer and the receiving node which will exchange flow with it, following the expression presented by Equation 14. A schematic representation of the main equation variables is given by Figure 11.

QGW = A1 H GW H * B1 A2 H SW H * B2 A3 H GW H SW Eq. 14
28

with: QGW groundwater flow per sub-catchment area (cm/s) HGW groundwater level above the aquifer bottom (m) HSW surface water level in the receiving node (m) H* threshold groundwater height (m) A1, A2, A3, B1 and B2 groundwater coefficients influencing the groundwater flow into nodes The values assigned to groundwater coefficients can vary depending on the type of flow being modelled. Derivations of these coefficients for drainage to a channel and drainage to perforated pipes are described in the following paragraphs.

Figure 11: Schematic representation of drainage to a channel (Redrawn after EPA, 2009(b))
Infiltration and drainage to an open channel

If infiltration and drainage to an open channel is simulated horizontal direction occurs (Huber & Dickinson, 1992).

(Figure 12), the Dupuit-Forcheimer

formula (Equation 15) can be used with the assumptions that uniform infiltration and flow in

K h1 h 2= Lf
with:

Eq. 15

f infiltration rate (which is equal to groundwater recharge) K hydraulic conductivity h1 upstream water level h2 water level in the channel L distance between h1 and h2 29

Figure 12: Schematic representation of Dupuit-Forcheimer lateral flow (Redrawn after EPA, 1992) Taking into consideration that SWMM considers an average groundwater level, HGW = ( h1 + h2 )/2, for all subcatchment, the maximum water depth (h1) can be expressed as:

h 1=2H GW h 2 Eq. 16
Combining equations 15 and 16:

K [ 2 H GW h 2 h2 ]= L f
K 4 H GW 4 H GW h2 = L f
2 2

f=

4K H2 GW H GW h2 2 L

And considering h2 = HSW the following expression can be obtained:

f=

4K Eq. 17 H2 GW H GW H SW 2 L

By similarity with Equation 14, the following groundwater coefficients will be obtained:

QGW = A1 H GW H * B1 A2 H SW H * B2 A3 H GW H SW Eq. 14
A1 = - A3 = 4K/L2 A2 = 0 B1 = 0

Furthermore, for a threshold groundwater elevation equal to the invert elevation of the receiving node (H* = 0), Equation 18, which is valid only for ex-filtration as only one way flow can be simulated by this, can be obtained (Huber & Dickinson, 1992).

QGW =

4K 2 H GW H GW H SW Eq. 18 2 L
30

Infiltration and drainage to perforated pipes To simulate infiltration and drainage to perforated pipes, the Hooghoudt formula (previous described by Equation 14) can be used (Huber & Dickinson, 1992):

f=
with:

4K m 2 De m or L2

f=

4K 2 m 2 De m Eq. 19 L2

f infiltration rate (which is equal to groundwater recharge) K hydraulic conductivity m maximum water table rise L distance between drains De effective impermeable layer depth b0 distance between the drain and the impermeable layer The average SWMM groundwater table, HGW = (h1 + b0)/2 (Figure 13), will imply that:

h 1=2 H GW b0 m= h1 b0= 2 H GW 2 b0 Eq. 20

Figure 13: Schematic representation of Hooghoudt lateral flow (Modified after EPA, 1992)

31

Therefore, combining Equations 19 and 20:

f= f=

4K [ 2 H GW 2 b 0 22 D e 2 H GW 2 b0 ] 2 L 16 K [ H GW b 0 2 De H GW b 0] Eq. 21 2 L

By similarity with Equation 14, the following groundwater coefficients will be obtained:
B1 B2 QGW = A1 H GW H * A2 H SW H * A3 H GW H SW Eq. 14

A1 = 16K/L2 A2 = 16KDeb0/L2 A3 = 16KDe/HSWL2 B1 = 2 B2 = 0

With surface water level equal to the threshold level (HSW = H* = b0), which can be considered constant during the simulation, the model equals the parcel (HSW - H*)B2, from Equation 14, to 1, in order to avoid an indetermination (Huber & Dickinson, 1992). Thus:

QGW =

16 K De b0 16 K D e 16 K H GW H * 2 H GW H SW 2 2 2 L L H SW L

Which with further simplification will yield to:

QGW =

16 K 2 [ H GW H * De H GW H SW ] Eq. 22 2 L

The parameters introduced in groundwater flow editor only regulate the flow to the receiving node. Beside this, appropriate hydrogeological properties must be introduced in aquifer editor. The procedures above give a guidance to model infiltration trenches and pits with shallow groundwater water table. However, it is important to note some SWMM limitations when simulating groundwater flow. The first limitation lays on the fact that a uniform soil column is considered, with an average moisture content for all catchment unsaturated zone. Also, infiltrated water and subsequently the groundwater recharge is considered as being uniformly distributed over the catchment area. (Huber & Dickinson, 1992)

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4 MODELLING THE IMPLEMENTATION OF SUB-SURFACE DRAINAGE SOLUTIONS IN MAXAQUENE A WITH SWMM

The modelling concept refers to the establishment of correct physical quantitative relationships between a real system and its corresponding model. During this chapter the procedures taken to represent the main storm water drainage processes and the implementation of sub-surface drainage solutions in Maxaquene A using SWMM will be presented.

4.1 Data sources

The processes which is going to be simulated by a model demands that realistic values must be assigned to all parameters representing each involved process. Therefore, in order to get more accurate values for this parameters some field test and measurements were performed, being described in this section. Nevertheless, most of the input parameters were not directly obtained from measurements and tests in the study area as their performance would require financial and time resources to which were not available. It is also important to mention that as part of the actions of this thesis project it was planned the acquisition of a tipping bucket rain gage with 0.2 mm tip and an operational range between 0 and 5 mm/h, and three submersible hydrostatic level transmitters, with operation ranges between 0 and 3m to record the water level in the main drainage channel. However, these equipment were not bought by the host institution for this thesis work, UEM Faculty of Engineering, due to delays in the acquisition and other administrative problems. Before this situation, alternative instruments were used which somehow affected the final quality of the measurements and data used by the model.

4.1.1 Meteorological data

Precipitation measurements

All hydrological processes which produce runoff requires as input precipitation, a phenomena which is known to vary not only in time but also in space. The spatial changes in precipitation demands for a good model calibration measurements of accurate rainfall volumes falling over the study area, meaning that the rain gage must be preferentially located inside the limits of the studied area. This was not the case in the present study due to the limitations described above which did not make possible the installation of a rain bucket in Maxaquene A. Alternatively, accumulated rainfall values from two meteorological stations were used. The first station, called Maputo Observatory Station (2558'14'' S, 3235'40'' E, altitude 60 m), is located 3.43 km from Noroeste II school (2556'30'' S, 3234'54'' E, altitude 30 m), which was considered as being the centre Maxaquene A neighbourhood. The second station is located at Maputo International Airport, Mavalane Station (2555' S, 3234' E, altitude 39 m), being 3.13 km from the centre of our neighbourhood. 33

Both stations are run by the National Meteorological Institute (INAM). The rain gages are syphon type with a floating mechanisms to measure and register the cumulative precipitation volume expressed in terms of water depth (Figure 14). The precipitation values were registered in an appropriate paper attached to a cylinder with a clock rotating system. Each paper were used to measure precipitation during a 24 hours interval with 9 am as the start and ending time. The paper used to register the cumulative precipitation has vertical and horizontal axis. The space between two consecutive horizontal axis corresponds to an interval of 10 minutes and the vertical space to 0.1 mm of water depth. This last gives the precision of the rain gage measurements.

Figure 14: Rain gage registering mechanism

Figure 15: Evaporation pan at Maputo Observatory

For Mavalane Station precipitation measurements for most of the period, from February 15 to March 25, were missing. Therefore, only precipitation measurements from Maputo Observatory Station were considered. During the analysed period, fifteen rainfall events were recorded at this station, with depths varying from 0.1 to 39.6 mm (Table 4). The measurements for these events and respective udrograms are presented in Appendix 5. Table 4: Rain volume for precipitation events registered between February 15 and March 25 at Maputo Observatory Station Rainfall event 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 Starting Date 17 Feb 26 Feb 27 Feb 1 Mar 1 Mar 4 Mar 5 Mar 6 Mar Time 19:10 13:00 06:10 07:10 23:50 03:10 07:50 07:10 Rain volume (mm) 11.6 39.6 0.1 0.6 2.9 6.9 3.9 0.1 34 Rainfall event 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 Starting Date 7 Mar 9 Mar 13 Mar 14 Mar 17 Mar 18 Mar 21 Mar Time 06:10 03:40 09:00 09:00 16:50 21:40 08:40 Rain volume (mm) 3.0 0.8 2.9 21.4 5.4 0.4 1.3

Evaporation

Daily values of evaporation depth from Maputo Observatory and Mavalane stations were used to calculate free surface water evaporation for Maxaquene A. The evaporation depths were measured using a circular evaporation pan class A from the US Weather Bureau, with a diameter equal of 122 cm and a height of 25 cm (Figure 15). To estimate the evaporation values for Maxaquene A weighted average was used, taking into consideration the relative distance between each station and the centre of the neighbourhood (Equation 23). For days without measurement at Mavalane Station, values from Maputo Observatory were adopted (Table 5).

E Max =

d Map d Mav E Mav E d Map d Mav d Mapd Mav Map Eq. 23 E Max =0.52 E Mav 0.48 E Map

Table 5: Measured evaporation depths at Maputo Observatory and Mavalane stations and calculated values for Maxaquene A Days in February Map Evap. Mav (mm) Max Days in March Map Evap. Mav (mm) Max Days in March Map Evap. Mav (mm) Max 15 2.2 2.2 28 3.2 4.3 3.8 13 1.2 3.5 2.4 16 3.3 3.3 1 2.5 2.8 2.7 14 1.7 5.8 3.8 17 3.0 4.6 3.8 2 2.1 3.2 2.7 15 1.5 0.9 1.2 18 3.3 2.6 2.9 3 2.8 2.3 2.5 16 1.5 3.4 2.5 19 1.5 1.7 1.6 4 2.6 2.6 2.6 17 1.6 3.7 2.7 20 3.0 3.0 5 2.1 2.3 2.2 18 2.4 3.4 2.9 21 3.9 3.9 6 2.0 2.8 2.4 19 1.7 2.5 2.1 22 4.3 4.5 4.4 7 2.0 4.1 3.1 20 1.8 3.2 2.5 23 2.5 3.5 3.0 8 3.1 2.9 3.0 21 1.1 3.4 2.3 24 4.5 4.2 4.3 9 2.6 3.6 3.1 22 2.8 2.2 2.5 25 3.8 3.8 3.8 10 2.9 2.9 2.9 23 3.5 2.4 2.9 26 3.5 2.7 3.1 11 1.6 3.2 2.4 24 2.2 3.0 2.6 27 1.9 3.4 2.7 12 1.3 4.4 2.9 25 2.1 2.2 2.2

The evaporation depths in Mavalane are in most of the days higher than the measurements from Maputo Observatory. Another important point to mention is that only one out of 35 measurements from Mavalane gave an evaporation depth below 2 mm. The total evaporation calculated for Maxaquene A during the 39 days period was 114.4 mm giving an average daily evaporation of 2.9 mm. 35

Atmospheric pressure Atmospheric pressure measurements from Maputo Observatory and Mavalane stations were used as a complementary data to perform the barometric compensation, operation which is explained in the following section. The fluctuations in atmospheric pressure were measured by an aneroid barometer and corresponding values plotted in a proper paper called barogram. The measured values were in hPa (hecto Pascais), corresponding 1 hPa to 1.024 cm H20 at 30C (H20 = 995.7kg/m3). The space between barogram's horizontal axis corresponds to an increment of 1 hPa. The vertical axis gives the time, with the interval between two consecutive lines corresponding to 15 minutes. The barographs, recordings of the aneroid barometer, used are presented in Appendix 6.

4.1.2 Water level measurements

The runoff from Maxaquene A neighbourhood is intercepted by the primary drainage channel which exist along Acordos de Lusaka avenue. To assess the runoff originated from this area and upstream contributing subcatchments, water levels were measured in two points, one in the beginning of the drainage channel portion serving Maxaquene A, in front of block 13, which will be called Point 1. Another measuring spot, Point 2, was located at the end of the main drainage channel, in front of block 58, before it joins the downstream primary channel at Joaquim Chissano avenue. The exact location of both measuring points is illustrated on the map in Appendix 1. Water level measurements were used to calculate the inflow and outflow in the channel portion serving Maxaquene A, corresponding the difference between these two flows to the contribution from the study area. As mentioned in the introduction of this chapter, submersible hydrostatic level transmitters planned to be used were not available. Alternatively, two divers were installed to record the absolute water pressure in each point. Additionally, one barometer was installed in the first point to measure the atmospheric pressure which was used to perform the barometric compensation of the diver's measurements (Figure 16). The barometric compensation corresponds to the subtraction of the atmospheric pressure from the absolute pressure measured by divers in order to obtain the corresponding water level depth in each section. The alternative divers used to measure the absolute water pressure in the main drainage channel and the barometer installed to record the atmospheric pressure are products of Van Essen Instruments manufactured for groundwater monitoring activities. The diver's serie is DI243, with a measuring range between 0 and 29 m of water column, an accuracy of 0.1% FS (Full Scale) and a resolution of 0.6 cm. The barometer series is DI250, with an use interval between 950 and 1100 cm of water column, an accuracy of 0.3% FS and a resolution of 0.1 cm. The temperature range is between -20 and 80C with an accuracy of 0.1C and resolution of 0.01C. Both instruments are 125 mm long and have a diameter of 22 mm (Figure 17). (Van Essen Instruments, 2004) The diver memory was able to record 24000 measurements of temperature and absolute water or atmospheric pressure. Considering the sampling interval of 1 minute used for the divers and 15 minutes for the barometer, the recording time corresponded to 16 days and 16 hours for divers, 36

being 15 times greater for the barometer. Therefore, these instruments were collected to download the data three times during March on days 1, 18 and 26. However it is important to refer that the barometer installed in Point 1 was first collected on the 23 rd of February as the installation were it was placed was vandalized, being out of the field area until 1st of March.

Figure 16: Barometer and diver installation at Point 1 in Acordos de Lusaka avenue

Figure 17: Barometer (on left side) and divers used for water level measurements

In days without precipitation the water level measured in both points presented a daily variation with high values during the second and third quarter of the day, between 6 am and 6 pm, and lower values from 6 pm to 6 am (Figure 18). This period with high water levels do not seem to be associated with the leakage in the water supply system as the intermittent supply of water occurs from 5 am to 2 pm. On the other hand, the peak values registered around 6 am and 12 pm can be associated with an increase in grey-water discharge from toilet, when the residents get ready to go to school and work, and kitchens before, due to lunch cooking, although not all grey-water flows into the existing drainage channels.

Figure 18: Fluctuations in temperature and water level in Point 1 between February 19 and 21 37

It was also possible to observe fluctuations in atmospheric pressure during the day with peaks and throats more clearly defined. The atmospheric pressured is higher during the second and forth quarter of the day and lower values were observed during the first and third quarter of the day (Figure 19), meaning that there is only a coincidence between high atmospheric pressured values and high water level values during the second quarter of the day. The air temperature is generally higher than the water temperature. This last tends to have an higher variation on its amplitude during the day, with 12C during the period of analysis against the 8C observed for the air temperature.

Figure 19: Fluctuations in temperature and atmospheric pressure in Point 1 between February 19 and 21 The use of a barometer installed in Point 1 to compensate the absolute pressures from Point 2 resulted in negative water levels for this last (Figure 20), specially during periods without precipitation. This finding revealed that there was a significant difference in atmospheric pressures between these two points which are 1.13 km apart. The negative values give an indication that the atmospheric pressure in Point 2 is lower than in Point 1.

Figure 20: Negative water level after barometric compensation in Point 2 38

Two possibilities were considered to eliminate the negative water level measurements from Point 2. The first one was to do an interpolation using atmospheric pressure measurements from P1 and Maputo Observatory station based on their altitude differences and the second possibility was to do an interpolation based on their relative distances. If interpolation based on altitude values was to be used, the main principle that the atmospheric pressure, which corresponds to the height of the air column above a certain area, increases with a decrease in altitude should be adopted. This would imply that the pressure values at Point 2 (altitude 26 m) based on measurements from Point 1 (altitude 30 m) would be 0.52 hPa higher (almost 0.5 cm of water more), as it is said that the atmospheric pressure decrease 4% with an increase of 1000 ft (304.8 m) in altitude (Absolute Astronomy, 2010). Therefore, this would give and increased pressured at Point 2 instead of the desired decrease in pressure which could eliminate the negative water measurements. The second possibility to correct the negative water levels was to interpolate the atmospheric pressure from Point 1 and Maputo Observatory based on their distances to Point 2, 1.31 km and 3.00 km. To do this, atmospheric pressure values from Maputo Observatory in hPa were converted to cm of water, multiplying them by the water specific weight, product of the gravity acceleration and water density, being this last influenced by the temperature. Table 6 gives the change in water height in cm corresponding to 1 hPa with temperature, calculated considering a gravity acceleration equal to 9.81 m/s2. Table 6: Water depth in cm corresponding to 1 hPa for different temperature values Temperature 20 C 30C 40C Water density (kg/m3) 998.2 995.7 992.2 1 hPa (cm) 1.021 1.024 1.027

Considering the relative distances of each measuring point, the relationship given by Equation 24 was used.

P 2=

d P1 P2 d MO P2 P MO P d P1 P2 d MO P2 d P1 P2 d MO P2 1 Eq. 24 P 2 =0.27 P MO 0.73 P P2

However, as the atmospheric pressures measured at Maputo Observatory were higher than the values measured at Point 1, if an average value was to be used, the negative water depths obtained for Point 2 would be increased. Therefore, before the impossibility of using the two corrective proposed measures, all water depths obtained at Point 2 doing the barometric compensation from Point 1 were increased 18 cm in order 39

to get rid of the negative values, being the only scientific support for this the fact that negative water values can not exist if there is water flowing along a channel and its bottom is used as reference. The implication of this arbitrary assumption to correct negative water measurements would be on the magnitude of the outflows calculated from them. This situation will influence the quality of calibration against outflow as the shape of the hydrograph will be more important due to the uncertainties on the magnitude of peak water levels and flows. Another limitation was introduced by the absence of barometer from the study area, from February 23 to 1st of March as the installation for its protection was vandalized. To avoid incoherences caused by the absence of this instrument, an average water depth from periods without precipitation was used at the start of each precipitation event during this absence period of six days. For rainfall 2, which started on February 26 at 1 pm, the initial water level at Point 1 in the main drainage channel was adopted equal to 16.0 cm. Manning coefficient estimation from measured water depths and surface flow velocities To compute the flow in the main drainage channel from measured water depths Manning equation was chosen. In order to make use of this equation the Manning coefficient n had to be estimate. To do that, surface water flow velocities were calculated in specific times, measuring the time required by floating objects to flow a certain known distance in the channel. Balls of polystyrene (also know as esferovite) and lime were used as floating objects. Between the measuring points, the channel has a trapezoidal cross section being the width equal to 1.50 m and the slides slope 1:1.5 (V:H). The longitudinal slope is equal to 0.4%. The Manning equation V=KSR2/3J1/2 can be transformed giving the following expression to calculate the Manning coefficient:

J 1/2 y b my 2 /3 n= [ ] Eq. 25 V b 2y 1 m2
with: n Manning coefficient (s/m1/3) b channel bottom width (m) y water depth (m) m horizontal slide slope factor (1:m, V:H) J channel slope (m/m) The surface water velocity was calculated dividing the distance between a specified length by the time taken by each floating object to traverse it. The average flow velocity was computed assuming a simplified parabolic law for the velocity profile (Figure 21) which gives the flow velocity as being equal to two thirds of the maximum measured surface water velocity (Vaz, 2006), as demonstrated below. 40

As y = b v 2 the velocity can be expressed by

v =a y
Considering the parabolic area as

2 Area = v max hmax 3

which is also equivalent to a rectangular area

Area = hmax v
then

2 1 /2 2 v = a hmax = a v max 3 3
Figure 21: Parabolic velocity profile with

v max= v surface

The computed Manning values ranged from 0.03 and 0.0373 m/s 1/3 (Table 7), giving an average value equal to 0.0337 m/s1/3. The experimental values are reduced when compared with values given for channel built using concrete slabs, which according to Lencastre (1996) has a Manning coefficient n between 0.0149 and 0.0110 s/m1/3. One possible explanation for this low values can be the variation of the Manning coefficient, which decreases with an increase in water depth. Therefore taking into consideration that the Manning values were obtained for water levels which corresponds to one fifth of the channel depth, which is around 1.5 m in this section. Consequently, water flowing in the channel was influenced in higher extent by the existing vegetation and objects which are thrown in the main channel, such as tyres, stones and plastics (Figures 22 and 23). The grass growing on channel slopes caused the lost of some floating objects as a considerable number were trapped by it. Table 7: Manning coefficient estimations Date 26 Feb 26 Feb 26 Feb 26 Feb 26 Feb 26 Feb 26 Feb Time (hh:mm) 14:42 14:48 14:50 14:52 14:57 15:01 15:05 Distance (m) 126 126 126 126 126 126 126 Elapsed time (s) 125 126 145 Lost Lost 125 147 Floating object Polystyrene Polystyrene Lime Polystyrene Polystyrene Polystyrene Polystyrene 1.01 0.86 0.67 0.57 0.31 0.30 0.0300 0.0347 Vsurface (m/s) 1.01 0.84 0.87 Vaverage (m/s) 0.67 0.56 0.58 Water Manning depth (m) coefficient 0.31 0.32 0.32 0.0305 0.0373 0.0362

Although February 26 is included in the period during which the barometer was out of the study area, the water depths used for Manning coefficient estimation were the compensated values as the

41

barometer was taken to the study area during the measurements to estimate the Manning coefficient.

Figure 22: Garbage thrown in the main drainage channel

Figure 23: Grass growing in channel slopes

4.1.3 Soil properties

Sieving analysis, infiltration and hydraulic conductivity tests were performed as part of the field work actions. A detailed description of adopted procedures and results can be found in Appendix 2 for Sieving Analysis, Appendix 3 for Infiltration Tests and Appendix 4 for Hydraulic Conductivity Tests. The results from sieving analysis indicated predominance of fine sands, well sorted, with a percentage of fines lower than 5% and a median diameter d50 between 0.24 and 0.26 mm. These characteristics were used to adopt reasonable soil and hydrogeological property values for parameters which were not assessed by means of field tests or laboratory measurements. Both infiltration and hydraulic conductivity tests were taken close to three of the four existing schools. Table 8 summarizes the results from these tests using school names as reference points. Table 8: Minimum infiltration capacity and hydraulic conductivity values from field tests Soil property Terminal infiltration capacity (cm/h) Hydraulic conductivity (cm/d) Unidade 24 3.0 54 Noroeste II 6.6 18 Noroeste I 0.9 8

The terminal infiltration capacity as well as the hydraulic conductivity varied significantly between the testing points. The highest infiltration value obtained at Noroeste II can be justified by the lower phreatic level in this point when compared with the other two and the presence of vegetation. The lowest value from Noroeste I can be associated to a high phreatic level and the presence of a more compacted soil at this school. In similar way, the high hydraulic conductivity registered at Unidade 24 can be associated to a high phreatic level and the absence of human activity on the test area. The compacted soils observed at Noroeste I seem to have also contributed to the low hydraulic conductivity value although the phreatic level in this area is considerable high. However, it is 42

important to note that hydraulic conductivity is a soil property which can vary significantly from one point to another and that obtained values are inside the limits given by Fetter (2001) for fine sands, which varies from 0.864 cm/d (10-5 cm/s) and 86.4 cm/d (10-3 cm/s).

4.2 Model creation

To represent Maxaquene A subcatchment and simulate the effects of the implementation of subsurface drainage solutions, a model of the study area was created using the US EPA software Storm Water Management Model. The model creation work was dived in four different phases: subcatchments definition; incorporation of existing hydraulic infrastructures; creation of aquifers and edition of groundwater flow properties; and introduction of rain, evaporation and inflow measurements. The main actions taken in each of the four mentioned steps will be presented and discussed in respective following sections.

4.2.1 Subcatchments definition

The definition of subcatchments draining the neighbourhood of Maxaquene A was based on the Urbanization and Environmental Sanitation Project with Appropriate Technologies to Maxaquene A from the Spanish NGO Engineers Without Borders (ESF) which work on the study area (Salat, 2008). As can be seen in maps presented in Appendix 7, the ESF project considered on its storm water drainage chapter that Maxaquene A is dived in six sub-basins, basins 1 to 6, with each of them receiving runoff from sub-basins 7 to 12 which belongs to the upstream neighbourhood Maxaquene B. Runoffs from upstream sub-basins 7 to 12 to Maxaquene A are caused by the absence of a drainage channel along Milagre Mabote avenue which is the bordering road between this two neighbourhoods. Each basin from Maxaquene A will drain to a system of secondary and tertiary channels, presented in Appendix 7, which will convey the runoff to the main primary channel which exists along Acordos de Lusaka avenue. To represent the basin area draining to each tertiary existing and projected channel, sub-basins 1 to 5 were divided into 19 subcatchments and four of them were dived to form another four subcatchment to a better individualization of inundations areas, forming 23 subcatchments. Sub-basins 6 and 12 were not included as their runoff contribution was considered to enter in the main drainage channel before monitoring Point 1. Another four subcatchments were included to account for the runoff contribution from the asphalted Acordos de Lusaka avenue which also drains to the primary channel. Thus, adding the four subcatchment representing roads and five upstream subcatchments from Maxaquene B to 23 subcatchments defined for our study area in Maxaquene A, a final number of 32 subcatchments were introduced in the created model is obtained. All subcatchments are illustrated on the map in Appendix 9. Table 9 presents created subcatchments and their corresponding sub-basins. Subcatchments with areas prone to inundation with flooding problems are marked with suffix FA which stands for flooded areas.

43

Table 9: Created subcatchments and corresponding sub-basins Sub-basin considered in ESF Project 1 2 3 4 5 Upstream subcatchments from Maxaquene B S7 S8 S9 S10 S11 Subcatchments in Maxaquene A With flooding S1A1-FA, S1A2-FA, S1B-FA S2A-FA, S2C-FA S3A-FA, S3B-FA S4A-FA, S4B-FA S5D-FA, S5E-FA Without flooding S1C S2B S3B, S3C, SNII S4A S5A, S5B, S5C, S5F S5S1, S5S2 S2S S3S Road subcatchment

To facilitate the delimitation of subcatchments, an aerial image of the study area from Google Earth was used (Figure 2). In order to have areas and lengths directed computed by SWMM, the auto-length option was activated and coordinates for map vertices were introduced, giving a length of 1851 m and a width of 1200 m for it. Beside the catchment area, other parameters which characterize the catchment surface in SWMM are its slope, the percentage of impervious area and width of overland flow. Subcatchments' slopes values were calculated diving the difference in elevations of topographic lines crossing or close to a subcatchment by the corresponding distance between them. As can been seen on Table 10, upstream subcatchments, S7 to S11, have greater slopes than subcatchments located inside Maxaquene A. The percentage of impervious area for each subcatchment was estimated taking into consideration the soil use, using the aerial image of the area. To areas with high density of houses, an impervious percentage of 70% was assigned, while if open spaces and some trees were present the impervious area was considered equal to 65%. For inundation areas, represented by open and abandoned spaces where normally water stand for long periods, a percentage of imperviousness equal to 60% was assigned. Measurements of the area occupied by buildings in Noroeste II school gave an impervious percentage equal to 48%. For roads, the imperviousness was considered equal to 100% as they are asphalted. It was also considered that 100% of the runoff from impervious surfaces will be directed to the impervious portion of the subcatchment before it reaches the outlet node. This would represent the real situation observed in this neighbourhood as impervious surfaces formed by roofs do not have drainage pipes linked to them. Another variable parameter is the subcatchment characteristic width of the overland flow. The recommendation of dividing the catchment area by the length of the water path, given by SWMM manual , to estimate it was adopted (Rossman, 2009). The longest lengths of the water path were directly measured in the work map for each subcatchment.

44

Table 10: Variable parameters values assigned to each subcatchment Subcatchment S1A1-FA S1A2-FA S1B-FA S1C S2A-FA S2B S2C-FA S2C S3A-FA S3B-FA S3B S3C S4B-FA S4A-FA S4A S5A S5B S5C S5D-FA S5E-FA S5E S5F SNII S7 S8 S9 S10 S11 S2S S3S S5S1 S5S2 Area (ha) 0.26 1.52 2.01 0.66 6.61 0.81 2.70 1.25 1.64 1.38 0.60 2.78 1.69 4.04 1.38 1.99 1.80 2.10 1.21 0.61 3.97 4.04 2.55 11.0 21.0 12.0 21.1 0.6 0.48 0.43 0.55 0.44 Percentage of imperviousness 70 65 70 70 60 70 65 65 70 65 65 65 65 65 65 65 65 65 60 70 65 65 48 65 65 65 65 60 100 100 100 100 Width (m) 76 150 157 146 214 141 181 163 85 90 57 175 129 140 74 96 83 106 133 95 124 254 133 168 420 205 392 79 246 227 286 232 Slope (%) 1.38 1.18 0.69 1.11 0.63 1.05 0.87 1.60 0.83 0.98 1.21 1.33 0.67 0.53 0.39 3.04 2.79 0.67 0.72 0.57 0.74 0.63 0.5 3.2 3.1 3.5 2.9 3.3 2.5 2.5 2.5 2.5 Outlet node N1.4 N1.6 N1.5 In2 S2C-FA N2.3 S2C N5 S3B N6 S3B-FA N7 S4A-FA S4A N7 S5C S5D-FA S5E-FA S5F S5E N8 In5 NII S1A-FA S2A-FA S3A-FA S4-FA S5A N5 N7 In5 N8

Manning coefficient values adopted for impervious surfaces were 0.016 m/s 1/3 for roads and 0.014 m/s1/3 for residential subcatchments, values proposed by Lencastre (1996) for rough asphalt and roof surfaces. For pervious surfaces, a Manning coefficient value equal to 0.05 m/s1/3 proposed by SWMM manual for fallow soils with no residues was adopted (Rossman, 2009). The depression storage for impervious surfaces was setted equal to 1.5 mm for roofs and 2.5 mm for asphalt. For pervious 45

surfaces, a value of 5 mm was assigned for subcatchments not affected by flooding problems being 10 times greater, 50 mm, for subcatchments affected by flooding problems. This initial increased depression storage value assigned for subcatchments prone to inundation seeks to represent storage in the existing depressions were surface water ponding occurs. The percentage of impervious areas with zero depression storage was setted equal to 70% for roofs and 20% for roads. To compute the infiltration from subcatchments, an initial minimal infiltration rate value equal to 3.0 cm/h was adopted, which corresponds to the infiltration capacity found by the infiltration test performed at Unidade 24 school. This value is between the two other values, 0.9 cm/h at Noroeste I and 6.6 cm/h at Noroeste II. A maximum infiltration rate of 12.5 cm/h proposed by SWMM Manual for sandy soils with little or no vegetation was assumed. The decay constant was set equal to 3 h -1 and the antecedent dry time to 7 days. A detailed description of adopted parameters for each subcatchment can be found on Appendix 9. Table 10 presents the variable parameters values assigned to each subcatchment.

4.2.2 Incorporation of the existing hydraulic infrastructures

Besides the main primary drainage channel located along Acordos de Lusaka avenue, during the field work activities the tertiary and secondary channels serving sub-basin 1 were completed and the works for the secondary drainage channel serving sub-basin 2 had started. The secondary and tertiary channels were built with rectangular cross sections, as the streets are narrow, with a perforated pipe under the channels bottom to lower the phreatic level. Before introducing the links which represent the existing drainage channels, nodes were inserted to mark their end and beginning, and points with change in channel slopes or with inflows. For each node its inverted elevation (altitude of the bottom of the channel or perforated pipe) was assigned. The prefix N was used to differ nodes for open drainage channels from the perforated pipe nodes marked with prefix D (Table 11). Additional nodes, In2 and In5, were introduced to receive runoff from subcatchments S1C and S5F, respectively. Nodes elevations and channel sections were obtained from drawings of the main channel execution project, prepared by the Dutch consulting company DHV in 1982, which exist at Maputo Drainage Cabinet (GDM). For tertiary and secondary channels, nodes elevations and channel sections from the ESF project were considered. For perforated pipes nodes, an average placing depth of 1.6 m from the surface was adopted in most of the cases, as it was said to had been largely influenced by the groundwater level in each area inducing some changes in projected settling depths. After nodes introduction, links were used to represent the open drainage channels, the three box culverts existing in the primary channel and perforated drains. Links representing the secondary and tertiary open channels were marked with prefix C and V was used for the primary channel. For perforated drains and box culverts in the main channel prefixes d and BC were used, respectively. Although SWMM could compute the total length of each link as the auto-length option was activated, lengths from respective execution drawings were introduced. 46

Table 11: Node's inverted elevation Node IE (m) Node IE (m) Node IE (m) N1.1 25.59 D1.3 25.90 N5 24.80 N1.2 25.82 D1.4 26.76 N6 24.83 N1.3 26.90 D1.5 25.54 N7 N1.4 27.76 D1.6 26.44 N8 N1.5 26.74 D2.1 24.47 N9 27.82 N1.6 27.64 D2.2 24.73 N10 N2.1 25.07 D2.3 25.95 In2 N2.2 25.43 N1 23.80 NII N2.3 26.85 N2 23.87 In5 D1.1 24.59 N3 23.88 D1.2 24.82 N4 23.93

25.53 27.819

28.01 26.866

29.7 27.968

The three existing box culverts were formed by two barrels of a rectangular boxe. They have 45 flared wingwalls and a 90 headwall, corresponding to SWMM box culvert code number 9 (Rossman, 2009). Field measurements were performed for box culverts lengths. Entrance and exit loss coefficients equal to 0.4 and 1.0 were assigned for all, values proposed by SWMM Manual for box culvert of reinforced concrete with wingwalls at 30 to 75 to the barrel and a square-edge at its crown. A schematic representation of the existing box-culverts is given in Figure 24 and an illustration on Figure 25.

Figure 24: Scheme of existing box-culverts

Figure 25: Box culvert BC3 at the entrance to street 3.058

The average Manning coefficient from the field measurements, 0.0337 m/s 1/3, was initially assigned to the primary channel. For drains, secondary and tertiary channels, Manning coefficient values used during their dimensioning were adopted. Thus, a Manning value of 0.015 m/s 1/3 was assigned to open channels, and 0.013 m/s1/3 to perforated drains. Table 12 presents links dimensions, roughness coefficients and their inlet and outlet nodes. A more detailed information about these elements can be found in Appendix 9.

4.2.3 Aquifers and groundwater flow parameters definition

Three different aquifers were considered to model groundwater flow between subcatchments affected by flooding areas and the respective receiving nodes. Each aquifer was considered to serve subcatchments at the same surface elevation being its name formed by the prefix Aq added by the respective surface elevation. 47

Table 12: Variable link parameters Link C1S1 C1S2 C1S3 C1T2 C1T1 C2S1 C2S2 d2S2 d2S1 d1S3 d1T2 d1S2 d1T1 d1S1 V1 V2.2 BC3 V3 V4 BC2 V5 V6 BC1 V7.2 V2.1 C2S1in d2S1in C1S1in d1S1in CII V7.1 Inlet N1.2 N1.3 N1.4 N1.6 N1.5 N2.2 N2.3 D2.3 D2.2 D1.4 D1.6 D1.3 D1.5 D1.2 N1 In2 N3 N4 N5 N6 N7 N8 N9 In5 N2 N2.1 D2.1 N1.1 D1.1 NII N10 Outlet N1.1 N1.2 N1.3 N1.3 N1.2 N2.1 N2.2 D2.2 D2.1 D1.3 D1.3 D1.2 D1.2 D1.1 Outfall N1 N2 N3 N4 N5 N6 N7 N8 N9 In2 In2 In2 N1 N1 N7 In5 Shape Rectangular Rectangular Rectangular Rectangular Rectangular Rectangular Rectangular Circular Circular Circular Circular Circular Circular Circular Trapezoidal Trapezoidal Rectangular Trapezoidal Trapezoidal Rectangular Trapezoidal Trapezoidal Rectangular Trapezoidal Trapezoidal Rectangular Circular Rectangular Circular Circular Trapezoidal Length (m) Height1 (m) 33.91 125.07 113.50 163.30 144.11 21.19 71.74 71.74 21.29 113.50 163.30 125.07 144.11 33.91 13.00 133.99 9.80 99.00 129.00 9.60 204.00 251.50 9.30 205.70 15.00 2.00 5.00 2.00 2.00 167.28 30.00 0.60 0.60 0.60 0.40 0.40 0.70 0.70 0.16 0.16 0.16 0.16 0.16 0.16 0.16 2.01 2.02 1.00 2.01 2.01 1.00 1.44 1.46 1.00 1.44 2.02 0.70 0.16 0.60 0.16 0.16 1.44 1.5 1.5 0.70 2.00 2.00 2.20 2.00 2.00 2.00 1.50 1.50 2.00 1.50 2.00 0.80 1.5 2 1.5 1.5 2 2 2 2 Width (m) Slide slope2 (1:m) 0.70 0.70 0.70 0.40 0.40 0.80 0.80

Saturated hydraulic conductivity from Unidade 24 and Noroeste II, 7.5 mm/h (18 cm/d) and 22.5 mm/h (54 cm/d), respectively, were assigned at groundwater flow properties for subcatchments around these schools. On this way, aquifer Aq31 took the first value and aquifers Aq28 and Aq29 the second value. Other aquifers parameters were estimated based on the soil type which was found to
1 For circular section the height corresponds to pipe diameter 2 Applicable for trapezoidal shape

48

be fine sand. Therefore, a porosity of 0.4 was chosen from the range 0.34 to 0.50 proposed by Ward & Robinson (2000). From the same authors, a wilting point fraction of 0.047 was adopted. A field capacity fraction of 0.07 which was between the values proposed by the SWMM Manual for sands and by Ward & Robinson for fine sands was considered. For the average slope of soil tension versus soil moisture content curve, an initial value equal to 15 was adopted, and for the average slope of log(conductivity) versus soil moisture deficit curve, an initial value equal to 10, were adopted according to SWMM Manual as field tests were not carried on to estimate these parameters. Similar procedure was used for the lower groundwater loss rate which was left equal to 0.002 mm/h. The fraction of total evaporation available for plants in the upper unsaturated zone was setted equal to 0.35. The bottom elevation for each aquifer was found considering a thickness of 12 m for all aquifers. The initial water table was considered to be 1.2 m below the surface. The effects of the magnitudes of theses adopted parameters were evaluated during the sensitivity analysis. Variable aquifer parameters are presented in Table 13. Table 13: Variable aquifer parameters Aquifer name Aq28 Aq29 Aq31 Subcatchments S1A1-FA, S1A2-FA. S1B-FA, S2C-FA S2A-FA, S3B-FA S3A-FA, S4B-FA, S4A-FA, S5D-FA, S5E-FA Hydraulic conductivity (mm/h) 22.5 22.5 7.5 Bottom elevation (m) 16 17 19 Water table (m) 26.8 27.8 29.8

To represent the groundwater inflow into a specified node, groundwater flow parameters, A1, A2, A3 and B1 and B2 used by Equation 14 were estimated.

QGW = A1 H GW H * B1 A2 H SW H * B2 A3 H GW H SW Eq. 14
As it was demonstrated in section 3.3.3, for groundwater discharge through lateral flow in SWMM, representing the infiltration and drainage to perforated pipes using the Hooghoudt equation, the groundwater flow coefficients will take the following values: A1 = 16K/L2 A2 = 16KDeb0/L2 A3 = 16KDe/HSWL2 B1 = 2 B2 = 0

49

with: K hydraulic conductivity (m/s) L distance between drains (m) De effective impermeable layer depth (m) b0 distance between the drain and the impermeable layer (m) SWMM Manual mention that groundwater flow units and the units of its coefficients must be consistent. Therefore, as Equation 14 gives the groundwater flow in m 3/s/ha, a conversion multiplier of 10.000 m2/ha should be applied for coefficients A1, A2 and A3. Until end of March, only perforated drains serving subcatchments S1A1-FA, S1A2-FA, S1B-FA and S2CFA were built, all belonging to aquifer Aq28, therefore only groundwater flow parameters from these areas were estimated. Distances between consecutive drains were measured in SWMM taking as reference point the centre of each drain pipe. Groundwater flow coefficients values and parameters used for their estimation are presented in Table 14. Table 14: Groundwater flow coefficients and parameters used for their estimation Subcatchment Node Aquifer K (m/s) S1A1-FA S1A2-FA S1B-FA S2C-FA D1.4 D1.6 D1.5 D2.3 Aq28 Aq28 Aq28 Aq28 6.25E-6 6.25E-6 6.25E-6 6.25E-6 L (m) 100 130 130 130 b0 (m) 11.44 11.02 10.12 10.03 De (m) 3.97 3.36 3.22 3.21 A1 1.00E-4 5.92E-5 5.92E-5 5.92E-5 A2 4.54E-3 2.19E-5 1.93E-5 1.90E-3 A3 3.47E-5 1.81E-5 1.88E-5 1.89E-5

4.2.4 Introduction of flow measurements, rain and evaporation series

The inflow and outflow values were computed from water level measurements from Point 1 and Point 2, respectively. The diver recording interval was set equal to 1 minute, during the 39 days of monitoring, giving 56160 measurements for each point. This huge number of measurements revealed itself difficult to handle and to analyse in spreadsheet programs and could also increase the required time for computation. In order to avoid these problems, only outflow values from the beginning until six hours after each observed rain event were considered. For inflows, values from one hour before the start of the rain event until six hours after the end of the rainfall were considered. This extra hour was added before the start of the rainfall to inflow series to account for the travel time in the primary channel required from Point 1 to Point 2. This operation made possible to reduce the number of measurements to be analysed to 8895. For periods without measurements SWMM interpolates the last and first values of consecutive series. Inflow and outflow measurements were treated as external files loaded by SWMM during the computation. The inflows values were assigned to node N10. The outflow series was registered as 50

calibration file. Rain and evaporation series were inserted in the model Time Series editor. The rain interval was specified equal to 10 minutes and cumulative rain type was chosen.

4.2.5 SWMM simulation options

International units were used during the model creation with map dimension in meters and flow in litres per second. The rout time step was reduced from the initial 15 s to 1 s to eliminate the highest values of flow instability registered in links representing box culverts BC1 and BC2. Dynamic wave routing method was used to make possible to account for flow under pressure, backwater and ponding which are not considered in kinematic wave approach.

4.3 Model calibration and validation

The main principle behind calibration of models is to ensure the system ability to reproduce the experimental observed data before its application. The validity concept is linked with the matching degree between the observed and the simulated data, being an indispensable requirement for models. Therefore, during this section the effects of changes in some adopted and estimated parameters to enhance our model are reviewed.

4.3.1 Sensitivity analysis

Before the model calibration and validation, a sensitivity analysis of some model parameters were performed, a process which contributed to identify the components and parameters with high influence in analysed output parameters in the created model. During the sensitivity analysis, 18 parameters were doubled and reduced to is half and their influence on runoff, infiltration, evaporation and groundwater flow volumes, peak magnitude and time for peak runoff and groundwater flow peak were evaluated. A table showing the influence of all analysed parameters is presented in Appendix 8 and the most relevant findings are described in the following paragraphs. In order to reduce the required time for computation and to improve the comparison with the initial condition, sensitivity analysis was performed only for subcatchment S1B-FA. The reduction of subcatchment's parameter depression storage in pervious surfaces (Dstore-Perv) to half of its initial value, from 50 to 25 mm, had a huge effect in peak runoff magnitude, which increased from 49.37 to 273.28 l/s, and runoff volume, which increased from 4.7 to 19.4 mm. When doubling the same parameter to 100 mm both runoff volume and flow were null, meaning that all rain water from the observed events does not leave the subcatchment. Moderate influences in infiltration loss volume and minor changes in groundwater flow volume were also observed. The peak runoff flow and volume were also moderately affected by changes in Manning coefficient from pervious (N-Perv) and impervious (N-Imperv) areas. These two also showed to influence the required time for peak. The depression storage in impervious surfaces (Dstore-Imperv) was the only subcatchment analysed parameter which induced noticeable changes in evaporation volume. All three analysed infiltration parameters were found to have a huge effect in runoff volume and peak, moderate influences in infiltration volume and to cause minor changes on subcatchments' 51

groundwater flow and groundwater level. When reducing the maximum and minimum infiltration rates to half of their initial values, from 125 and 30 mm/h to 62.5 and 15 mm/h, respectively, the runoff volume increased from 4.7 mm to 12.7 and 13.5 mm, and the peak runoff from 49.37 l/s to 145.98 l/s and 180.98 l/s, respectively. The increase on these two parameters, doubling their initial values, resulted in null runoff volume and peak. An opposite behaviour had the decay constant for which its increase originated higher runoff volumes and peaks, and its decrease reduced the peak magnitudes and volumes. Changes in saturated soil hydraulic conductivity and space between perforated drains, variables used to compute the coefficients for groundwater flow (Equation 14), caused huge changes in groundwater flow volume and peak and noticeable changes in groundwater level and the rate of drawdown in the phreatic level. Doubling and reducing the hydraulic conductivity to half of its initial value 22.5 mm/h (6.25 x 10-6 m/s), the groundwater flow volume increased and reduced from 106.7 mm to 191.3 and 57.3 mm, and the groundwater flow peak from 0.84 l/s to 1.72 and 0.46 l/s. Doubling and reducing the distance between drains to half of its initial values 130 m, the groundwater flow volume decreased and increased from 106.7 mm to 22.6 and 358.4 mm and the groundwater flow peak from 0.84 l/s to 0.19 and 4.32 l/s. The effects on groundwater level and drawdown rate are illustrated in Figure 26. As can be seen in this figure changes in distance between pipes induces great change in the observed rate of drawdown.

Figure 26: Influences of changes in hydraulic conductivity and distances between drains in groundwater level and drawdown rate for subcatchment S1B-FA

52

For aquifer parameters, not all initial values were doubled or reduced to its half to avoid not realistic values to be assumed. Half of all parameters subjected to sensitivity analysis were from aquifers as initial values for them were adopted based on the soil type find to be fine sand. The upper evaporation fraction, the maximum evaporation depth in lower saturated layer and lower groundwater loss rate did not cause significant changes in all analysed output parameters. Minor effects in groundwater flow volume, peak and level were caused by changes in aquifer wilting point, slope of log(conductivity) versus soil moisture deficit curve and by changes in slope of soil tension versus soil moisture content curve, although this last also had a considerable effect on drawdown rate. Aquifer porosity, field capacity and bottom elevation were the parameters with most impact in groundwater level, flow volume and peak. A decrease in aquifer bottom elevation from 16 m to 8 m, which corresponds to an increase on its thickness, resulted in an increased drawdown rate, with a steep decrease in groundwater level and increased groundwater flow volume and rate from their initial values equal to 106.7 mm and 0.84 l/s to 641 mm and 9.77 l/s. Doubling the field capacity initial fraction 0.07, the groundwater flow volume and runoff decreased to 96.7 mm and increased to 0.77 l/s. When it was increased to 0.048 these two outputs increased to 111.1 mm and decreased to 0.36 l/s. It is important mention that changes in flow volumes described in this section correspond to the analysed period from February 15 to March 18. Clearly, can be noticed that the subcatchment parameters mainly influence the runoff volume, flow and time for peak. On the other hand, the aquifer and groundwater parameters influence the groundwater level, flow and volume.

4.3.2 Calibration and validation

The model created was calibrated against observed outflows in the main drainage channel. A significant part of the flow in the main channel come as a contribution of the subcatchments' surface runoff as the discharges from drains are considerable small when comparing with the runoff values. This introduced a limitation assessing how good the groundwater contribution is represented by the model. For subcatchments with flooding problems, besides the surface runoff it was also interest of the study to compare the simulated water ponding time with field values. This was not possible to do as storage was represented by the existing depression in pervious surfaces which is not an output parameter able to be assessed at the end of each run of the program. Initially, for model calibration and validation five rain events with precipitated volumes above the 5 mm were to be considered, as small events are more prone to be affected by spatial variations, considering that they were not measured inside the study area. However, the analysis of flow depths and flows in the main channel did not show any significant changes for all rainfalls above 5 mm. A significant rise in channel levels, above the average daily fluctuations with an approximate amplitude of 10 cm, were only noticed in Point 1 for two biggest rains events with precipitation depths equal to 40.0 and 21.4 mm, while for Point 2 only the last one was noticed. The direct implication of this was 53

that the crated model will not be validated as the validation principle presumes that it must be undertaken for measurements outside the calibration. The calibration was performed against peak flow and time for peak at outflow or Point 2, represented in the model by link V1, trying to fit the shape of the simulated to the observed hydrograph. Modifications undertaken in main open channel roughness, width of the overland flow and percentage of runoff routed between impervious and pervious surfaces gave the biggest contribution to achieve the required fit. All changes done during the calibration process are presented in Appendix 8. Figure 27 illustrates the initial and final hydrograph obtained from the calibration process.

Figure 27: Calibrated and simulated hydrographs

4.4 Simulation of three different storm water drainage possibilities

The created model was applied to simulate the storm water drainage in Maxaquene A with and without sub-surface solutions (Alternative 1). For sub-surface solutions present, two possibilities were considered, being the first the isolated implementation of infiltration trenches with drains (Alternative 3) and the second their combination with open drainage channels to intercept the surface runoff (Alternative 2). This was done presuming that the calibrated model can be considered valid. Only a scenario corresponding to the construction of Milagre Mabote avenue with an open drainage channel intercepting the runoff from the upstream subcatchments representing Maxaquene B neighbourhood was considered as the mobilization for its construction has already initiated despite all delays on its start initially planned for 2007. Therefore, the performance of all implemented

54

solutions are based on new flows obtained after eliminating subcatchments S8 to S11 from the model.

4.4.1 Design rainfalls

Rainfall with two different recurrence times, 2 and 5 years, and a a duration of 40 minutes were considered. The adopted duration considered the time of concentration for the furthest sub-basin belonging to our study area, sub-basin 4, estimated using Kirpich formulae for small basins (Equation 26), estimated equal to 25 minutes (Salat, 2008) and the travel time in the main drainage channel from its inflow at node N7 to Outfall (Point 2). As node N7 is 626 m apart from the outfall section, the travel time for this distance was estimated as being equal to 14 minutes, considering the required time, 26 minutes, for the inflow in Point 1 to be observed in Point 2 at the start of each simulation, which is 1113 m apart.

t c =0.0195
with:

L Eq. 26 I 0.385

0.77

tc time of concentration for overland flow (min) L length of the major water path (m) I catchment's slope (m/m)

t c =0.0195

7620.77 =24.83 min 25 min 0.0050.385

For precipitation intensity, IDF curves given by the Regulation for Public Systems for Water Supply and Residual Water Drainage (DNA, 2003) was used, with rainfall intensity being expressed as:

I mm / h =a t min b
Values of parameters a and b for different recurrence periods are given in Table 15. Table 15: Parameters a and b for analytical IDF expression for Maputo City (Source: DNA, 2003) Recurrence time (years) a b 2 534.0468 -0.60750 5 694.5040 -0.59383 10 797.3841 -0.58690 20 896.5751 -0.58197 25 930.8815 -0.58119 50 1026.6940 -0.57649

Therefore, for two most used dimensioning recurrence times, 2 and 5 years, the rainfall intensity with a duration of 40 minutes will be equal to 56.80 mm/h and 77.68 mm/h, respectively. These precipitation events were inserted in the rainfall series in the position corresponding to the observed Rainfall 12, which started on March 14 at 9 am, having the cumulative depths for 10 minutes intervals 55

presented in Table 16. Two external precipitation files Precipitation T2.txt and Precipitation T5.txt were created and assigned individually to all subcatchments (Appendix 9). Table 16: Design Rainfall 12 for 2 and 5 years of recurrence time t (h:min) P2yr (mm) 9:00 0 9:10 9:20 9:30 9:40 t (h:min) P5yr (mm) 9:00 0 9:10 12.95 9:20 25.90 9:30 38.85 9:40 51.80

9.47 18.94 28.41 37.88

4.4.2 Alternative 1: Isolated use of open drainage channels

To simulate the performance of the isolated use of open drainage channels, 26 nodes and links to represent the drainage infrastructures dimensioned in the ESF project for a 5 year recurrence time but not constructed were added (Tables 17 and 18). However, it is important to mention that infrastructures already built by this project in Maxaquene A for sub-basins 1 and 2 correspond two a recurrence time of 2 years and for them updated dimensions were used. Table 17: Inverted elevation of nodes added to simulate Alternative 1 Node Node N2.4 N4.5 N2.5 N5.1 N2.6 N5.2 N3.1 N5.3 N3.2 N5.4 N3.3 N5.5 N3.4 N5.6 N3.5 N5.7 N3.6 N5.8 N3.7 N4.1 N4.2 N4.4 N4.3

IE (m) 27.62 28.37 28.27 26.04 27.30 28.75 29.85 30.15 29.32 30.63 27.13 28.90 30.25 N5.9 N5.10 N5.11 IE (m) 30.51 28.29 28.42 29.58 29.77 30.34 30.35 32.72 35.65 30.46 30.24 35.50 30.02 Table 18: Variable parameters for new rectangular open channel links Link C2S3 C2S4 C2S5 C3S1 C3S2 C3S3 C3S4 C3S5 C3S6 C3S7 C4S1in C4S1 C4S2 Inlet N2.4 N2.5 N2.3 N3.1 N3.2 N3.3 N3.4 N3.5 N3.6 N3.7 N4.1 N4.2 N4.3 Outlet N2.3 N2.4 N2.6 N5 N3.1 N3.2 N3.3 N3.4 N3.3 N3.6 N7 N4.1 N4.2 Length Height Width (m) (m) (m) 98.56 41.81 283.56 9.69 72.19 144.63 150.04 18.33 87.63 134.23 2.00 99.66 200.61 0.70 0.70 0.70 0.80 0.80 0.80 0.80 0.80 0.80 0.80 0.70 0.70 0.70 0.80 0.80 0.80 0.80 0.80 0.80 0.80 0.80 0.80 0.80 0.80 0.80 0.80 Link C4S3 C4S4 C5S1in C5S1 C5S2 C5S3 C5S4 C5S5 C5S6 C5S7 C5S8 C5S9 C5S10 Inlet Outlet N4.4 N4.5 N5.1 N5.2 N5.3 N5.4 N5.5 N5.6 N5.7 N5.8 N5.9 N5.10 N5.11 N4.3 N4.4 N8 N5.1 N5.2 N5.3 N5.4 N5.5 N5.6 N5.7 N5.3 N5.4 N5.6 Length Height Width (m) (m) (m) 38.95 11.95 2.00 46.67 161.18 26.84 66.50 59.37 144.49 63.44 146.31 96.64 129.80 0.70 0.70 0.80 0.80 0.80 0.80 0.80 0.80 0.80 0.80 0.45 0.50 0.60 0.80 0.80 1.00 1.00 1.00 1.00 1.00 1.00 1.00 1.00 0.80 0.60 0.80

Two subcatchments were dived to make possible the introduction of flows in most upstream nodes of new links. Consequently, subcatchment S2A-FA was dived to form S2A2-FA and subcatchment S3A-FA to form S3A2-FA. The outlet node for 10 subcatchments were changed as most of the flow between 56

subcatchments were directed to new nodes and links. New properties for changed subcatchments are presented in Table 19, with changes highlighted. Table 19: Variable parameters values for new and modified subcatchments Subcatchment S2A-FA S2A2-FA S3A-FA S3A2-FA S3B-FA S4B-FA S4A-FA S4A S5A S5B S5C S5D-FA Area (ha) 5.84 0.76 1.51 0.09 1.38 1.69 4.04 1.38 1.99 1.80 2.10 1.21 % Imperviousness 60 60 70 70 65 65 65 65 65 65 65 60 Width (m) 256 108 94 29 90 129 140 74 96 83 106 133 Slope (%) 0.63 0.63 0.83 0.83 0.98 0.67 0.53 0.39 3.04 2.79 0.67 0.72 Outlet node N2.6 N2.5 N3.7 N3.5 N3.3 N4.5 N4.3 N4.2 N5.8 N5.11 N5.10 N5.9

4.4.3 Alternative 2: Combination of subsurface solutions and open drainage channels

To simulate the performance of combined open drainage channels with drains, 26 nodes and links were added to represent additional perforated pipes in the model created for Alternative 1 (Tables 20 and 21). Table 20: Inverted elevation for added drain nodes Node IE (m) Node IE (m) D2.4 26.72 D4.4 29.35 D2.5 D4.5 D2.6 D5.1 D3.1 D5.2 D3.2 D5.3 D3.3 D5.4 D3.4 29.05 D5.5 29.54 D3.5 29.71 D5.6 30.05 D3.6 28.32 D5.9 29.31 D3.7 29.63 D5.10 29.14 D4.1 26.93 D5.11 30.60 D4.2 28.30 D4.3 29.12

27.47 27.37 25.84 29.81 28.09 28.19

26.50 27.95 28.78 28.97

To represent the groundwater flow from an additional number of nine subcatchments with inundation problems aquifer and groundwater properties were assigned to them (Table 22).

4.4.4 Alternative 3: infiltration trenches with perforated pipes

To simulate this last alternative, all secondary and tertiary drainage channels added for Alternative 1 were eliminated in the model created for the second alternative. Therefore, only the added links representing the perforated pipes remained in the model for Alternative 2, corresponding to the implementation of isolated sub-surface drainage solutions. Maps with subcatchments delimitation, nodes and links representing all this alternative can be found on Appendix 9.

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Table 21: Variable parameters for new drain links added for Alternative 2 Link d2S3 d2S4 d2S5 d3S1 d3S2 d3S3 d3S4 d3S5 d3S6 d3S7 d4S1in d4S1 Inlet D2.4 D2.5 D2.3 D3.1 D3.2 D3.3 D3.4 D3.5 D3.6 D3.7 D4.1 D4.2 Outlet D2.3 D2.4 D2.6 D5 D3.1 D3.2 D3.3 D3.4 D3.3 D3.6 D7 D4.1 Length (m) 98.56 41.81 283.56 9.69 72.19 144.63 150.04 18.33 87.63 134.23 2.00 99.66 Link d4S2 d4S3 d4S4 C5S1in d5S1 d5S2 d5S3 d5S4 d5S5 C5S8 C5S9 C5S10 Inlet D4.3 D4.4 D4.5 D5.1 D5.2 D5.3 D5.4 D5.5 D5.6 D5.9 D5.10 D5.11 Outlet D4.2 D4.3 D4.4 D8 D5.1 D5.2 D5.3 D5.4 D5.5 D5.3 D5.4 D5.6 Length (m) 200.61 38.95 11.95 2.00 46.67 161.18 26.84 66.50 59.37 146.31 96.64 129.80

Table 22: Added groundwater flow coefficients and parameters used on their estimation for additional flooding areas considered in model created for Alternative 2 Subcatchment Node Aquifer S2A-FA S2A2-FA S3A-FA S3A2-FA S3B-FA S4B-FA S4A-FA S5D-FA S5E-FA D2.6 D2.5 D3.7 D3.5 D3.3 D4.5 D4.3 D5.9 D5.4 Aq29 Aq29 Aq31 Aq31 Aq29 Aq31 Aq31 Aq31 Aq31 K (m/s) 6.25E-6 6.25E-6 6.25E-6 2.08E-6 6.25E-6 2.08E-6 2.08E-6 2.08E-6 2.08E-6 L (m) 180 160 85 85 240 190 200 160 150 b0 (m) 10.45 10.55 10.71 10.79 11.03 10.89 10.20 10.39 10.05 De (m) 2.64 2.88 4.21 4.22 2.21 2.60 2.41 2.85 2.92 A1 3.09E-5 3.91E-5 4.61E-5 4.61E-5 1.74E-5 9.22E-6 8.32E-6 1.30E-5 1.48E-5 A2 8.50E-4 1.18E-3 2.08E-3 2.10E-3 4.24E-4 2.61E-4 2.04E-4 4.34E-4 3.85E-4 A3 7.79E-6 1.06E-5 1.81E-5 1.80E-5 3.48E-5 2.20E-5 1.96E-5 3.57E-5 4.30E-5

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5 RESULTS AND DISCUSSION

The objective of this thesis work was to analyse the influence of sub-surface drainage solutions on the magnitude of ponding areas and groundwater level in Maxaquene A, peak flows and time for peak in existing drainage infrastructures serving this neighbourhood. Based on this, the results of the simulated alternatives will be reviewed and the efficiency of proposed solutions will be discussed considering their hydraulic performance and other relevant cross-cutting issues.

5.1 Results
Simulation results will be presented in four sections, corresponding the first to the base condition which will be used to compare the output values after eliminating contributions from the upstream neighbourhood Maxaquene B. The simulation period comprised 28 days from February 15 to March 14. Five links, representing terminal portions of each secondary drainage channel and perforated pipes were chosen to compare the computed flows. In a similar way, five subcatchments were chosen, with three of them representing areas with flooding problems in different aquifers.

5.1.1 Influence of a drainage channel along Milagre Mabote avenue

To analyze the effects of sub-surface drainage solutions in Maxaquene A, a scenario with an open drainage channel built along Milagre Mabote avenue, intercepting upstream runoff from Maxaquene B was considered. The introduction of this channel would imply a reduction in runoff contribution to approximately half of its initial value (Figure 28).

Figure 28: Changes in flows at Point 2 for a drainage channel built along Milagre Mabote avenue As can be seen in Figure 28, there is a clear reduction in peak flow if a channel along Milagre Mabote avenue is considered, with peak value decreasing from 4275 to 3113 l/s at Point 2. If the peak inflow 59

estimated in 1547 l/s at Point 1 is assumed constant during the analyzed period, it can be assumed that the contribution from the study area to the main drainage channel will decrease in 43% from 2728 to 1566 l/s. The new peak flow value in the main channel will be reached 14 minutes early.

5.1.2 Alternative 1: Isolated use of open drainage channels

With the construction of tertiary and secondary open drainage channels serving all Maxaquene A sub-basins, a peak flow at Point 2 in the main drainage channel equal to 2902 l/s, occurring 52 minutes after the beginning of the rain event, was found for a precipitation with a recurrence time of 2 years. For a precipitation with a recurrence time of 5 years, the peak flow increased to 5755 l/s with a decrease in time for peak to 32 minutes after the start of the rainfall. However, it is important to mention that the inflows considered at Point 1 were the values measured during the field work meaning that the flows at Point 2 can be higher than the computed values, specially for 5 years of recurrence time. The trapezoidal cross section of the main channel, with a bottom width equal to 2.0 m, depth 2.02 m and slide slopes of 1:2 (V:H), gives for its flatter extension (i = 0.48) and a Manning coefficient of 0.024 m/s1/3 a flow capacity of 11932 l/s which is two times greater than the observed flow for 5 years recurrence time, meaning that the its size is big enough to accommodate the runoff originated in Maxaquene A. The computation results did not indicate the occurrence of flooding problems for the precipitation with recurrence time of 2 years, although surcharge occurred in links BC1 and BC3 which represent two existing box culverts. For a recurrence time of 5 years, all three links representing box culverts were surcharged with flooding occurring in their upstream nodes. However, flood occurrence in this channel can not be seen as something negative for this last recurrence time as it was dimensioned for a precipitation intensity with 2 years of return period (Salat, 2008). Another important point to mention is that, for a recurrence time of 5 years, the biggest flow values were not observed in link V1, which is the most downstream portion of the main channel. This was possible due to the presence of box culverts which revealed to have a limited capacity for such magnitude of flows, preventing the biggest peak flow, 16142 l/s, measured in link V4 which precedes BC3, to be felt downstream. On a similar way to the primary drainage system, no floods or surcharged were observed in constructed and projected secondary and tertiary drainage channels for a precipitation with a recurrence time of 2 years. For a recurrence time of 5 years, the channels built for sub-basins 1 and 2, projected for a return period of 2 years, were not surcharged, being the only exception the tertiary channel represented by link C2S5 which serves the biggest subcatchment in the created model, S2A-FA. Besides this, surcharged was also observed in most downstream portions of secondary channels draining sub-basins 3 and 5, represented by links C3S1 and C5S1, and in tertiary channel serving subcatchment S5C represented by link C5S9. Peak flow values at the end of all five secondary channels for a recurrence time of 5 years are presented in Figure 29.

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Figure 29: Peak flow at secondary drainage channels for a precipitation with 2 years of recurrence time As was mentioned on the previous sections of this report, groundwater level and flow can not be accounted for without introducing nodes to represent sub-surface solutions with groundwater flowing into them. Therefore, groundwater levels and flow results are not presented for Alternative 1. Besides this, surface storage is not an output parameter possible to be visualized implying that this parameter which was chosen to represent the ponded water will not be evaluated in all simulated alternatives. From the precipitation volume, equal to 111.0 mm during the simulated period for a recurrence time of 2 years, evaporation and infiltration losses were estimated equal to 7.8 and 78.6 mm, respectively, being the surface runoff equal to 24.5 mm (Table 23). The groundwater flow volume was estimated equal to 72.4 mm. For a recurrence time of 5 years, the precipitated volume increased to 163.8 mm with correspondent increases in runoff and infiltration volumes to 72.7 mm and 83.2 mm, respectively. Peak runoff values at analysed subcatchments were influenced buy their area, with larger subcatchments presenting higher peaks (Figure 30).

5.1.3 Alternative 2: Combination of subsurface solutions and open drainage channels

With the construction of tertiary and secondary open drainage channels associated with perforated pipes to drain the sub-surface water, computed peak flow and time for peak at Point 2 equalled the values found for Alternative 1, 2902 l/s and 52 minutes for a recurrence time of 2 years. A slight increase to 5758 l/s was observed for a recurrence time of 5 years with peak time occurring 32 minutes after the start of the rainfall.

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Table 23: Computed precipitation, runoff, infiltration, evaporation and groundwater flow volumes Description Initial condition Drainage channel built along Milagre Mabote Av. Alternative 1, T = 2 years Alternative 1, T = 5 years Alternative 2, T = 2 years Alternative 2, T = 5 years Alternative 3, T = 2 years Alternative 3, T = 5 years Precipit. Runoff Infiltration Evaporat. GW flow V1 peak Peak time (mm) (mm) (mm) (mm) (mm) (l/s) (hh:mm) 115.5 115.5 111.0 163.8 111.0 163.8 111.0 163.8 19.1 20.0 24.5 72.7 24.5 72.7 20.4 68.9 87.8 87.1 78.6 83.2 78.6 83.2 82.6 87.0 8.6 8.4 7.8 7.8 7.8 7.8 7.9 7.9 77.5 76.2 72.4 72.4 36.0 36.0 36.3 36.3 4275.7 3119.2 2901.9 5755.3 2902.0 5758.3 2471.5 5610.7 14:37 14:23 09:52 09:32 09:52 09:32 09:53 09:33

Figure 30: Peak runoffs at analysed subcatchments for a recurrence time of 2 years Also in a similar way to Alternative 1, the computation results did not indicate occurrence of flood in all nodes and surcharged was only observed in links BC1 and BC3 for a recurrence time of 2 years. For a recurrence time of 5 years, beside the surcharged links representing the open drainage channels, surcharged was also observed in three terminal secondary drains d2S1in, d3S1 and d5S1in. These three also presented negative flows which can be understood as their join the main drainage channel below the secondary channel bottom elevation, implying that if the water depth is too high in the primary channel water will flow into them instead of flowing out from them. The peak flows values in analysed links representing the open secondary and tertiary drainage channels and peak runoffs in analysed subcatchments did not show changes in their magnitudes, as values similar to Alternative 1 were obtained. The perforated pipe and groundwater flows revealed 62

themselves as not being too much influenced by the occurrence of precipitation. Additionally, their values are significantly low when compared with peak flows from open channels and peak runoffs from subcatchments (Figure 31). However, this is a flow which does not cease after the end of the rainfall continuing for days.

Figure 31: Groundwater flow from subcatchments for Alternative 2 and a recurrence time of 2 years The influence of precipitation in groundwater level can be noticed for big rainfall events. As it is illustrated on Figure 32, jumps can be easily noticed for days 2, 11, 17, 18 and 27 after the start of the simulation, corresponding to precipitation depths of 11.6, 40.0, 6.9, 3.9 and 37.9 mm, respectively.

Figure 32: Fluctuations in groundwater level for subcatchment S1B-FA Considering a linear develop for the groundwater level drawdown curve, the drawdown rate can be estimated. Taking the groundwater levels on days four and eleven, 27.61 and 27.56 m (Figure 35), a drawdown rate of 0.7 cm/day can be obtained for subcatchment S1B-FA. No changes were observed in computed runoff, infiltration and evaporation volumes from the precipitation input (Table 23). On the other hand, the system groundwater flow volume reduced from 72.4 to 36.0 mm. This decrease is caused by the reduced groundwater coefficient values added to characterize groundwater flow from subcatchments belonging to sub-basins 3 to 5. This fact is 63

illustrated in Figure 31 where groundwater flow from subcathments S3A-FA and S3B-FA are lower than the computed values for subcatchment S1B-FA.

5.1.4 Alternative 3: Isolated use of infiltration trenches with perforated pipes

When only infiltration trenches with perforated pipes are used, changes can be observed in subcatchments peak runoff as some subcatchments will receive surface flow from upstream tributary areas (also called runon) when tertiary open channels which delimited their surfaces are not considered. This was the case of subcatchment S5C which had is runoff increased from 218 to 419 l/s as it receives runon from its upstream subcatchment S5A (Table 24). No changes were noticed in groundwater flow peaks from subcatchments when changing from Alternative 2 to 3. The peak flow in the main drainage channel reduced from 2902.0 to 2471.5 l/s and from 5758.3 to 5610.7 l/s, for 2 and 5 years of recurrence time, respectively, with peak occurring one minute later (Table 23). Changes were also noticed in runoff, infiltration and groundwater flow volumes. For a recurrence time of 2 years, the runoff decreased from 24.5 to 20.4 mm and infiltration increased from 78.6 to 88.6 mm. Groundwater flow volume changed slightly, increasing from 36.0 to 36.3 mm. Table 24: Changes in runoff peaks when drainage channels are not considered Peak runoff from subcatchments (l/s) S1B-FA 59.80 59.80 S3A-FA 42.18 42.54 S3B-FA 53.08 132.51 S4A 135.63 226.46 S5C 217.84 419.35

Subcatchment With drainage channels (A1 & A2) Without drainage channels (A3)

Groundwater flow and flows in perforated pipes were also not significantly influenced by precipitation events. Their values are comparatively low, being below 3 l/s, with exceptions only in terminal pipe sections where discharges to main drainage channel occurs, being affected by water depth on this last, as it was the case of link d5S1in for a precipitation with a recurrence time of 2 years (Figure 33). Jumps in subcatchments' groundwater level were also possible to be observed and no changes were identified in drawdown rates.

5.2 Discussion
The discussion is presented in three sections corresponding the first to appreciation of used methods, measurements and validity of the created model. The following two sections do the comparison of analysed solutions and approaches and cover some aspects which are important for their successful implementation.

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Figure 33: Changes in drain flow after a precipitation event with a recurrence time of 2 years

5.2.1 Overall methodology, measurements and validity

The methods adopted to develop the current research made possible to reach part of setted aims. The software chosen for modelling and simulation, although revealed itself easy to operate and some sub-surface drainage solutions could be represented in a simplified way, did not make possible the assessment of ponding areas and time in subcatchments representing areas with flooding problems. This frustrated the possibilities to evaluate the effects of proposed solutions to reduce the occurrence and extension of flooded areas in Maxaquene A. Despite this, SWMM satisfactorily represented the processes which originates runoff from subcatchments. The extension of the study area, which was divided in 32 subcatchments with a big number of links and nodes to represent the existing and projected drainage infrastructures, contributed to increase the model complexity and the time required for its creation before the simulation of pre-defined alternatives. Measurements of precipitation and water levels in the main drainage channel during a limited time of six weeks, in a hydrological year which were considered dry, prevented the recording of precipitation events in number enough to validate the created model. The barometric compensation performed for absolute water pressures from Point 2 with atmospheric pressures measured at Point 1 affected the water level values calculated for this last section. This two monitoring points, representing the inflows and outflows in the channel portion serving Maxaquene A, were located in a drainage infrastructure which serves other sub-basins before reaching the study area. Therefore, it was dimensioned to accommodate high flow values, reducing its sensitiveness (water level fluctuations) for small precipitation events.

65

The application of the runoff component of the created model is limited by the fact that it was not validated due to lack of measurement of rain events with significant changes in water level at monitoring Point 2, besides the absence of its validation against extension and flooded areas and duration of flooding time. The performance of the groundwater component could be improved if groundwater levels were monitored during the field work. Nevertheless, these findings do not withdraw the model capacity to show trends in simulated phenomenons even if their magnitudes are not well estimated and it can be considered useful. The fact that no changes were observed in surface runoff volume, peak flow and time for peak when comparing Alternatives 1 and 2, i.e. with the introduction of sub-surface drainage solutions, as well as in infiltrated volume suggest that this last is not influenced by sub-surface conditions and water content below the subcatchment surface. This gives and indication that another infiltration method, such as the Green-Ampt, should be used to better represent the infiltration into the soil taking into account the moisture conditions, and to achieve a better interaction between runoff and groundwater flow sub-models.

5.2.2 Comparative analysis of proposed solutions

Hydraulic and hydrogeological performance

Results from the three simulated alternatives clearly show that only open surface solutions, represented by open drainage channels, can contribute to reduce runoff, and only sub-surface solutions can have a satisfactory effect in lowering the groundwater level in areas with a high water table. This finding is supported by the observed increase in runoff peaks when tertiary and secondary drainage channels are removed (Alternative 2 to 3), with no changes observed with introduction of sub-surface solutions (Alternative 1 to 2) as can be seen in Table 24. Similar behaviour was observed for peak flows in the main drainage channel which did not present any change when perforated pipes were introduced. A decrease on its magnitude, from 2902.0 to 2471.5 l/s, was only observed when secondary drainage channels were eliminated (Alternative 2 to 3) as can be seen in Table 23. The existing primary drainage channel can convey without major problems the runoff from Maxaquene A sub-basin for a precipitation event with a recurrence time of 2 years. The introduction of sub-surface solutions will not affect the performance of the main drainage channel as the flow in perforated pipes do not react rapidly to precipitation events, not presenting a considerable fluctuation along the time. Additionally, their magnitudes are too small when compared with peak surface runoff and peak flows in open channels, which are hundred to thousand times greater (Figures 30 and 31). It is also important to note that the construction of a drainage channel along Milagre Mabote avenue will give a noticeable contribution to increase the main channel filling capacity as the surface flow from Maxaquene B corresponds to 43% of the current surface runoff from Maxaquene A. Flooding and surcharged problems where also not observed in secondary and tertiary drainage channels built and projected for Maxaquene A for precipitation events with a recurrence time of 2 66

years. This return period was used to dimension the existing infrastructures, tertiary and secondary channels serving sub-basins 1 and 2 and primary drainage channel along Acordos de Lusaka avenue. For the primary drainage channel, the box culverts, installed to make possible the vehicles access to streets which cross Maxaquene A, are critical elements which increase the water depth in their inlet nodes. This occurs as they have an approximate height of 1 m which causes a reduction on the channel depth portion were flow can occurs in 0.5 m on average. Sub-surfaces solutions, represented by Alternatives 2 and 3, contributed to lower the groundwater water level in subcatchments with a high phreatic level although the groundwater flow and drawdown rate were considerable low. The estimated drawdown rate for subcatchment S1B-FA, which is around 0.7 cm/d, imply that a significant reduction of the phreatic level would require a long period without heavy rainfalls which cause rapid increases on groundwater level, e.g. 100 days for 0.7 m. The effectiveness of projected infiltration trenches with perforated pipes to serve subcatchments bigger than S1B-FA can be questioned as groundwater flow from them is reduced (Figure 31) and consequently the drawdown rate. This is the case of subcatchment S3B-FA which presents a groundwater flow rate below 0.1 l/s during all simulation period, for which the inputs from heavy precipitation events cause an increase in groundwater level which is more significant than the accumulated decrease during periods without precipitation (Figure 34).

Figure 34: Changes in groundwater level with time in analyzed subcatchments However, it is important to note that SWMM threats the groundwater water in each subcatchment independently from surrounding subcatchments while in a real situation there is an interaction between groundwater in different adjacent areas as subcatchments' limits for surface water do not correspond to groundwater limits. Another important point which was not considered is that groundwater in an aquifer is not static but is flowing from high to low levels. This water movement can contribute to increase the groundwater drawdown in all subcatchments. However, this also 67

implies that not only a groundwater outflow will occur from our study area but also a groundwater inflow, as can be the case of subsurface flows from the upstream neighbourhood of Maxaquene B which can continue after the construction of the projected open drainage channel along Milagre Mabote avenue. From Figure 26 on Sensitivity Analysis section, it is clearly illustrated that the distance between perforated pipes is the factor with most significant effect on drawdown rate. This finding is reinforced and can be justified by the noticeable increase in groundwater flow coefficients from subcatchment S2A-FA and S3A-FA, observed with a decrease in distance between perforated drainage pipes from 160 to 85 m (Table 19). The soil hydraulic conductivity also influences the groundwater flow and the drawdown rate but in a lower extent.
Construction costs

Construction costs for 340 m of secondary and tertiary rectangular open drainage channels and infiltration trenches with an under perforated pipe to serve sub-basin 2, which are being built as part of the second phase of the activities implemented by ESF Project in Maxaquene A, were used to compare the associated costs of each alternative. Detailed material costs for lower drain and drainage channel are presented in Table 25 with values in Meticais (MT), local currency, and Euros (). An exchange rate of 1 corresponding to 34.50 MT was considered. Detailed costs for equipment, machinery and workers' wages can be found in Appendix 7. From values presented in Table 25, a unit total construction cost for a drainage channel with an under perforated pipe of 119.11 (4 016,39 MT) per meter was found. Costs associated with material acquisition, tools and machinery account for 70% of the total cost, being the other 30% used for workers payment. Unit cost for materials, equipment and machinery were estimated in 83,03 /m (2 711.69 MT/m), corresponding 36.18 /m (1 248.21 MT/m) to perforated drain pipe and 40.30 /m (1 390.35 MT/m) to open drainage channel, and the remaining 6.55 /m (225.98 MT/m) for machinery and equipment. Therefore considering that costs associated with workers payment, equipment and machinery are shared in an equal way, a rough estimate gives a share between 40% and 50% of the total construction costs to the sub-surface solution. This will imply that the implementation of combined solutions double the construction costs, meaning that the implementation of Alternative 2 is approximately two times more expensive than Alternatives 1 and 3. It is also important to mention that costs related to workers payment are considerable low as voluntaries from the neighbourhood, receiving less than the minimum wage, were employed, working 8 hours per day. The experience from the ESF Project gives a minimum construction rate of 4 m/d for open drainage channel and 6 m/d for drains, which corresponds to settlement of one perforated pipe. The high phreatic level is the factor which impose most difficulties to the construction work.

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Table 25: Associated construction costs for open drainage channels with an under drain (Source: ESF Project)
Unit Price Total Price Total Price + VAT3 (17%) MT MT 345 520.00 un. un. un. m m
2 2

ID 1

Item Drain (sub-surface solution)

Unit

Qty.

MT 40 4258.40 140 400.00 16 146.00 85 176.00 103 006.80 59 529.60 472 731.63 214 124.86 626.32 20 772.49 44 037.68 110 296.61 7 655.78 3 839.94 1 950.16 21 808.80 16 614.00 11 700.00 19 305.00 45 606.60 19 777.68 423 196.80 942 374.31 423 196.80 1 365 571.11

EUR 12 303.65 4 069.57 468.00 2 468.87 2 985.70 1 725.50 13 702.37 6 206.56 18.15 602.10 1 276.45 3 197.00 221.91 111.30 56.53 632.14 481.57 393.13 559.57 1 321.93 903.27 12 266.57 28 231.21 12 266.57 40 497.79

1.1 Drain pipe 160 mm (length: 6 m) 1.2 Connection accessories 1.3 Inspection box (spaced 25 m) 1.4 Geotextiles (w: 1.80 m, l: 200 m) 1.5 Gravel (d50 = 13 mm) 2 Drainage channel 2.1 Cement (50 kg/bag) 2.2 Water 2.3 Sand 2.4 Gravel 2.4 Steel wires 8 mm (length: 5.8 m) 2.6 Steel wires 10 mm (length: 5.8 m) 2.7 Connecting wires 2.8 Nails (3 inches) 2.9 Wooden beams 3 x 20 x 400 2.10 Geotextiles 2.11 Formwork rent (16 units) 2.12 Collector boxes 3 4 5 Personal equipment Tools and machinery Workers (2 technicians, 2 guards, 25 not qualified) Sub-total materials and equipment Sub-total workers Total construction cost

60 60 14 620 80 714 21 44 59 2043 86 60 30 40 100 1 5

2 000.00 120 000.00 230.00 5 200.00 142.00 636.00 13 800.00 72 800.00 88 040.00 50 880.00 404 044.13

bags m m
3 3

256.41 183 012.70 25.00 400.00 636.00 46.15 76.07 54.70 55.56 466.00 142.00 10 000.00 3 300 533.31 17 754.27 37 639.04 94 270.61 6 543.40 3 282.00 1 666.80 18 640.00 14 200.00 10 000.00 16 500.00 38 980.00 16 904.00 423 196.80

m3 un. un. kg kg un. m

2

vg. un.

5.2.3 Feasibility and cross-cutting issues

Besides the hydraulic, hydrogeological performance and associated construction costs of simulated alternatives, there are other issues which must be taken into consideration during the selection of the most appropriate drainage infrastructure for the study area, relating the technical aspects with the human systems. Three of them which will be briefly presented are the education level, the existence of an effective solid waste collection system and maintenance requirements. The genesis of Maxaquene A neighbourhood is somehow linked with the rural exodus caused by political instabilities and socio-economics gaps between rural and urban areas. Part of the
3 Value Added Tax

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inhabitants of this area do not have what could be called a urban culture and are not aware enough about the implications of leaving in shared urbanized spaces. In Maxaquene A, this idea is supported by occupation of areas reserved for streets, disposal of solid waste and wastewater in drainage channels, and construction of houses above existing drainage infrastructures as it is said to be the case of the circular pipe which conveys the runoff from Noroeste II school. This demands ways to increase the awareness between the local population contributing to increase the sustainability of existing and projected infrastructures. Beside education campaigns, the involvement of local population in planning, design and implementation of local drainage projects can contribute to increase their ownership and zeal of the existing and recently built infrastructures. This principle was implemented by ESF, which recruited 25 people from the neighbourhood to work as voluntaries in the construction activities, and action which contributed to decrease costs associated with wages. The locals are also more likely to care and pay greater attention for built infrastructures as it resulted from their work. Solid waste is indicated as the main factor affecting the operational performance of urban drainage systems (Parkisson & Mark, 2005). This is a reality in Maxaquene A, an area without solid waste collection for the interior parts of the neighbourhood, being only served by few containers located in Acordos de Lusaka and Joaquim Chissano avenues. This tempts the inhabitants of this areas to dump the garbage along the streets and in existing open channels, as pits can not be excavated in all yards due to the lack of space and the high phreatic level (Figure 35), although a garbage collection tax is paid for all as it is included in the energy bill. The garbage deposited inside channels or dragged by runoff prevents water from flowing freely in these structures causing blockage and sedimentation which, on their turn, reduce the flow capacity. Although a major extent of the existing open channels are affected by the wrong deposition of solid waste, it is possible to observe inside the neighbourhood areas where the residents clean the channels in front of their houses after rainfall events in order to improve their performance (Figure 36). The drainage channel section illustrated in Figure 36 gives a good indication about the importance of adoption of positive attitudes and the impact of community based initiatives to fill the gaps left by governmental agencies, as it is the absence of a solid waste collection systems, and a reduced number of workers to maintain the existing drainage infrastructures. Therefore, before the reduced workers employed by municipal agencies to clean the drainage channels who only do they work in main primary channels, the local community can be sensitized for the maintenance of channel sections in front of their houses and for correct handling and garbage disposal. Another possibility is the use of existing community based organizations or contract people from the neighbourhood for cleaning activities, although these involve additional costs to be supported by the residents if no financial support from local authorities is granted.

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Figure 35: Garbage deposited inside a drainage channel

Figure 36: Drainage channel cleaned by surrounding residents

When comparing the three analysed drainage alternatives, open drainage channels, represented by Alternative 1, seem to be more exposed to problems caused by low educational level and absence of a solid waste collection system. However, their regular maintenance can be done with local available resources, human and equipments, not demanding specific techniques as it is the case of sub-surface solutions represented by Alternative 3. Another important point to note is that a combination of open channels with perforated pipes for sub-surface drainage, represented by Alternative 2, can increase the difficulties in accessing the under pipe drain although inspection boxes can be provided. However, these are mainly used to control the flow inside the drains as it decreases with time due to the silt up of the porous material which surrounds the perforated pipe. For them, prevention with use of geotextiles as filtering material during its construction is indicated as the best solution to increase their lifetime which can reach a couple of decades, being indispensable to replace the filling material after this period (Sthare, 2006).

5.2.4 Selection matrix

The main aspects which can influence on the selection of the most appropriate solution for neighbourhoods with characteristics similar to Maxaquene A are presented in Table 26. To reach the decision about which solution is going to be implemented, different weights should be adopted to each indicator, and scores to each alternative. However, this was not performed as it is not intention of the present work to make a judgement about the most important aspects when selecting a drainage option.

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Although it was not possible to assess the storage in depressions along the simulation of different alternatives, it was considered that the runoff reduction with the surface flow being intercepted by open drainage channels and the lowering of the groundwater level, increasing the infiltration possibilities will contribute to reduce the occurrence of water ponding. Table 26: Associated construction costs for open drainage channels with an under drain (Source: ESF Project) Indicator 1 Effective in runoff volume and flow reduce A1: Open A2: Open drainage channels + Sub- A3: Sub-surface drainage channels surface solution solution Yes Yes No

Effective in 2 groundwater level lowering 3 4 Effectiveness in ponding areas reduction Associated construction costs

No

Yes

Yes

Yes Medium Regular but not specialized High

Yes High

Yes Medium

Maintenance 5 requirements 6 Vulnerability to solid wast problems

Regular and not specialized for Not frequent open drainage and not frequent but but specialized specialized for sub-surface solution High for open drainages and low for sub-surface drainage Low

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6 CONCLUSIONS
Sub-surface drainage infrastructures, such as infiltration trenches associated with a perforated pipes, are solutions which can satisfactorily contribute to overcome stormwater drainage problems in Maxaquene A and in other neighbourhoods affected by high phreatic level problems. They can contribute to reduce the occurrence and extent of ponding areas and to lower the groundwater level. However, they can not be implemented effectively in an isolated way as they do not contribute to reduced the peak runoff volumes and flows originated by the the precipitation intensities and depths which occurs in the study area. The existing primary drainage channel which serves the neighbourhood of Maxaquene A, dimensioned for a precipitation intensity with a recurrence period of 2 years, can accommodate the additional inflows from planned sub-surface solutions. This will be possible as the groundwater flow do not react rapidly to precipitation events, with peak groundwater flow occurring hours after the peak runoff. Additionally, the magnitude of peak groundwater flows from Maxaquene A were found as being hundred to thousand times lower than the runoff peaks. Sub-surfaces drainage solutions, represented by Alternatives 2 and 3, will contribute to lower the groundwater level although the drawdown rate seems to be too small, as it was the case of subcatchment S1B-FA for which rate of 0.7 cm/d was estimated. The distance between sub-surface solutions appears as the most critical factor in computed drawdown rates and groundwater flows. A rapid reduction in groundwater level can be achieved if the distance between perforated pipes is decreased which can be done increasing the number of subsurface solutions planned for this area. Although SWMM was able to model satisfactorily the runoff processes and in a simplified way the groundwater flow processes, the current available functions did not make possible to assess the water stored in pervious surfaces depressions, which were chosen to account for storage in ponding areas. This prevented the performance of calibration against ponding areas and time.

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7 RECOMMENDATIONS
7.1 Future research
In order to improve the work of further researches on this topic and performance of created models to represent drainage infrastructures planned to Maxaquene A and other similar areas, the following suggestions should be considered. Field measurements of precipitation events and water levels must be performed during a longer period, with a proposed minimum of 12 weeks in order to increase the possibilities of recording intense and big precipitation events. Water level measurements for flow computations must be undertaken in open drainage channels without inflows from upstream tributary sections. Small basins sections can be adopted to reduce the model complexity and required work, making possible to use the additional time to improve the model. The possibility of using models which enable the representation of flooded areas, being possible to assess ponding volumes and time, should be considered in order to achieve a better evaluation of sub-surface drainage solutions effectiveness on the reduction of these occurrences.

7.2 Proposed actions

For drainage projects to be conceived and implemented in Maxaquene A and neighbourhoods with similar problems of high phreatic level the following suggestion are presented. Adopt a combined solution for storm water drainage associating the open drainage channels to sub-surface solutions in order to couple with both surface and groundwater flows. Limit the distance between perforated pipes to extent which can make possible to achieve drawdown rates not lower than 0.5 cm/d. The possibility of using localized solutions such as infiltration pits in the middle of the catchment, or non-structural solution, such as eucalyptus with high water consumption in open abandoned or unoccupied space, should be considered to increase the drawdown rate.

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APPENDIXES
1. Location of the study area and points of interest inside the neighbourhood 2. Annex of sieving analysis 3. Annex of infiltration tests 4. Annex of hydraulic conductivity tests 5. Udograms and precipitation measurements from Maputo Observatory Station 6. Barographs from Maputo Observatory and Mavalane stations and pressure calculations for Maxaquene A 7. Drainage sub-basins, inundations areas, drainage plan and construction costs from ESF project 8. Sensitivity analysis and calibration tables 9. Work map, project data and report status for calibrated model and simulated alternatives 10. Thesis Article

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