Ch. 8.

Deformation and
Strengthening Mechanisms

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 Motion of the Edge Dislocation

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 The Formation of Steps by the Motion of Dislocations

Slip plane

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 Dislocation Density

The total dislocation length per unit volume

OR
The number of dislocations that intersect a unit area of a random section.

Unit: mm-2

• Heavily deformed metals: 109 – 1010 mm-2

• Heat treatment of the deformed metals: 105 – 106 mm-2
• Typical ceramic materials: 102 – 104 mm-2
• Silicon single crystal: 0.1 – 1 mm-2

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 Strain around a Dislocation

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 Interactions between Dislocations

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 Source of Dislocations

• During plastic deformation, the number of dislocations increases

dramatically.

• Dislocation sources:
1. Existing dislocations -> multiply
2. Grain boundaries
3. Internal defects
4. Surface irregularities (scratches)

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 Slip Systems

• Dislocations move on the preferred planes and preferred directions.

=> Slip planes and slip directions
(slip systems: combination of slip planes and slip directions)

• Slip plane: has most dense atomic packing.

• Slip direction: direction with most closely packed with atoms

FCC (111)[110] slip system

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 Slip Systems

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 Slip in Single Crystals

Slips in a zinc single crystal

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 Plastic Deformation of Polycrystalline Metals

Before After plastic deformation

Slip lines after plastic

deformation

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 Deformation by Twinning

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 Mechanisms of Strengthening in Metals

1. Grain size reduction

2. Solid-solution strengthening

3. Strain hardening

One principle for all strengthening techniques:

Restricting or hindering dislocation motion renders a material
harder and stronger.

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 Strengthening by Grain Size Reduction

1. A dislocation passing into a different grain has to change its

direction of motion.
2. Discontinuity of slip planes within a grain boundary.

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 Strengthening by Grain Size Reduction

σy = σ0 + kyd-1/2
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 Solid-Solution Strengthening

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 Solid-Solution Strengthening

Smaller impurity atom

Larger impurity atom

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 Solid-Solution Strengthening

1. Separation of dislocation from the impurity increases the overall

lattice strain.

2. Strain Interactions between impurity atoms and dislocations.

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 Strain Hardening (Work Hardening)

%CW = 100 × (A0-Ad)/A0

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 Strain Hardening (Work Hardening)

The influence of cold work on the stress-strain behavior for a low-carbon steel

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 Strain Hardening (Work Hardening)

Mechanism

1. Cold work (deformation) increases the dislocation density due

to dislocation multiplication or the formation of new dislocations.

2. The average distance between dislocations decreases.

3. Since dislocation-dislocation strain interactions are repulsive,

the motion of a dislocation is hindered by the presence of other
dislocations.

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 Recovery, Recrystallization, and Grain Growth

• Some fraction of the energy expended in deformation is stored in

the metal as strain energy: tensile, compressive, and shear zones
around the dislocations
• By appropriate heat treatment, the deformed metal can revert
back to the precold-worked states.
1. Recovery: During heating, some of the stored internal strain energy is relieved by
dislocation motion (by atomic diffusion) =>reduction of dislocation density => lower
strain energy.

2. Recrystallization:
• Formation of a new set of strain-free and equiaxed grains.
• Driving force: the difference in internal energy between the strained and
unstrained material.
• Nucleation and then the nuclei grow until they completely consume the parent
material (involving short-range diffusion).

3. Grain Growth:
• The average size of grain increase, the number of grains decrease.
• Driving force: reduction in total energy (decrease of the area of the grain
boundaries)
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 Cold-worked (33%CW) Recrystallizaton after
heating 3s at 580 C

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 Partial recrystallization Complete recrystallization
4s at 580C 8s at 580C

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 Grain growth Grain growth
after 15 min at 580C after 10 min at 700C

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 Grain Growth

dn –don = Kt
n≥2

Driving force: reduction in total energy

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 Grain Growth

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