The End of Majapahit.

Majapahit was the last and greatest of the HIndu-Buddhist

Empires in pre-16th century Island Southeast Asia.

The Rise of Majapahit in the end of the 13th century was motivated by three
factors: (1) Java's volcanic soil (2) rainfall suitable for growing rice (3)
location on the plains of the Solo and Brantas Rivers; and mobilization of of
manpower for the development of land for ricefields or paddies.

Political authority was used to manage the land on the Brantas river plain and the
Island of Madura. The Founder of Majapahit was Raden Vijaya, heir and son of
Kertanagara, often described as an aspiring empire builder. Raden defeated the
MOngols in 1293 but later made peace with them in order to establish trade
relations with Yuan China.

Gaja Mada's successor, Hayam Wuruk (Rajasanagara) (14th cent) conquered all of
Eastern Java, Madura and Bali. Majapahit as empire was even able to establish
relations with Samudra-Pasai, Northern Sumatra, then a pepper depot, with direct
access to the Straits of Malacca. Coasts of Sumatra - copper coins became a local
currency.

Precious metals remained important not as currencies but commodities and

merchandise for the market. The King of Majapahit was devaraja and chakravartin -
he received various donations in kind and cash. The king had the right to share
goods produced in his realm. This insured the king's supply of rice, salt, sugar,
meat, cloth, oil and bamboo. The international traders: Chinese and Indians -
brought gifts for the king.

But the just king (ratu adil) was measured by his generosity. The ruler was
expected to redistribute these gifts in return for works or services of artisans.
A portion of local and imported luxury goods would be distributed to the king's
allies, thus wealth was dispersed throughout the kingdom. His wealth and power
created his prestige.

The monarch both ruled wet-rice (sawah) and maritime realms. But it was his
association with the royal military and wet-rice farmers that insured control.
Generous contributions were made to generals, the Senapati, commander in chief,
coming from the rich commercial elite. Peasant farmers were of great importance.
Neither the royal house nor the market could survive without the farming villages.
The international position of Majapahit (which was in Java) was based on rice. It
was the major commodity harvested from the Moluccas. SPice Islanders came to Java
for rice.

The glory of Majapahit is celebrated in an epic poem, the Nagarakertagama,

composed in 1365 by the Buddhist monk Prapanca in order to glorify Majapahit
rulers. It begins with the reign of Kertanagara. He was an ascetic saint, a
devotee of a Shiva-BUddha cult.

Majapahit rapidly declined in importance after the death of Hayam Wuruk. A war of
succession between rival lords (1401-06) weakened the kingdom, at that time when
the ISlamic state of Malacca in the Malay peninsula emerged.

Struggle for control of the spice trade.

By the beginning of the 16th century, Majapahit had fallen into a local polity. It
faded from view as Moslem polities from the North Coast of Java (known as the
Pasisir), appeared and seized control of the affairs of Java. Pasisir consists of
Cirebon, Semarang and Pekalongan (batik town). Majapahit at this time was no
longer able to secure the straits of Malacca. Ming China intervened to police the
Straits with Majapahit approval.

Admiral Ch'eng Ho was sent, a Yunanese Muslim from Southern China to clean out a
Chinese pirate nest at Palembang. Economic forces ultimately weakened Majapahit's
control of its maritime realm. The Spice business grew so great that Majapahit
could no longer contain it.

Early 16th century: Sumatran pepper ports: such as Banda Aceh were exporting
pepper primarily to China in competition with INdian pepper traders from the
Malabar coast. In 1513, a coalition of Javanese coastal communities attacked
Majapahit. Independent coastal trading communities with international links to
Indian Muslims from the State of Gujarat in the Malabar coast; Chinese Muslims
from Yunan; Persians and Arabians.

Coastal communities converted to Islam. 1527 - Majapahit was defeated by several

north coast ISlamic state under the sultanate of Demak (Central Java). 1528 -
Majapahit royal family fled to Bali; followed by Islamization of Java, and the
Emergence of the sUltanates in the Island World.

With the arrival of Islam, different architectural forms were needed.

Anthropomorphism of Hindu-Buddhism was taboo. Since the 16th century, Islam became
firmly established in Java. However, syncretism remained strong. ISLAM -
'submission' its faith requires complete submission to the law of a single God,
al-Lah. Its adherents believed that its priciples were revealed in the 7th century
to his Rasul (prophet), Muhammad. Muhammad incorporated his revelations into the
Qur'an.

Around the end of the 13th century, Sunni Islam was adopted among port cities.
This conversion extended northwards to Malay Peninsula even reaching Champa,
Borneo, Mindanao, Sulu (tausug, maranao, maguindanao). In the case of Burma, Islam
spread to the Arakhan region overland from INdia. They are called Rohingya(s),
name of Muslim community. They are descendants of Arab and Persian traders from
India who settled and inter-married since from the 9th century in several hundred
years.

Muslims do not eat pork. They were commanded as their first duty, to build a
community, an UMMAH, characterized by social justice, practical compassion, where
there was a fair distribution of wealth. The Ummah was the community, a religious
one, a community of believers. Outside of the uMmah, were the Kafir(s), infidels,
unbelievers, enemies of the Islamic faith that threaten the Ummah.

Its political and social welfare would have sacramental value to Muslims. If it is
prosperous, they were following God's will in a truly Islamic community. Islam
began in Mecca in 610 AD, not among nomads, but among city-dwellers in which long
distance trade between Mediterranean and Indian Ocean via West Coast of Arabia by
caravan trade route. 570 - around this time was the birth of Muhammad, year of the
Elephant according to tradition. His mother, Aminah, died when he was six (thus
orphans have a special place in Islam), for a time he had been given to a wet
nurse, belonging to a nomadic tribe, bedouins, later called Arabs.

When he was old enough, he made his living as caravan manager for a wealthy widow
named Khadija, who went on trading journeys to Syria. Maritime Islam of SOutheast
Asia. Camels made the desert passable. the camel is able to carry 25o kg and even
up to 600 kg. It can cover 160 kilometers a day. Maximal temperature of 57 degrees
celsius up to 8 days without drinking. The camel made tribal migrations possible.
It made the camel-breeding Bedouins the lords of the Arabian peninsula.

The camel must have spread very quickly to tribes in need of it. Its adoption had
never had military significance. It did not lead to the establishment of Empires,
unlike the Horse. Khadija offered Muhammad her hand in marriage, he accepted. He
is said to have been 25; she 40 to 45. She bore him, it is said, at least 6
children, of whom, only four daughters survived, including Fatimah (one of the
four perfect women in Islam).

Muhammad had 11 marriages. Polygamy was common in Arabia, as security against loss
of men in the numerous wars. Khadija was the first wife and the first convert to
Islam. 610 AD - Muhammad came to believe he is receiving messages from God which e
was to convey to his fellow Meccans. His revelations were lated collected, forming
the Qur'an.

Muhammad sincerely believed his revelations were not his, but the actual words of
God conveyed through JIBRAIL.

THE RISE OF ISLAM

The rise of Islam marks the end of the Jahiliyya, 'age of innocence, originally
used to describe pre-Islamic period. The term is now applied to any society, even
nominally Muslim, who has turned its back upon God and refused to submit to God's
will. Munafiqun - nominal Muslims, branded in the Qur'an as hypocrites.

The Qur'an means 'recitation.' Muhammad himself was illiterate. Public readings of
the Qur'an made sure that even those who cannot read can also hear of the words of
Muhammad. The chapters of the Qur'an are called SURA(s). Short chapters: God was
one, both merciful and powerful, controlling the course of events.

The Qur'an speaks of al-Lah as having these attributes: (1) will (2) knowledge (3)
hearing (4) sight (5) speech. God's goodness is shown by the way he provides
sustenance for his followers. He created the world and would judge men in the last
days. "There will be a day in the future, the day of judgement when God would
judge human beings according to their acts. The dead would be awakened and the
good will go to FIRDAUS (paradise) or SORGA (heaven) and the evil to hell
(NERAKA), the abode of SAITAN and JINN(s). They have no purgatory.

The day of judgement is certain and indisputable. it is not enough to believe in

it. The pious man trembles before the final hour. The signs of the final hour are:
(1) knowledge shall dwindle and ignorance shall appear in the form of atheism,
disbelief, refusal to submit to al-Lah (2) Fornication: sexual intercourse between
partners not married to each other (3) Women will abound in number and men will
decrease in number, until there shall be one man for every fifty women, as a
result of war.

Muhammad was called the Prophet, the NABI; he sought to end tribalism with an
Islamic community: Ummah (Islamic Globalism / Internationalism); he became leader
of those who accepted his words. Messenger of God "Rasul." He is said to be the
last and the greatest of the prophets. THe Seal. the most intelligent. he was not
divine. His message was the same as that of David, Solomon and Abraham. He simply
built upon and perfected their examples and teachings.

He never asked Jews and Christians to accept Islam, unless they wanted to, because
Jews and Christians received perfectly valid revelations of their own. There shall
be no coercion in matters of faith. Respect Jews and Christians, whom the Qur'an
calls the "People of the Book" or "People of an Earlier Revelation." The Qur'an
tells that God expects people to be generous with their wealth. "As for the
orphans, oppress not; as for the beggars refuse not." Widows and orphans because
of war.

The Qur'an talks that generous use of wealth should be an aspect of human conduct.
"Islamic HUmanism." it was wrong to build a private fortune but good to share
wealth and create a society where the weak and vulnerable were treated with
respect. If people did not mend their ways, their society would collapse because
they were violating the fundamental law of existence. "you do not exist for
yourself alone, but for others." Attitude to wealth was condemnation, especially
to those who do nothing but gather more wealth, thinking wealth will make them
immortal.

The miser, the greedy and avaricious would be treated adversely on the last day,
because they treated the poor with ridicule. On the last day, they will have no
friend. Meccan merchants who are after profit were aroused to vigorous opposition
by Muhammad's criticisms. Pagans or infidel merchants spoke of the pagan Gods. He
emphasized one God. Merchants were often described as pecuniary, often spoke of
money and profit. The Qur'an emphasized charity and generosity.

We must all be givers. Persecution of Muslims by Meccan merchants followed. This

made it impossible for Muhammad to continue preaching in Mecca. 622 A.D. Muhammad,
along with 70 Muslim families immigrted to Medina (Yathrib) al-Madinah 'the city.'
This flight of the 1st Muslim community was known as the Hegirah (Hijrah); an
event marking the beginning of the Muslim era. Year of the Prophet.

June 16, 622 was the year of the Hijrah. In Medinah, Muhammad became a sayyid
(chief) and he is to have a big harem. His wives have occassioned a great deal of
interest. His 11 marriages were for a variety of reasons. SOme for personal
affinity, some were widows with no one to turn to, while others were politically
motivated to create and maintain alliances. AISHA was only 9 years old and was
possibly an orphan. She was born in 614, daughter of ABu Bakr, it seems then that
the marriage was politically motivated.

Abu Bakr was one of the first converts to Islam. Other wives: ages ranged from 18-
51. They were without protectors, or were related to the chiefs who became allies
of the ummah; but none of them bore him any sons. he also had two concubines:
Raihana (a Jew) and Marya (a Christian slave who was a gift from the ruler of
Egypt). Muhammad's wives were sometimes more of a hindrance than a pleasure. In a
squabble following the division of booty after a raid, Muhammad threatened to
divorce them all.
He was very lenient towards his wives, they answered him back, male companions of
Muhammad were astonished. Muhammad helped with the chores, mended his own clothes.
he often took one of them on expeditions. On one occasion, his most intelligent
wife, Umm Salamah, helped to prevent a mutiny. The Qur'an gave women rights of
inheritance and divorce.

The Qur'an prescribesa degree of separation, segregation, and veiling the

Prophet's wives, but there is nothing in the Qur'an advocating that all women
should veil their faces, or their seclusion in a separate part of the house.

These customs were adopted some 3 or 4 generations after Muhammad's death. They
were copying the Greek byzantium Christians who veiled and secluded their women.
Purdah - 'seclusion' - is a Hindu/Muslim practice of social seclusion for
women.The Qur'an makes men and women partners before God. It permitted polygamy
when men were being killed by infidels.

Men were permitted up to four wives provided he treat them all with absolute
equality. Later, women had to wear the LITHAM, a veil that cover the lower part of
the face up to the eyes. BURQU - a long garment which covers the whole body except
they eyes. In Medinah, Muhammad formed and consolidated his forces into an Islamic
Federation. By 630, Muhammad's Islamic ARmy was strong enough to take MEcca. He
marched with his armies along with his tribal allies.

He took the city without bloodshed, without forced conversion. he destroyed 360
idols arranged around the Ka'aba and rededicated the shrine to al-Lah. Kaaba
"square building" is where the faithful pray towards. Muhammad died in 632 and was
buried in Medina. (1) SHAHADAH - profession of faith, a short creed which runs:
"there is no God but God, Muhammad is the Prophet of God," the act of testimony
(2) SALAT - formal worship - 5 obligatory times of worship: before sunrise, noon,
afternoon, sunset and evening.

The faithful is summoned by a muezzin - "crier" - calling from the minaret of the
mosque; the prayer- leader is the imam. Salat is usually performed in large
numbers together., but can also be performed in isolation; preceded by ablutions,
so that he is ritually pure. Performance in the masjid is not compulsory but is
recommended, especially the Friday noon worship at which there is usually a
sermon; they must face the direction of MEccah (compass is used).

Public participation in Salat tends to be predominantly for men. In some mosques,

a space is reserved for women. Salat includes kneeling and touching the ground
with one's forehead in acknowledgement of God's awesome powers and one's own
littleness before him. (3) ZAKAH/ZAKAT - an Arabic word sometimes translated as
'poor tax' or legal alms. The term is used for a tax of fixed proportion from
one's income: 2.5% which must be paid by earning Muslims for the poor. Zakat is
also used to feed orphans around the world, maintenance of mosques, and helping
jobless and disabled persons.

In Muhammad's time, zakah was collected and used to free slaves from their
masters. When they were set free, they converted to Islam and helped in freeing
other slaves. (4) SAUM - fasting, excepted from fasting are the sick and the
dying; throughout the lunar month of Ramadan, the ninth month of the Muslim lunar
calendar, which calculates months using the moon. It wsas during Ramadan that al-
Lah revealed the Qur'an to Muhammad through JIbrail.

Fasting for 30 days and consists of abstaining from smoking, drinking, eating and
sexual intercourse from before sunrise and after sunset, permissible only during
night. SUHUR - early meal Muslims eat before sunrise, to start their fast; IFTAR -
meal Muslims eat at sunset to break their fast during Ramadan. "Ramadan Mubarak" -
greeting - "have a happy and blessed Ramadan" - Eid Ul-Fitr (Indonesian:
Idulfitri) - holiday after Ramadan during which Muslims celebrate successful
fasting. "Eid Mubarak' Zakat is generally given at the end of Ramadan.

(5)HAJJ - "greater pilgrimage" - takes place in Mecca itself; every adult Muslim
who has the means is required to make the hajj at least once in his lifetime. He
who has done so is called Hajji/Hajja; considered elite in INdonesia. But out of
humility, some don't use the term. Those making the Hajj wear two simple white
garments known as the IHRAM, signifying purity.

Violence is forbidden at all times. Pilgrims are forbidden to carry arms, to

argue, to kill animals, even insects, or speak an irritating word. Pilgrims would
circle the kaaba seven times following the direction of the sun, then kiss the
black stone embedded in the wall of the kaaba, which was probably a meteorite that
had once hurtled to the ground, linking the kaaba to the heavenly world.

JIHAD - political Islam, very occasionally said to be the 6th pillar of Islam,
making it a militant faith. "holy war" but probably means "effort" or "struggle";
Al-Jihad ul AKbar - "the greater warfare" is the war against one's lusts (nafsu),
an internal effort to reform bad habits in individuals and the Islamic community.
Al-Jihad ul-asghar, war waged in the service of religion, to protect Islam against
the infidels, unbelievers or opponents of Islam.

Jihad is also used to purify Islam from heresies. For those who suffered, eternal
life is endowed; the martyr can partake of pleasures denied in this world:
gambling, drinking, etc. Heaven is highly attractive to human desires. Paradise is
free from menstruation, urine, sputum, phlegm. Wine is mentioned as one of the
delights of paradise. In the pillars, prohibitions were added against incest and
sodomy.

Sodom is also mentioned in Islamic texts, which was destroyed by its depravity.
Homosexuality is a deviance which is most unnatural, deviating from social
behavioral norm; does not contribute to the expansion of the Ummah because no
offspring is produced. Gambling is also prohibited; also games of chance; usury
also prohibited; exorbitant interests; alcohol is also prohibited; image
representation; slavery and polygamy were permitted; slaves are to be treated
kindly.

The freeing of a slave "mamluk" was seen as a noble deed; prohibitions against
usury had to do with Muhammad's dealings with the Jews. Consumption of flesh -
Muslims don't eat lions, tigers and animals of prey. The more civilized the
people, the more choosy they are with their food. Blood is dirty, has lots of uric
acid. Jews also don't eat pork.

Usury - prohibition of usury related with Muhammad's dealings with the jews of
Medina. TO muhammad, one aspect of the Jews' wrongdoing was usury. They were
forbidden to do so. Halal - pertaining to food and dietary laws, same with Jews.
It gives a detailed account of what is allowed.

Man is born innocent. Good and bad grow up in man according to: education,
upbringing, and environment. A human being has natural desires: food, sleep and
sex. Man has natural emotions: happiness, anger, love, fear, appetite, desire.
Desire is brought about by the instinct of possession which breeds envy and
eventually develops jealousy and avarice.

Islam does not recommend the annihilation of desires and emotions, but offers a
method of controlling them. For as long as man lives, so does his emotions exist.
A Muslim is obliged to be clean physically and spiritually: abstention from eating
pork is one of the steps in practicing hygiene and attaining purity of human
nature. A forward step in material education.

Blood is virtually our life. What we consume ultimately affects our blood system.
It is therefore necessary to exercise selection in what we eat. Forbidden by Islam
is the eating of animals which died a natural death. As a matter of principle,
Muslims do not eat flesh of predatory animals. In Islam, cannibalism is associated
with pre-Islamic Africans. No cats, dogs, rats, and insects are to be eaten.

Prohibition is based on purification of one's nature. When food enters the body,
it does not merely enter the body and is excreted; it is absorbed in the system.
Dog is symbol of greed and gluttony. "Dogs and angels cannot live together." Dogs
have 52 characteristics, according to Islamic tradition, half of them evil, half
of them holy. But dogs' loyalty are praised.

If a man has a dog, he has a brethren, even though he does not have brothers. Dogs
are also regarded as unclean. The djinn often appears in the form of a black dog.
Dogs howling in a house presaged death. If you consult the sunnah, the prophet was
supposed to have prohibited the killing of dogs except black ones with two white
patches above the eyes. Killing a dog makes the person unclean.

It is as bad as killing seven men: belief that dogs have seven lives. Clean flesh,
never encourages vegetarianism, Islam. However, in the consumption of flesh, they
are required to be selective. Even if you feed the pig with clean food, it still
remains a pig. Pig is naturally lazy and indulgent in sex, dislikes sunlight,
lacks spirit and will to fight unlike the horse. The older it goes, the lazier it
gets.

Eats almost anything. Prefers dirty places to clean ones. Eats and sleeps only.
Hates moving around. Most avaricious of all animals. Amongst animals, pig is the
biggest haven of harmful germs. Pork is bringer of harmful diseases, for this
reason it is not suitable for consumption.

SHARI'A - Islamic LAw. Body of sacred laws derived from the Qur'an. Covers every
aspect of human life: legal, moral, ritual, hygiene. Circumcision. Shaving of the
pubic hair. Within Islamic law, attempt was made to make property safer by
ordering that a thief should have his hand cut off. There was also hanging. To
some, this constituted primitive law, violation of human rights.

Pracititioners are called ULAMA [plural] ALIM [singular]. The ulama are scholar-
jurists, learned intellectuals. They are the guardians of the religious traditions
of Islam. THE FITRA - central idea in ISlam. Natural, innate disposition of all
true Muslims and human beings. FIVE THINGS: (1) Circumcision (2) shaving of the
pubic hair (3) plucking of armpit hair. Sweat is an impure substance and gathers
in such areas. (5) clipping of the moustache away from the mouth, so food and
drink do not get caught up in it.

The two main branches of Islam are the SUnni and the SHiite Muslims. Shiite
"sectarians." Shia constitutes the minority, 1/5 of all Muslims. Shiites are a
majority in Iran where it is the state religion. ALso in Yemen, Syria, Lebanon,
East Africa, Northern INdia and Pakistan. Shia are partisans of ALi and his
descendants. ALi is the cousin and son in law of Muhammad.

Ali was regarded as the true leader of the UMmah. He is the first Imam, according
to the shiites. Imam denotes descendant of Muhammad through his daughter Fatima
marrying ALi. Fatimah is a common name in the ISlamic world. SHe is muhammad's
favorite daughter. SHe is one of the five perfect women, together with Mary,
mother of jesus, and Khadija, also included is ASiya, who was the woman who saved
the infant Moses while floating in a basket on the NIle RIver, the Egyptian Queen.

MIllennarian expectation of the Mahdi permeates much of SHiite thinking. Mahdi is

a spiritual and temporal leader. He is to rule before the world's end, restoring
justice and religion. A hoped for period of peace, prosperity and justice. The
Mahdi is male.

NOV 27, 2008, THURSDAY

'Sunni' from 'Sunnah' which means tradition or custom. This is the belief and
practice of mainstream ISlam. 80% of all Muslims. They validate or justify the
existing political system where the leader is both the religious and political
leader. Sunni recognized the order of succession of the first 4 caliphs who were
the companions and immediate successors of Muhammad: (1) ABU BAKR (2) UMAR (3)
UTHMAN (4) ALI. ALi is the only one accepted by the SHiites, the rest are
considered as usurpers.

Sunni has a mystical tradition called SUFISM. Developed first in Baghdad, "the
city of peace" in the 8th and 9th centuries, later spreading throughout the
ISlamic world. Arose as a reaction against strict orthodoxy, against puritanism.
Individuals could find salvation only through meditation and prayer and by cutting
ties with society. PIR - the sufi master, is a teacher who could guide the
disciple along the mystical path --ecstacy through dancing and trance, singing,
poetry and music.

Intense joy which carries one beyond rational thought and self-control. Frenzy,
rapture through mystic exultation. To be a sufi is to detach from fixed ideas and
from pre-conceptions and not to try to avoid what is your luck or fortune in life.
It is philosophical Islam dealing with epistemology, nature and forms of
knowledge. (1) intellectual knowledge which is only information and collection of
facts. (2) knowledge of emotions: sentimental and emotional feelings (3) knowledge
of reality in which man can perceive what is right, what is true, beyond the
boundaries of thought and sense. Knowledge of reality is also the science of
knowledge.

The real sufi know how to connect themselves with reality which lies beyond
intellectual knowledge. God is one but wise people know it by many names. God's
kindness is universal, divine truth and reality. " In addition to creating cold,
God placed before man the means to protect himself from it."

ISLAM IN SOUTHEAST ASIA

Islam is the predominant religion of maritime southeast asia, except for most of
the Philippines. After the decline of the Hindu-BUddhist states, Islam began to
appeal to southeast asian islanders. Muslims who overthrew the Majapahit empire
were local converts. The earliest Muslim kingdom arose in PASAI on the North
Coast of ACEH, just before the end of the 13th century. The earliest Muslim tombs
appeared in Eastern JAva at around the same time.

If we base our knowledge by tradition, Islamization of Java is attributed to 9

preachers, wali-sanga /songo/, 1st of whom was the historical figure: Malik
IBRAHIM whose tomb is dated 1419. Tombstone indicates he was a trader from
Gujarat, but of Persian origin and involved in missionary. They were considered
saints, acting on behalf of Allah or semi-legendary apostles of Islam in Java. He
also took part in the construction of the oldest mosque in Java, which is at Demak
(east of Semarang) at the beginning of the 16th century.
Islamization brought new institutions: rural religious school: PESANTREN (pondok)
/pondo/ or madrasah, where they study Koran and Islamic law. Pupil: "murid" -
lives with the master and studies Koran and how to reconcile law and custom. Often
travel a network of schools following teachings of learned men called ULAMA or
KIAI (Javanese). They form a special and greatly respected group. Pesantren might
also enjoy endowment of land, or other sources making them economically
independent.

REgular donations. Islam spread as Muslim traders moved along established trading
routes: Straits of Malacca. PASISIR (northwest of Java) - these brought them to
clove - producing islands of Moluccas, where the Kings became MUSLIMS at about mid
15th century. There is no priestly class as such in Islam. Muslim merchants were
the most obvious transmitters of Islam. Muslim merchants from INdia and Persia.
hukum(indonesian) - "law." As a result, sultanates were established in Malacca,
Malay Peninsula, Aceh, Ternate, Brunei. Sultanate refers to the office or reign of
sultan.

Muslim kingdoms and principalities. The word sultan is mentioned in the QUran. In
tradition it means 'authority.' The term became a general title for holders of
political and religious power. It was also used as a mark of respect. Used to
refer to centers of Muslim power ex. Sultanate of Malacca - most progressive
commercial urban center after middle of 15th century. Sultan of Malacca was also
engaged in trade, termed "helper of the world," "defender of Islam." Propagation
was carried out under the royal patronage of the king.

Marriages betwen Muslims and infidels (kafirs) were arranged to attract new
converts. APOSTASY was forbidden. Abandonment of one's beliefs: APOSTASY. Malacca
was regarded as center of Islamic scholarship with Malay as its language. it was
the lingua franca. malay was simplified. Vehicle of islamic transmission. Arabic
script applied to Malay - called JAWI. In many cases, masuk melayu "to become a
Malay" also came to mean "to become a Muslim." Much of the traditional Hindu
rituals survived.

Such as the (1) white umbrella (2) reservation of gold as exclusively for royalty
(3) sacredness of elephant mounts. Sanskrit word: bendahara, was used for chief
minister and treasurer. Sultans were no longer reincarnation of Hindu Gods. They
now ruled under the sanction of the Quran. They could command royal works and
enslave war captives, obliged vassals to pay tribute in tin. Principal income came
from duties from foreign trade and presents, license fee, tax on domestic trade,
food sales. Sultans were also involved in shipbuilding.

Sultans were Malay-Indonesian and Tamil in origin. He is the commander in chief of

the Malaccan army and navy composed of Malay and BUgis (ex-pirates recruited from
the Malacca straits region). Sultan also relied on the office of the TEMENGGONG -
head of police and courts. LAKSAMANA - commander of the fleet or Admiral. And also
of the four SHAHBANDAR(S) (persian in origin) - harbor masters, deals with foreign
trading communities in Malacca: Chinese, Indian, CHam, Siamese, Javanese,
Minangkabau (West Sumatra).

Shahbandar presented arriving merchants to bendahara (who was a treasurer as

well). He alloted necessary harborage and warehouse services, receipt for
presents, and bribes for sultan, judges, police and other officials of Malacca.
Officials lived on princely estates out of the city, under circumstances of
extreme luxury. Javanese traders at Malacca were involved in the Spice Trade. They
direct work of thousands of slaves and other Javanese laborers.

Minangkabau - small traders, craftsmen and fruit-growers. Minangkabau - migrating

- "merantau" - "look beyond" - farmer migrant workers and traders
DECEMBER 2, 2008, TUESDAY

From Madras (Chenai), SOuthern INdia, came the chettyars or money-lenders who
provided financial assistant for interest to small traders. Also provided
financial assistance to Malay farmers and fishermen. Indian Muslims from Gujarat
comprised the largest commercial community doing business in Malacca. Malacca -
source of spice and outlet for Indian cotton cloth froom Cambay (Northwest coast
of INdia). OPIUM was imported at that time in large quantities from the Red Sea
Area - from Aden (South Arabia) and was brought in by Arab traders.

Two Malaccan sultans were addicted to Opium: Sultan ALauddin and Sultan Mahmud.
From Malacca, Islam spread to other centers, in particular to those Malacca had
close commercial connections, sultanates emerged on West Coast of Malay Peninsula
in 15th century: sultanates of PERAK, KEDAH, PAHANG, KELANTAN, TRENGGANU, also in
Pattani (Southern Thailand), as well as in the east coast of Sumatra. Sultanate of
Malacca maintained predominant influence in Strait of Malacca until the Portuguese
Conquest of 1511.

Alfonso de ALbuquerque led a successful attack on Malacca. In the aftermath of the

conquest, the great walls of Malacca were destroyed and Muslim traders were
expelled. Albuquerque - great figure of early Portuguese colonial expansion; was
governor of the Indies from 1509 - 1515. Goa, India. Conquest closed the ports to
Muslim traders where they patronized other ports more sympathetic to their faith.
One such place - ACEH - northern tip of Sumatra. Mid-14th century - adopted ISlam.

After the fall of Malacca, Aceh quickly developed into a trading center for
Muslims. According to Portuguese sources, Turkish soldiers were incorporated into
Aceh's armies, and participated on several attacks on Portuguese Malacca in the
16th century. ISKANDAR MUDA (Alexander the Young) (1607-1636)- a sultan of Aceh,
is thought to have been inspired not only by the Turks but also by Akhbar of the
Mughal dynasty of India who extended the Empire and initiated a stable fiscal and
administrative system.

PRose narrative - HIKAYAT ACEH - 'the story of Aceh', recounts the deeds of
Iskandar Muda who was inspired by the Persian Akbarnama, written in praise of
Akhbar the Great well-known for ecumenical outlook on faith, religion and
religious practice. In 1556, sultans of aceh sent missions to istanbul to gain
interest of ottoman in an attack against the portuguese. The Turks were active
participants of three major events: (1) siege of Constantinople (2) defeat of the
Hapsburgs (3) conquest of Hungary by Sulaiman the Magnificent.

Turkish soldiers had knowledge of muskets and large siege cannons. These reports
would have impressed local rulers. Another beneficiary of Malacca's fall was
Brunei. The ruler of Brunei converted between 1514 - 1521. he sponsored muslim
missionaries in the Philippine archipelago. Well before the arrival of LEgaspi,
the ports of SUlu and Maguindanao were under MUslim Kings. By this time, a Muslim
family related to the King of Brunei assumed control in the Manila - were related
to Rajah Soliman.

In java, the forces of the sultan of Demak took to the field, asserting supremacy
over the neighboring ports: BANTEN developed into an Islamic center and soon
expanded across Southern Sumatra. From Demak, it spread to South Borneo and East
Java. 1550s - decline of Demak, other ports such as GRESIK continued to foster
missionary efforts in KUTAI, East Kalimantan on the Island of Borneo. Also spread
to MAKASAR in Southern Sulawesi.

Makasar's patronage gave new base for missionary work in Sulawesi, East Indonesia
and Maluku.

17th century - at least two mainland rulers converted to Islam in order to foster
alliance against Thai and Vietnamese. Most CHams were at least nominal Muslims. In
Cambodia, where Thai were constant threat, Khmer king (1643) converted to Islam
and was circumcised [haha sucker]. The Khmer prince took the name sultan Ibrahim,
but was called by the people King Rama who converted to Islam. IN Islamic
communities, circumcision was a rite of passage for MUslim males. they and their
families gained prestige because the ceremony was performed by respected religious
leaders in the masjid / mosque / langgar "Village mosque."

From about the 13th century, mystical schools called TARIQA had begun to develop
focusing on SUFISM. They recited passages of the Koran together. Dancing, singing
and meditation were their methods to attain union with God who was absolute. ZIKIR
- were magic words in the form of Koranic passages. Members of the Tariqa were
often drawn from the mercantile community: Traders, where Islamic schools imparted
basic ideas

Early 17th century in JAMBI, imam was responsible for running the mosque, he was a
trader from PAHANG. He was both a SUfi and a trader. SUFISM expressed its
willingness to assimilate other beliefs within the bounds of Islam. Certain pre-
Islamic practices were thus tolerated.

In Malacca, there were two penalties for the same crime, one following the custom
(adat) and the other the SHARIA, law of GOd. New ideas were introduced - angels,
prophets and saints. It expanded the number of heroes and superhuman figures who
could be invoked for help. 'Abd Al-Qadir Al-Jilani' - founder of the Sufi
QADIRIYYA order. He was person of particular veneration in part because of his
descent from Prophet Muhammad.

Interesting BANTEN document (17th Century) - it was said that Abd al-Qadir was so
pious that when he was a baby, he even refused to drink his mother's milk during
Ramadan. Local heroes such as DATO RI BANDANG whom folklore claims spread Islam in
Makasar, came riding on a swordfish.

Condemnation of the pig received attention in Moluccas where this animal had been
accorded great importance as a ritual animal. In Moluccas, according to Pigafetta,
the Spaniards killed all the pigs they carried on board to please the sultan of
Ternate.

Was Malay Literature dominated by Islam?

No.

Hindu stories survived ISlamization. Ex: Hikayat Seri Rama "Story of the Lord
Rama." Hindu stories also formed the basis of wayang plots. Javanese form of Islam
had been described as ABANGAN (red) (merahan); a term distinguished from SANTRI
(putihan) (White) "Pure Islam." Moderate versus Liberal Islam. Putihan - obedient
practicing Muslim. Abangan - peasantry; majority of rural populace who had
absorbed Islam with animism and Hindu-Buddhist elements with mystical content.

The distinguishing feature of Abangan culture is its syncretic quality, expressed

in the refusal to define identity solely as Muslim. SANTRI - deriving from
PESANTREN - name of the village Islamic school. Primarily employed in Java to
distinguish from those practicing strict orthodoxy. SANTRI - Muslims who take
their being Muslims seriously. They were more strict in their observances.

Within Java, the Santri element was represented by the ULAMA or KIAI. Ulama -
propagators of the faith at the village level. SANTRI - exclusivist outlook,
devout Muslims, puritan, fanatic, fundamentalists. THe refusal of the abangan to
identify with exclusivity to Islam assumed importance in Indonesian independence
in 1947 when an attempt was made to impose a consstitutional obligation to Sharia
and the establishment of an Islamic State. It was frustrated by SUKARNO, insisting
on religious pluralism.

Later, Sukarno sided with the communists, leading to his unpopularity with the
army, antagonizing the United States. He also sent emissaries. REligious pluralism
protected abangan cultural identity. This principle is still at work today, ex:
the Island of Bali.

DECEMBER 4, 2008, Thursday

Religious pluralism entrenched in Indonesian Constitution. The Island of Bali was

not caught up by the advance of Islam. Consolidation under the Hindu kingdom of
GELGEL which extended its control not only in Bali but also in East Java, Lombok
and Sundawa of the lesser Sundas. 16th century - influence of Majapahit manifested
itself in the Balinese social hierarchy characterized by the 4 castes of Hindu
society. Caste system was reshaped and enforced by rules and punishment when
infringements occur.

The 4 Castes: BRAHMANA - priestly caste; KSHATRIYA - warrior kings (Satriya);

WESIA (nobles). These three are collectively known as the "trivangsa" "the three
castes." However, this caste system was not as strict as in India. The bulk of the
population are the SUDRA(s) - simply common people. There were no
untouchables/outcasts.

There were also important improvements in the field of religion. Local temples
survived and became ... originally local centers for invocation of divinities,
ancestors, and agents of fertility. Rituals stress the worship of SIWA, manifested
by the sun. Also stressed the making of holy water, recitation of mantra and
ceremonial feasting known as the GALUNGAN. Temple priests "pamangku" were often
relegated to commoner status [Sudra], while priests of SIWA "padanda" came
exclusively from BRahmana caste.

Padanda presided over rituals central to religious observances. Bali thus had a
revitalized Hinduism, explaining why Islam had little headway. One tradition
claims that Balinese spears were smeared with pig fat in Battle of Sultanate of
Makasar and kingdom of Gelgel over control of Lombok

SINICIZATION

China's special relationship with Vietnam. Cultural, political, and economic.

Vietnamese were a non-Chinese people, considered by the Chinese as southern
barbarians, with linguistic and cultural affinities with the Mon-Khmers. Their
language acquired a tonal structure: it has 7 tones, as a result of prolonged
exposure to CHinese cultural influence. Until the widespread use of the QUOC NGU
form of writing in 20th century, vietnamese was the only script in Southeast ASia
which used the chinese script.

QUOC NGO is the Vietnamese national language written in the Latinized/Romanized

form.

EARLY HISTORY OF VIETNAM - Van Lang and Au Lac; 800-258 BC and 257 - 208 BC. Both
are located in Northern Vietnam - Tonking. Bronze working at DOng-Son. Under these
kingdoms, there was increasing technological innovation: double-cropping of rice.
HUONG VUONG - was the first king of Van Lang, he taught techniques of agriculture
to his people with the help of the god, known to the Chinese and Vietnamese as,
THAN-NONG.

THAN-NOng exterminated hostile forces of nature such as floods which destroyed

crops. TAN VIEN - regarded as the first of the divinities whose place of worship
is on the peak of Mt. Tan Vien. TAn vien has the power to regulate rains and
droughts. He is also a beneficient god of the mountain, patron god of hunters.

Creation of human beings was attributed to a supreme deity NGOC HOANG, equivalent
to the Chinese JADE EMPEROR. The sun and the moon are the daughters of NGOC HOANG,
they were commanded to light and warm the surface of the Earth. Appearance of men
and other beings followed by rice and cotton.

Ngoc Hoang wanted to provide human beings with food and clothing. RICE COUPLE -
god and goddess. All Vietnamese readily call themselves LAC VIET "sons of the
dragon" also "grandsons of the immortal mountains and Earth Goddess Au-CO." The
Vietnamese term for kingdom "Dat-Nuoc" means "earth-water" representing the
national territory. (TANAH AIR in INdonesian).

The Vietnamese, known to the Chinese as YUEH, probably originated in what is now
Southern China in the lower Yangtze Valley. They were pushed southwards by the
advancing Chinese into the REd River DElta where they established AU LAC in 257 BC
at CO LOA, an ancient bronze site near HANOI (known then as THANG-LONG) Thang-Long
"ascent of the dragon" was named by the founders of the LY dynasty 1009 - 1225 AD
because a yellow dragon had risen to the sky to indicate to the king an era of
prosperity.

The dragon was a symbol of prosperity. The dragon was a rain or sea god. This
image was borrowed from China. A mythical monster traditionally represented as a
gigantic reptile with a lion's claws, a serpent's tail, wings, and a scaly skin.
The chinese dragon is a sacred and noble animal, emblem of royal power.
Represented on court costumes, throne and imperial junks.

Early Vietnamese society consisted of small communal groups or villages who farmed
the area above the Red River DElta (RRD) who used it for irrigation. They
developed elaborate dike and irrigation systems to control the raging monsoon-fed
waters of the RRD.

Nuoc-mam - fish sauce

Au Lac wsa conquered by a Chinese warlord who gave the name NAN YUEH to his
territories "Southern YUeh," which is "NAM VIET" in Vietnamese. Nam Viet included
only the North and with it the Chinese provinces of Guandong and Guanxi. In 111
BC, emperor Wu DI of the Han Dynasty completed the conquest of the area as the
southern frontier of the Han Empire.

Early Chinese interest - desire by Han rulers to secure trade routes and to gain
access to southern luxury goods - pearls, incense, elephant tusks, rhinoceros
horns, tortoise shell, corral, exotic birds and fishes, parrots, kingfishers and
peacocks.

The Vietnamese were subjected to full impact of Chinese culture. But in general
they appropriated Chinese loanwords in areas of philosophy, business and formal
education. Vietnam's eventual separation from China occurred in the declince of
the Tang Dynasty (618-907). Attacks by Nanchao Thai were not stopped by the Tang
rulers.

9th century (862-863) - raided the REd River Valley. 939 A.D. - complete
Vietnamese independence following the collapse of the Tang dynasty. Sinicization
of Vietnam - major theme in Southeast Asian History. Chinese officials and
scholars were responsible for spreading CHinese culture through introduction of
Confucian principles and mahayana Buddhism from China. but this did not exclude
contact with Indian Buddhism and nature religion but Chinese took precedence over
Indian influence.

South of Tonking: LIN YI (to the Chinese) probably one or more CHam Kingdoms. The
Champs were hostile to the Vietnamese. The Hindu cult of Shiva devaraja worship by
Champs had no effect on Confucianized Mandarinate of Vietnam.

Mandarin - national language of China. Mandarinate - composed of high bureaucrats

fluent in the language of the scholar-official. Members of this group believed in
the sky-god 'Emperor from Heaven.'Among the members of the Mandarinate, they
taught that the Emperor was an agent of the Sky-God on earth, based on the
Heavenly Mandate. The worship of the eternal heaven/ space was concern of king.

He was the son of heaven, natural ruler of a great kingdom, all under heaven was
his lawful domain, so long as he was just and moral. Should he become immoral and
unjust, heaven would send him a warning in the form of natural and social
calamities. If he failed to reform, the mandate would be given to someone else.
The mandate of heaven or 'way of heaven' is a political theory central to
Confucianism. Ethical ad political doctrines of Confucianism spread among the
upper class Vietnamese scholars and officials.

CONFUCIANISM - a series of theories applicable to state, society and culture.

Formulated by Confucius and his disciples: one of them was MENCIUS. The teachings
of Confucius appeared in Analects, The Book of Learning, The Doctrine of the Mean,
The Book of Mencius, known collectively as the FOUR BOOKS. He identified five sets
of relationships:

(1) sovereign - minister

(2) father - son

(3) husband - wife

(4) elder brother - younger brother

(5) between friends

ETHICAL PROPERTIES

father = = = = = = = = kindness

son = = = = = = = = filial piety

elder brother = = = = = goodness

younger brother = = = = respect

husband = = = = = = = = righteousness

wife = = = = = = = = compliance and submisiveness

sovereign = = = = = = = benevolence

subjects = = = = = = = loyalty
In Vietnam, the Le monarchs enjoined wives to obey their husbands, to be chaste
and enduring widows, cherish the children of their husband's concubines as if they
were their own. According to Mencius, human nature is naturally good. But man had
a lesser nature: food and sex cravings, which he shared with animals; but man was
endowed uniquely with a greater nature which is the disposition towards the 4
virtues: (1) shared humanity (love) as the highest value of man (2) righteousness
(3) propriety - polite society (4) wisdom

COnfucians believed that a virtuous government produced a virtuous people. They

were in a sense "revolutionary" in their respect for the common people, that the
government existed for the people, not the other way around. COnfucianism
reaffirmed the right of the people to rebel against an unjust ruler, those who
have forfeited the mandate of heaven by their lack of virtue. This was what
Mencius called "righteous opposition" to an oppressive government.

But COnfucians also saw the necessity of strict authority and discipline in the
government as in the family. This aspect of Confucian philosophy was later abused
by totalitarian governments with the concept of the "strong man." The strong man
was both king and emperor claiming sagehood. He was already morally perfect who
taught others.

Worship of heaven was a central ritual. Heaven had commanded the ruler to organize
a harmonious political and social order which in essence is also a moral order.
For the five sets of relationships, the key was righteousness. The Le (15th cent)
monarchs enjoined wives to obey their husbands. Attempts were made to regulate
family life, yet in practice, Vietnamese women enjoyed much greater freedom than
their Chinese counterparts.

Widows and deserted wives were free to remarry. It was common for chinese men to
take Vietnamese wives. COnfucianism presented an optimistic view of human nature,
needing education. Superiors should provide virtuous examples. By self-
cultivation, then by following virtuous examples, anyone can become a sage. Sages
were venerated for their experience and wisdom, and their tact when dealing with
people.

The idea was later incoporated into the imperial educational system. Scholars were
chosen regardless of social origin. Education is the only true assurance of
morality. The school was a moral institution. The leading quality of the scholar-
official was benevolence. He was a superior man, a cultivated man, an upright man,
whose duty was to provide moral leadership (above the political), concerned about
what is right. The petty man is concerned only with what is profitable.

A gentleman must want to do right. Achieved only by internalizing morality.

Confucian education was oriented to civil service exams for those who wanted to
serve in the society-wide bureaucracy. This was introduced into Vietnam in the
11th century, but fell into disuse until regularized by the Le dynasty. Exams
continued until the 19th century, Nguyen period, prior to French colonization.

The goal of the exam was the establishment of a meritocracy. Advancement was based
on ability. BEcause of the merit system, many village notables and heads of
literate families, dreamed of having sons and grandsons pass the exam. The good
reputation of the village rested on its interaction with the government to the
extent that communal self-esteem was directly related to the number of successful
examination candidates it had produced over a period of time.

HIERARCHY, VIRTUE, EDUCATION - Confucianism was more of a state policy /

philosophy than a popular religion. In the 20th century, Confucianism has been
subjected to challenges and affirmations. It was blamed for cultural stagnation
and the low status of women in China. The CHinese Communist Party followed this
line of thought. COnfucian ethics was feudalistic in content.

The Party has generally rejected Confucianism as hostile to Marxism-Leninism, yet

on occassion it has acknowledged certain progressive features of Confucianism such
as (1) popular education and (2) application of a common set of ethics to
individuals. This was not about class differences. Scholars both in China and
overseas have come to a defense of Confucianism.

In the last three decades, there emerged a new Confucianism - promotes harmonious
families, political stability and a peaceful world. It shuns violence (does not
advocate class warfare). They have also suggested that Confucianism has innate
drive for transformation of life - good citizens who pay their taxes on time. More
recently, they have suggested that Confucianism has contributed to the rapid
growth of TAIWAN, KOREA, etc. in recent decades: Singapore, Macau, Hongkong,
China, Japan after the war.

Economic growth was said to be due to Confucianism's emphasis on hard work,

collective effort, education, dedication of individuals to interests of a larger
group: family, company, government. Economic impact - management - labor relations
following the chain of command. Emphasis on education. These conditions are linked
to expanding foreign investment opportunities.

Pacific Basin Region - economically fastest growing region. Japan - zero defect in
production output, as well as in Singapore. Perfection through hardwork. 1980s -
Singapore proposed to incorporate COnfucianism into school curricula. Also
initiated a Confucian school...but was discontinued to maintain inter-ethnic
harmony. 75% of Singapore's population is Chinese.

Policies of Lee Kuan Yew developed along authoritarian socialist lines whose goal
was progress. Totalitarianism to destroy corruption. Establishment of one-party
rule, free market economy, tight government planning, hardworking population.
Extensive social welfare system. Mencius: "concern for social welfare." The result
was one of the world's most successful economies.

VIETNAM - no longer guided by Confucianism. Market economy capitalism. There are

Confucian temples called Van Miew (Hanoi). In Indonesia, COnfucian movement among
Chinese sought to have COnfucianism recognized as a religion with worship of
heaven as central ritual. In Vietnam, Mahayana Buddhism intermingled with Daoism
and Confucianism in one religious compound called TAM GIAO "three religions" It
was impossible for a person to practice only one.

Because belief system incorporated principles from all three and was even enriched
by local animists beliefs. These three were accepted as one because their
teachings were not in opposition. Buddhist monks and Taoist priests do not forbid
their followers to worship their ancestors COnfucian leaders don't consider it
taboo to worship figures. Taoism looks at nature as source of existence.

From nature comes life, art,
into a religion as it merged
meditation, bodily ascension
immortals offering health to
heaven: a pure land purified
music and cure for illnesses. Taoism later evolved
with folk belief, animism, superstition, levitation,
to heaven. Daoism developed a pantheon of gods and
people. It developed its own version of the Buddhist
of evil and difficulties.

Taoists practiced magic and pursued panacea: medicinal herbs. COnfucianists often
found Taoism attractive. Taoism did not facor hierarchy. Most people were work-day
Confucians and weekend Taoist when injunctions to relax were followed. Old people
were Taoist - efforts to be close to nature. Nature is the final destination. They
take up gardening. Whatever is, is natural and good.

Buddhism represented a new way of controlling nature for the benefit of

agriculture. Buddhist temples were founded for fertility deities. Buddhist temples
were dedicated to local manifestations of monsoon season. Syncretic manifestation:
BUddha of the Clouds, The Rain, Thunder, and Lightning.

Widows and elderly women commonly joined the important order of temple nuns in
every village that possessed a temple. Charitable works. Temple-worship
participation. Rice dues to the temple in the same way that village men
contributed dues to the village/ communal feasts. The Confucian court in Hanoi,
however, feared Buddhism which they believed posed an indirect ideological threat
to Confucian principle of hierarchy.

In Buddhism in the state of Nirvana, the superior and lowly of this world are
equal. Fear of Buddhism explains why the COnfucian court manipulated the
recruitment of monks and priests. To be a Buddhist ecclesiastic in Vietnam
required a peasant or a scholar required an ordination certificate. Applicants had
to travel to HUE where they were given religious exams. This explains the
emergence of Hue as emergence of Mahayana Buddhism.

No Buddhist temple could be built without the permission of Nguyen rulers. Number
of monks and acolytes are fixed according to the number of laity. Those village
leaders who did not report surplus monks were punished. Outside Hanoi which was
the Imperial Capital, peasant and wet-rice farmer is virtually synonymous. The
Vietnamese peasant retained his or her language and religious beliefs rooted in
animism, ancestor worship, and hero veneration.

Strongly attached to his or her native village with its protector spirit. Village
chief "xa truong" was chosen by village notables. The xa truong carries out the
orders of monarchs and collects the taxes. Village notables exercised the real
leadership in the village. Qualifications to be a notable - wealth, old age,
educational attainment.

SUI CHINESE DYNASTY (581-618) - Sui rulers gave special titles to village chiefs
who helped them secure luxury goods: slaves, pearls, elephant tusks, rhinoceros
horns, etc. Villages were expected to construct communal temples - symbol of
village solidarity and of the community's past. THe village deity could represent
the village founder or a military leader who defeated the Chinese.

Ancient villages displayed limited number of family names, and seldom 12 to 16

names. "Nguyen" "Dinh" The first concern of the village (xa) as an economic unit
was self-sufficiency thru rice production. Red River Delta - 300 types of rice
with its own properties. Plots for peasants were assigned and re-assigned by
village notables who usually kept the best ones for themselves. No village lived
on rice alone - fish, animal protein, vegetables, fruit and condiments (pepper,
salt): fish sauce.

Salt was the most important import for inland villages from coastal villages. salt
monopoly was instituted by the Chinese and Vietnamese government in their efforts
to centralize production, marketing and selling of salt. The peasant only grew one
rice crop a year, usually sufficient to feed their family and pay for taxes. Rice
was exported to China.

Chinese administrators with their COnfucian bias found it hard to accept that rice
production was controlled by women. 18th century - those who entered slavery as
punishment for crime (ex. theft) could become peasant farmers on the land where
they worked when their sentence was over. Military conscription method was well-
developed. This operated even in peace time.

Peasant conscripts served for four months each year and longer during military
campaigns (1120 - 1210). Vietnam War - women conscripts. 1120 to 1210 - Angkor,
Champa and Vietnam were at war. Military conscription was carried out under
provincial elite supervision. These elites were characterized by land, leisure and
confucian learning. The accumulation of land by elites - resulted in the loss of
land of peasants.

Elites lived on owning. Landlordism in Vietnam was most extensive in the Southern
and South Central provinces: Mekong Delta, Hue. A consistent feature of agrarian
Vietnam was the struggle between landlordism and ancient Vietnamese idea of
communal ownership. Village as communities ensured that peasant had lands.
Provincial elites did not include all landlords.

A Vietnamese landlord without education could not be considered a member of the

elite. Elite = Educated. Uneducated landlord has no hope of an official career.
Could not serve as intermediary between government and village.

Scholars agree that Vietnamese society was based on status and wealth - ownership
of land, accumulated wealth - jewelries, furnitures. Tomb remains under the Han
period showed iron swords, coins, glass ornaments, bronze, earthenware vessels,
musical instruments, mirrors, brush and chinese ink used in calligraphy.

Model ceramic forms which illustrated local agrarian culture including horses,
granaries, kilns.

DEMOGRAPHIC DEVELOPMENTS 16th to 18th CENTURY SOUTHEAST ASIA

INdians and CHinese were now coming in larger numbers than previously. During the
early 17th century, the Japanese traded with Southeast Asia. The most formidable
foreigners were the Europeans who were determined to monopolize the spice trade.
Interaction between Southeast Asian and foreign communities. Mestizo communities
flourished in city centers. Transmission of ideas in shipbuilding and firearms
technology.

Indtroduced via China, India and Turkey. But it was the Europeans who were at the
forefront of firearms technology. ASIANS - The CHinese arrived in the Philippines
during the SPanish Period fromm Fujian - they were the first to establish large
communities called NANYANG "southern ocean."

Prominent role of Fujian due to availability of capital derived from land and
labor. Prominent local family with capital usually funded junks. They were filled
with merchandise and would hire a relative or servant to become managing partner.
Shipowner held the largest part of investment.

Rural poverty forced the Fujanese to go abroad. By the beginning of the 17th
century, many of them were in the Philippines. Canton Trade aka Fujian Trade.
Hainan. Guangdong / Kwantung.

JANUARY 8, 2009
The Japanese wako/bahan, commercial and piratical pursuit. Ashikaga shoguns (14th
- 16th cent). THe wako it seems were after the Sung and Yuan ceramic wares in the
Philippines. They also traded in other articles. They sold silks, woollens,
perfumes, bells, iron, tin, cotton, clothes and other small wares in exchange for
Luzon gold and wax. Government side - The first Japanese boat sent to the
Philippines came from the lord (daimyo) of HIRADO in 1585. The bulk of cargo
consisted of wheat, flour, weapons and miscellaneous goods.

In turn, they loaded mainly with Chinese raw silk textiles in Manila, also nature
products: deer skin, sugar, goods imported from Spain and Mexico: tobacco. To the
Manila Spaniards, Japanese was a necessity because of wheat flour (ostya ng
simbahan), full of profit due to exchange between Japanese and Chinese traders.
COnvenient source of Chinese silk demanded by the Japanese aristocracy. Nagasaki
merchants dealt with the Portuguese of Macau, another source of silk.

TOkugawa (17th century) - peacefuel trade relations policy took shape.

Precautionary measure against the WAKO, Ieyaso Tokugawa declared that no Japanese
ship unless those with red seal granted by the shogun are allowed to trade in the
Philippines. First trade ships asked for loan of carpenters who could teach the
Japanese of shipbuilding skill. The Spaniards did not send the carpenters,
believing that Spanish security rested in Japanese ignorance in shipbuilding.

ISOLATION POLICY - 17th century, 1st half. Not until 1868, 1st year of the Meiji,
official relations with SPain and Philippines restored. First Japanese Consulate
in the Philippines (1888). THe japanese were interested in tobacco, abaca and
sugar. Japanese expansion to the Philippines was the concern of SUEHIRO TETCHO
(JUGO): NANYO NO DAIHARAN "severe disturbance" (published 1890). one of the most
popular political novelist of the Meiji.

He met Rizal whom he mistook for a Japanese aboard an ENglish ship (named BELJIC)
which left Yokohama to San Francisco. The two worked for several goals in each of
their own countries. The setting of the novel is the Philippines. SEIKO -
principal female character. The novel pursues argument of Japanese expansion to
the Philippines. Filipinos need succor to overthrow the SPanish government.

The FIlipinos were under difficulty. The story ends with TAKAYAMA TAKESHI, the
principal hero and his Filipino followers, with 300 Japanese volunteers jubilant
over their overthrow of the Spanish colonial government in the Philippines. But
Takayama prepares for possible Spanish reprisal, he appeals to Emperor of Japan
for support. The Diet decides to convert the Philippines into Japanese territory.
Takayama was appointed chief of Manila, thus Filipino security is assured.
Japanese flag flies over Intramuros. Develops trade between Japan and the
Philippines.

The 1st Tokugawa encouraged foreign trade to strengthen shogunate finances. 1600-
1635 - more than 350 Japanese ships went abroad to over 19 ports - Vietnam,
Cambodia, islands in Malay-Indonesian Archipelago and Luzon. A measure of this
importance fo trade was their export of silver. The Japanese were prominent in
Ayutthaya by the late 1620s. A large colony settled in Ayutthaya, but in 1632, the
new Siamese ruler, PRASAT THONG massacred the Japanese and forced the others to
flee the city.

Thereafter, the Chinese regained the trade dominance in Siam (the Chinese had
something to do with it?) THe Chinese were interested in teakwood.

1630 - 1636 - Tokugawa gradually closed Japan to foreign traders, but link with
Siam was open. Siamese ships arrived in Nagasaki. Tokugawa policy: THREE FOREIGNER
DIVISIONS: (1) The Chinese 'TO-JIN' (2) Catholic Europeans NANBAN-JIN (3)
Protestant Dutchmen KOMOI-JIN 'red-haired.' OKUMINATO were able to maintain trade
with Japan: Thailand, Malacca, Batavia.

The CHinese migration to Southeast Asia took place in the main from the southern
provinces of China. 'OVerseas chinese' - HUA-CH'IAO (Hoakiau) applies to the
diaspora of around 30 million Chinese across Southeast ASia. Chinese migration
tied up with colonial expansion and need for cheap labor. Lucrative Siamese rice
trade and in building junks made of teakwood. 18th century - THe Chinese opened
tin mines in Malay Peninsula and gold mines in Borneo.

The Chinese, with these enterprises, began to sprout in coastal and inland towns.
Manila became one principal destination for Chinese migrants. 630 junks from South
China in the first 30 years. 1586 - The chinese population of 10,000 dwarfed the
approximately 800 Mexicans and criollos (Spaniards born in the Philippines) in
Intramuros. The growing disparity in numbers, caused the Spanish concern.

This led to the creation of separate Chinese quarters within Intramuros called
PARIAN. A fire razed it but in 1590 a new one was built, now outside Intramuros -
in Binondo and Sta. Cruz. THe number of Chinese continued to grow despite the
periodic massacres. Attempts by the SPanish to limit the numbers of CHinese to
6,000 unsuccessful. By the 17th century, there were already 40,000 Chinese.

BATAVIA - present-day Jakarta. In 1619, the Dutch East INdia Company came to
harbor. Major Chinese concentration. Batavia was called by the Chinese BETAWI.
Illegal immigrants eventually found their way to the PASISIR (northern Java
POrts). They were primarily from XIAMEN or AMOY, also from CANTON. The Dutch found
the CHinese as a source of cheap labor, they are diligent and fulfill a variety of
tasks.

In 1680 they feared the Chinese growth in population which dwarfed the Dutch
presence in 1680. They created the office of KAPITAN CHINA in 1619 to administer
the Chinese population and to collect taxes from the Chinese. The spectacular
population growth of chinese population led to the creation of more offices,
lieutenants and secretaries. In 1740 - There was one KAPITAN with six lieutenants
holding offices in BATAVIA.

ANother area of major chinese concentration was SIAM in THONBURI AND BANGKOK. The
chinese population in Siam was very numerous that it had 2 leaders, called NAI.
The chinese were pig-breeders, a reason why they were disliked by the Muslim
traders of Siam and INdonesia. They were also artisans, physicians and actors.
Some even becoming Siamese port officials.

The Chinese had freedom of movement throughout SIam. They engaged in trade and
were employed by the Siamese rulers to collect taxesor to run government
enterprises such as tin mining, overseas trade, and export of Thai silk. They were
also used as port officials, navigators of royal junks and interpreters. Chinese
helped stimulate the local economy with their gold and silver. To the king, the
CHinese were royal subjects. They even served as military commanders and
provincial governors.

The overseas Chinese distinguished themselves by their industry and acumen. They
established strong positions in retail trade through familial and dialect
associations. Their economic success as well as continuing ties with China
attracted envy and suspicions. IN 1914, Thailand's king WACHIRAWAT, wrote a
booklet entitled "THe Jews of the East" which equaled the Chinese to insect pests
and locusts that devour crops and grain.
He attacked the migrant Chinese for their loyalty to CHina and lack of allegiance
to their country of residence. Ironically, in Thailand, their assimilation was
rapid - intermarriage resulted in their integration to Thai culture.

THE INDIANS - have been trading with Southeast Asia since the early Christian era.
Prominent in Malaysia where there are Hindu temples today. There is an Indian
district in Kuala Lumpur. Many are speakers of Tamil and Bengali. They left
lasting impact. Exported cotton cloth and leather goods. Unlike the Chinese, the
INdians did not settle in large numbers from 16th to 18th centuries. The vast
majority of Indian traders came from 3 regions: (1) Northwest INdia - GUJARAT (2)
South India - MALABAR and KOROMANDEL (3) Northeast INdia - BENGAL

Lasting INdian impact on SOutheast Asian Culture. Gujarat became part of an

international trading network which extended to China in the East and Europe to
the West. It Later had links with the Portuguese ports of DIU and GOA. Pepper made
Malabar coast attractive to international traders. By the 17th century, ports of
Calicut and Travancore, had emerged as commercial center - cotton cloth. 16th
century - Koromandel Hindu Traders frequented Malacca ports, also ACEH and BANTEN,
where they had factors and agents.

KOromandel traders suffered from Dutch restrictions and monopolistic policies in

the 17th century. In the mainland SOutheast Asia, Koromandel merchants were active
in ARAKHAN, AVA and AYUTTHAYA. Many of them became moneylenders. BENGAL - third
major INdian area - trade was directed primarily to ACEH, Burmese and Thai coasts.
The Bengal Muslim merchants were prominent in this trade in the 17th centuries.
Cotton cloth, beads. Bengal Muslims were converts from Hindu Vaishya merchant
class.

The Europeans were the most formidable foreigners. They were determined to
monopolize the Spice Trade. European traders enjoyed government support. Earliest
ventures were funded by the Portuguese and SPanish royal houses. The Portuguese
and Spanish crown were united from 1580 - 1640. The Portuguese were the first to
undertake a systematic way to find new territories. Until his death in 1640,
Prince Henry the Navigator led this campaign.

A major impetus for overseas expansion was the slave trade. Also clove, pepper,
cinnamon, nutmeg, mace. POrtuguese expansion was also motivated by religious
fervor, national pride and commercial profit. The Papacy had entrusted to them the
conversion of heathen lands into Christianity. The Portuguese were fervent Roman
Catholics; defenders of the faith, against Muslims who were in control of the
Slave Trade.

Muslims were seen to be blocking the passage to the East, and fattening themselves
on their control of the Asian trade. Culmination of Portuguese mercantile
enterprise was their arrival in India, China and Southeast Asia. FERNANDO
MAGALLANES - in the service of SPain, he tried to reach ASia by sailing westward
(like Columbus). Tip of SOuth America - Straits of Magellan. Across Pacific -
Philippines. He was killed along with 40 of his crew. The survivors took the ship
VICTORIA to Moluccas, loaded a cargo of clover and then sailed to SPAIN.

In 1592, Spain sold its claim on Moluccas to POrtugal. Retained Philippines, and
Manila as its colonial capital in 1571. The Philippines was a major western
colonial territory in Southeast Asia, the longest-lasting colonial dominion.
ALFONSO DE ALBUQUERQUE, in 1511, was the architect of the Portuguese-Asian EMpire:
ESTADO DA INDIA, with its administration center at GOA, Southwestern INdia (was a
Portuguese territory from 1510 - 1961). It was him who conceived the strategy to
control the nodes of the Spice Trade.
This meant the seizure of Malacca - principal collecting port of spices. Pepper
from aceh and west java. 1509 to 1511 was the peak of Malacca's commercial
prosperity when it was captured by the portuguese. The Portuguese built their
fortress on the site of the sultan's former palace. Affairs of the various ethnic
groups were regulateed by one of their own people appointed by the POrtuguese with
the title of KAPITAN. The POrtuguese crown created a unique form of state
capitalism.

Following this idea, the king became the sole entrepreneur investing state
resources to create trade monopoly over its territories. CROWN MONOPOLY in Spices
continued until 1533 and in Moluccas until 1537. They were ousted by the Dutch.

CROWN TRADE - was government monopoly, where the king was the chief merchant.
Portuguese private trade identified INdian cotton cloth as crucial from of
exchange in SOutheast Asia. Private trade operated in GOA, MACAU, and MALACCA. In
1522, the POrtuguese were in Timor (conquered by the friars), Pattani, Malacca and
China. IN 1610 they yielded their position to the Dutch. by the end of the 17th
century, the Portuguese lost all of their territory to the Dutch except East
Timor. The Western Half of the Island fell under Dutch control.

In 1913 - formal delineation of territory. In 1975 - Indonesia invades East Timor.

1976 - formally annexed East Timor as the 27th province of the Republic of
Indonesia called TIMUR TIMUR / LORO SAE (Javanese). The Portuguese increasingly
became pirates and slavers after the collapse of their mercantile empire. Arrakhan
pirates were composed of Portuguese and natives operating in the Bay of BEngal.
They kidnapped noblemen/women. Underwent disgrace of concubinage.

Spanish enterprise in Southeast ASia was confined exclusively to the Philippines

which was under the direct viceroyalty of Mexico. SPain attempted to include
Moluccas through the TREATY OF TORDESILLAS of 1494, but SPain was forced to
relinquish its claim to Portugal under the TREATY OF ZARAGOZA in 1529. The
economic prospect of the Philippines as a colony appeared to Legazpi to be bleak.
The only marketable spice was in Mindanao - cinnamon. But it was insufficient
amount for commerce. There was only small quantity of gold.

natives were too poor to provide ready market for manufactured products. Legazpi
said that the Philippines could not be sustained by trade. But Spain later
realized trade prospect with China. Legazpi was the first to suggest that trade in
Chinese silk would perhaps replace the spice trade loss.

CHINA - MACAU - ACAPULCO - MANILA trade

Macau merchants bought Canton silk, cotton cloths and porcelain. Acapulco
merchants offered silver in exchange. 1571 - the shift from Cebu to Manila as
administrative center was a decisive step in the establishment of direct trade
with China. The Port of Intramuros was frequented by the CHinese. Spanish
merchants from Mexico settled in Manila in order to supervise the galleon trade,
and assure the proper loading of goods in the large Spanish galleons.

Galleon trade remained the dominant economic force until 1815 when it ended due to
the opening of the Philippines to international trade. It was Philip II who
tolerated the losses in the Philippines. Magnaninmously offered the Philippines as
'almacen de la fe' or warehouse of the faith. Spanish authorities relied heavily
on the clergy for acceptance of Spanish rule. Their leadership in both religious
and secular affairs was important.
CONQUISTA - was a religious conquest. System of direct rule in the Philippines
allowed the SPaniards through friars to deal with the natives. Philippines became
the only area where Christian missions had any substantial success. Dutch and
English concentrated on trade - commercial empire. This was said to be a
maifestation of racism. (thus, the Spanish were less racist than the Dutch and the
English?). They were profit-oriented, here to conduct business, not convert
people.

17th century - brought rival European communities (Dutch and English) in Asia.
Both wanted to oust the Portuguese. Both wanted to enter the spice trade directly.
Colonial expansion was backed solely by merchant profits. Dutch seamen travelled
east on Portuguese ships once. Also learned navigation from the POrtuguese. The
Dutch JAN HUYGEN VAN LINSCHOTEN sailed in a Portuguese ship to GOA and spent some
six years there in the service of Portuguese archbishop.

After his return to Holland he published an ITINERARIO (a geographical description

of the world), his observations in Asia, and a set of sailing directions of
Linschoten. This was later followed by several trading expeditions financed by
several trading companies. 1602 - The various rival Dutch companies was
amalgamated into one trading institution known as the VOC - Vereenigde
Oostindische Compagnie (United Dutch East India Company) to which the Dutch
government gave all trade monopoly to the East.

The VOC was empowered to make (1) war or treaties (2) seize foreign ships (3)
build forts (4) establish colonies (5) coin money (but pirates appear in the first
place because of monopolies), all under loose government supervision from home. In
their pursuit of monopoly, the Dutch fought the Portuguese and the Spanish. The
First Dutch Portuguese-War (1601) led to a decisive Dutch victory. This occurred
in Banten, East Java. Dutch ships already outnumbered Portuguese ships by this
time.

IN 1605- The Dutch removed the POrtuguese from Moluccas, and also from Ceylon in
1640. The Dutch captured Malacca in 1641. The capture signalled the end of
Portuguese position and the rise of Dutch power in Southeast Asia. Main focus of
the Dutch - East INdies, especially Java. The Dominance of Java was enhanced by
concentration of Dutch interests and investments in Batavia. This contributed to
the polarity between Java and the outlying islands (sumatra, etc.) which still
continues to the present.

Java was divided into spheres. 1755 - The Dutch divided central Java between the
Sultanates of SURAKARTA and YOGYAKARTA. Inhabitants of Java still think of
themselves either as SUNDANESE (West Java) or JAVANESE (Central and East). Dutch
success was due in part to their highly able governor general JAN PIETERZOON COEN
appointed in 1618 as the governer general of the East INdies. He established his
administration at Batavia, where the VOC could guard the SUNDA straits.

Batavia became VOC capital of the Dutch commercial empire. Their ships patrolled
south of the Philippines. They eliminated rivals wherever they could. Because of
Dutch monopolistic policy, many sailors turned to piracy, which was a problem in
the 17th and 18th century. BUGIS - were Sulawesi pirates, 1715 - were buying tin
from the port of Johore in violation of Dutch monopolistic policies. The Dutch
were concerned with profits only, not with converting the natives into
Protestantism.

They resented participation in local issues / politics. Dutch obsession with

profits ruled out avenue of alteration of culture of natives. Majority of people
continued to live without significant European impact. Vicinity of Batavia came
under direct Dutch rule. But in the countryside, the Dutch dealt indirectly with
the people throught the indigenous rulers who signed agreements to supply rice.
Dutch-controlled territory in East India were headed by a native regent called
BUPATI, or prince known as PANGERAN.

Both native regent and prince had an enemy in the fanatic ULAMA native elite who
advocated full application of Islamic Law. BUPATI and Prince acted as executors of
VOCs demands. The indigenous elites became the means by which the colonial system
was maintained. Bupati class / aristocratic class is called PRIYAYI. They were
seduced by titled or ednowments. 'principalia' equivalent in the Philippines.

They were also threatened with banishment or dethronement or were simply beaten.
If a Priyayi was found to be trading with other European powers, the Dutch would
not hesitate to dethrone him. Trade profits were augmented by tributes and taxes
exacted from the natives, as well as forced delivery of commodities at
artificially lowered prices. by the end of the 17th century, local rulers were
required, under th LEVERINGEN system to deliver their produce to VOC FACTORIJ
/faktorai/. Crops could only be sold to the VOC.

Compulsory sale of products at prices fixed by the government - similar to the

Philippine bandala system. The Dutch introduced into Java sugar cultivation for
the Asian market and also coffee for the European market. In the 18th century,
coffe became Java's largest export to Europe. West Java area - PREANGER area -
peasants were required to grow crops suitable for export. Peasants planted sugar
and coffee to pay for taxes. VOC and the Chinese would occassionally recruit both
Javanese and Sundanese thru their local lords to work in sugar plantations in the
Java area.

In the 1650s the Dutch introduced sugar plantation in Java called ONDERNEMING.
This sugar could not compete with WEst INdies (Cuba) sugar, however. Sugar was
sold to the markets of NWEst India, Persia and Japan (who paid in silver, gold and
copper). Copper was highly marketable in INdia where it is used for coins,
weapons, temple idols and decorations, gongs and jugs and wire. Opium trade
existed in Palembang, Southern Sumatra (ex-capital of SRI VIJAYA).

Rice from CEntral Java was marketed at Batavia. 1750s - coffee, sugar, indigo
became as important as spice. Spice-producing regions came under direct Dutch
control. Example: Ambon (Amboina), Banda Islands. Spices remained important to
VOC. System of quota and crop price were determined by demands from the European
markets. Surplus rice plants were systematically destroyed whenever there is
danger of overproduction. Production was adjusted to market demand. Trees were
actually cut down to avoid surpluses that might depress prices.

After 1650, BANDA Islands could only grow nutmeg. Ambon, only cloves. Pepper
plantations were prominent in West Java, Northern Sumatra and Eastern Coast of
Malay Peninsula. Pepper was exported to Europe, India and China. Pepper was not
subjected to monopoly control. It was prone to overproduction. System of forced
labor was introduced for construction and harbor improvement projects and the
construction of buildings. The Dutch introduced slavery (formerly nonexistent in
Java).

In Batavia, there were 13,278 slaves. Most of the manual labor were done by the
slaves brought from various parts of the Archipelago.

JAN 20, 2009

Batavia's purpose - to create a base and headquarters for the expansion of VOC
interest in SEASIA. The authorities in Batavia exercised considerable initiative
and independence because communication between Netherlands and colony takes about
three years. SPaniards in Manila. Based on Manila's established reputation in
international trade network centerd in Malacca and Manila's access to rich
agricultural interior and Tagalog provinces.

Europeans controlled the ships and the army and the guns. Europeans led native
mercenaries. Batavia relied heavily on mercenary armies: Malays, Indians and
Chinese, as well as European mercenaries arranged into different groups: Dutch,
English, Danish, French. MARDIJKERS /mardaikers/ - were Asian slaves that were
given freedom by the Portuguese. 'freemen' merdeka means free. Freed Portuguese-
speaking Malay soldiers.

SPanish in Manila relied on mercenaries (Macabebe scouts). While the Spanish

expulsed the Chinese from Intramuros, the Dutch lived with the Chinese to
safeguard the CHinese from hostile local inhabitants, and thus insure a steady
flow of income to VOC from Chinese entrepreneurial activity. The Dutch placed the
Chinese in VOC supervision. So important were they in trade, that both the
Japanese and the Dutch attempted to protect them through laws.

To the Dutch, the presence of CHinese is essential in the prosperity of a city. In

Malacca, 1641, (Dutch rule), the Chinese were involved in carpentry and masonry,
but a majority are shopowners. They were teahouse proprietors. Later, opium
business. The Dutch gained substantial revenue by taxing the Chinese for gambling,
pig slaughter (to not antagonize Muslims) and for wearing the KUEUE. Another group
that flourished: MESTIZO communities: EURASIAN. Mestizo children were socially
located between the cultures of their foreign fathers and their SEASian mothers.

Their halfway presence made them an ideal intermediary for trade, diplomacy, and
the transmission of ideas between the two cultures. It was in Manila and Batavia
that the mestizos successfuly played this role. Meanwhile, in Vietnam, Burma and
Siam, the tendency was centralization and consolidation. In Burma, the founder of
the TOUNGOO dynasty such as TABINSHSWETI BAYINNAUNG, aimed from the outset to
create a centralized state in the Irrawaddy Basin.

This was to be achieved with English assistance (guns, cannons, mortars).

Portuguese mercenaries were deployed during attacks against the MONS and the PEGU
in the late 1530s, and MARTABAN in 1540s. Successor of TABINSHSWETI reunited Burma
in 1551. Firstly, he defeated the MONS, and then the SHAN (thai) states, even
CHIANG MAI Was conquered, capital of the LAN NA kingdom. his army defeated
Ayutthaya and Vientiane (capital of kingdom of Lan Sang), present-day Laos.

Wars in mainland Southeast Asia. Official Burmese justification for its attack in
Ayutthaya was Ayutthaya's refusal to part with several white elephants - magical
abilities - provide rain. Legend has it that Prince Siddhartha Gautama's
reincarnation preceding his enlightenment was as an elephant. White elephant
possession was a royal prerogative of the king in Theravada Buddhist states of
Southeast Asia. A monarch would part with a white elephant at great peril to his
royal position.

From ChiangMai to Ayutthaya, new pagodas were built at Bayinnaung's direction. He

acted as a model buddhist king: he distributed copies of the TRIPITAKA. Three
Basket of Buddhist teachings. (1) Vinaya Pitaka (2) Sutta Pitaka (3) Abhidhamma
Pitaka. VINAYA - basket of order. Very basic. COntains material about the life of
the Buddha and the origin of the sangha, rules of discipline for monks. SUTTA
PITAKA - guideline or instruction book. Teachings of the BUddha and the monks.
Contains 547 legends from the BUddha's previous existences. ABHIDHAMMA PITAKA -
basket of higher teaching. composed of seven books and written in a highly
academic style, intended for specialists.

Bayinnaung also ordained and fed monks, built and repaired monasteries and
pagodas. He sent out ships to undertake commercial and diplomatic mission to
Bengal, Ceylon and China. Burmese exported teak woods, Burmese rubies, sapphire.
Bayinnaung also promoted peace by resolving the long-standing Burman-Mon rivalry
in Irrawaddy Basin. The rule of Bayinnaung was exceptional - he extended his
kingdom up to present-day Laos and Thailand.

However, after his death in 1581, the tide turned in favor of Ayutthaya. The Thai
monarch PRA NARET (black prince) expelled the Burmese from Ayutthaya. Invaded
Burma and captured Southern Burmese ports of MOUTMEIN and TAVOY. 1585-6: heir to
PRA NARET, NARESUAN declared independence of Ayutthaya from Burma. Ayutthaya
thereafter was able to reassert itself as the dominant Thai state. Ayutthaya
attacked LOVEK in 1594. In desperation, the Khmer king appealed to the SPaniards
in Manila, asking for military assistance in exchange for submission to the
Spanish crown.

This effort failed however, because Spanish did not have the means. Thai
incursions into Cambodian territory continued. The triumph of Ayutthaya was a
reflection of Burma's fragmentation: (1) ethnic differences between Burmans and
Mons became more pronounced. (2) villagers fled to escape military service. (3)
many royal servicemen evaded their obligations by (a) avoiding registration (b)
changing their names (c) payment instead of service (d) entering the monkhood (e)
placing themselves under the protection of another king.

By the 1600s, Burma had broken into a number of kingdoms: the Sangha was divided
and suffered with the end of the TOUNGOO dynasty in 1752. In the Theravada states
of Southeast asia, abandonment of dhamma was believed to lead to the fall of a
kingdom. In 1760, ALAUNGPAYA, founder of the Burman KONBAUNG dynasty (1752 -
1885), attacked Ayutthaya. In 1767, Ayutthaya fell. The capture of LAN NA in 1762,
gave BUrmans additional forces to attack Ayutthaya. After the Burmese invasion,
Ayutthaya broke up into 5 regions.

The Siamese monarch was now faced with (1) devastation by Burmans of Siam (2)
depletion of population - thousands taken as captives (3) decapitation of life-
sized buddhist statues. ALAUNGPAYA occupied AVA in 1752; MOns were driven south.
For Alaungpaya, two essential ingredients for consolidation were: (1) Theravada
Buddhism (2) Western arms. One important development was the resurgence of
INWA/AVA as Konbaung dynasty's capital, during the time of ALaungpaya's son,
HSINBIYUSHIN.

Economic prosperity of KYAUKSE regin - chief rice granary of the Konbaung dynasty.
BUrma under HSINBIYUSHIN fought off Chinese invasions from YUNNAN. Chinese
interference with SHAN and LAO states. The war between Burma (Konbaung) and China
(Manchu dynasty) interrupted the lucrative land trade in Yunnan which exchanged
Burman cotton for Chinese silk, porcelain and jade. Within three years Alaungpaya
conquered Central Burma and Pegu up to holy city of DAGON (RAngoon).

BODAWPAYA - son of ALaungpaya, presented himself as chakravartin. The title of

chakravartin endowed their military campaigns with messianic significance. The
wars between Ayutthaya and Arrakhan were presented as a sacred mission on behalf
of Theravada Buddhism. In Ayutthaya, Alaungpaya claimed he was the future BUddha,
the ARIMITTIYA. His son, BODAWPAYA attempted to declare himself the buddhist
messiah MAITREYA and chakravartin as well.

Events in Burma may have influenced developments in Siam where the Buddhist king
PHRAYA TAKSIN, claimed himself as Bodhisattva as well. But this claim alienated
the Sangha and the people. He was a son of a wealthy and influential Chinese
merchant. He rose to power after the fall of Ayutthaya in 1767, and founded
another capital at Thonburi. The hostility he aroused within the Sangha has been
seen as instrumental in his downfall in 1762.

JANUARY 22, 2009, THursday

Bodawpaya, upon declaring himself Maitreya, faced sangha opposition. He undermined

economic independence of sangha. He reorganized the sangha and appointed monks he
favored to top monasteries. An official was sent to take records of monastic
lands, to limit the account accumulated by monasteries and also for the
maintenance of monastic discipline. Courses of study were prescribed for monks
with monthly examinations to ensure their knowledge of Vinaya Pittaka. Those who
failed were tattoed and expelled from the Sangha.

The reign of Bodawpaya witnessed rebel monk groups such as the ZAWTI. Members of
the ZAWTI rejected the veneration of relics and statues. Monks were denied of
reincarnation. Preached existence of one supreme deity - the World Creator. Many
of the problems of the relationships between Konbaung dynasty and British East
India Company arose during the time of Bodawpaya. Why? the rebels often sought
refuge in British territory.

When Royal troops pursued the rebels across the NAAF border, conflict between
British and Royal troops occurred. Bodawpaya extended Burma's borders close to
British India. Konbaung control of Manipur and Assam brought the Burmans in
conflict with the British.

1811 - Burma-British diplomatic contact terminated. Conflict continued. BAGYIDAW -

succeeded BODAWPAYA in 1819. Konbaung was faced with revolts in Manipur and Assam
which were supported by the British. British saw Burma as extension of India. May
1824 - naval expedition took Rangoon by surprise. Start of Anglo-Burmese War
(1824-6). 1st anglo-burmese war took place in the period known as gun-boat
diplomacy - diplomacy by intimidation. From Rangoon, British advanced to AVA.

By the treaty of YANDABO, near AVA, 1826 Burma ceded ARRAKHAN and TENASSERIM to
British. Under the treaty, Burma was to abandon Manipur and Assam. Burmese
monarchy was forced to negotiate a commercial treaty and to receive a British
resident in the royal court. After this first war, Burma was increasingly seen as
a backdoor to a vast interior market of China, to be used for export of raw cotton
from INdia to china in exchange for silk and porcelain, and later for export of
opium to China.

The British developed extensive rice cultivation in the Arrakhan and they built
the port of MOULMEIN in Tenasserim for export of rice and timber its teak-bearing
forests. These achievements finally convinced the British not to return these
provinces. Reign of King MINDON - 2nd Anglo-Burmese War broke out as the British
attempt to protect its commercial interests were thwarted by king and his royal
officials.

Teak forests was a royal monopoly. Oil wells and ruby mines were essential to the
reputation of the Burmese king. But this was seen as inimical to laissez-faire
free market as advanced by ADam Smith. In 1851 - two British shipmasters were
imprisoned, accused of murder, significant sum to be paid for release, imprisoned
by the Burmese governor of Rangoon. 1852 - capture of major Burmese ports by
British military expedition.

British forces occupied Rangoon up to the Lower Burma and teak forests of TOUNGOO,
in effect the domain of the king was cut off from the rice-growing area of South.
End of Konbaung dynasty - eight years after death of king Mindon. 3rd Anglo-
Burmese War - began in November 1885 when Britain declared war on Burma. The
British had adopted an extraordiarily arrogant attitude. Termination of all
diplomatic relations.

British commercial interests required for war again when a ship was fined by a
royal official. This led to the British invasion of Irrawaddy region in 1885 to
seize Mandalay where King Mindon moved his capital. Burma was then finally annexed
to British INdia.

Burmese king THIBAW (1878-1885) - his family was exiled to Western India. Overland
trade with China and involvement in valuable teak trade were the reasons for
British intervention which led to the removal of king due to his monopolistic
policies. THE CHAKRI DYNASTY OF SIAM - Phraya Taksin was the man who rose to power
after the fall of Ayutthaya. 1767 - was crowned king. Thonburi was his capital.
Phraya Taksin not successful as politician.

He retired in 1775 and stayed in his palace where he was increasingly attracted to
notions of his own divinity. He attempted to force sangha to accept him as a
bodhisattva, alienating the sangha profoundly. A revolt took place in March 1782.
CHAOPHRAYA MAHAKASAYSUK later became known as PHRAYACHAKRI was the founder of the
CHAKRI dynasty. he was named king by rebels in 1782. Chakri dynasty still reigns
in Bangkok, southwest near Gulf of Siam, which he made his capital. He assumed the
title Rama who was the 7th avatar of Vishnu. Rama Chakri.

The succeeding monarchs numbered their reigns after CHao Phraya. June 9, 1946 -
present king Bhumibol Adulyadej (Phumipon Adunyadet) ascended the throne as Rama
IX of the Chakri dynasty. King Rama I gained the confidence of the nobility by
granting them high offices and by carefully consulting officers. Functions of
government were concentrated in the SENABODI - ministers of state.

Each ministry collected taxes, administered laws, constructed public works,

attempted to maintain law and order. KALAHOM - professional armies were under him.
MAHATTHAI - kept the elephant corps, also administered the civil department.
PHRAKLANG - treasurer of the kingdom, conducted foreign trade relations. KROM
MWANG - policed the capital. Thai word for politics is 'KANMUANG' 'the business of
the province' Villages had to deal with provincial governors and officials rather
than with the king directly.

In the provincial government of NAKHON SITHAMMARAT, even Brahmans had to consult

with judges. Headman was informally elected among the elder men. His age gave him
an automatic high status. Theravada Buddhism - present even at village. Buddhist
temples flourished under the king's patronage. King as custodian of Buddhist
philosophy. Rama I for instance, extended his patonage to the Sangha, he regularly
sought the sangha's advice on moral issues.

His time saw the rise of the sangha as custodian of public education. In Thailand,
there were monastery slaves. These slaves lived in villages as ordinary peasants.
They devoted the produce of their assigned lands to the upkeep of the sangha. they
fed the monks. Rice, vegetables and fish. DEBT BONDAGE - was more common than
outright slavery in the 19th century. A peasant in economic difficulty might seek
assistance from his neighbour or village chief or landlord, receiving either money
or goods, with a time limit for repayment

If the peasant had not paid up to this period, he and his immediate family were to
provide service until the debt is declared repaid. During this period, he may stay
in the village rendering goods to his creditor by way of interest. He may be taken
to creditor's household in return for labor. He or she is provided with shelter,
clothing and food. Interest made repayment hard. Many debt bondsmen became
obligated for life.

If we look at this institution, this offered obvious advantage to creditor - cheap

labor, force of men for use in wars. Bondsmen however might benefit as well: he
remains a free man. A debtsman cannot be sold. His social position was sometimes
improved due to link with upper class household. In some cases, bondsmen were ill-
treated. Escape to the hills was possible if one is willing to give up settlement
in village. PHRAI LUANG________________________________________________

THE ENGLISH IN SOUTHEAST ASIA - started around 1570, English pirate admirals
called buccaneers such as SIR FRANCIS DRAKE began plundering Spanish ships in the
high seas. 1577-1580 - sailing exploits - stolen Spanish treasure (Latin American
gold) raided from West and East Coast of Spanish America. Sir Francis Drake's
circumnavigation of 1588 and return from Moluccas rekindled English interest in
the Far East. The first Englishmen to reach India reached GOA through a Portuguese
ship: Ralph Newberry and Ralph Fitch.

Newberry died in GOA, but Fitch shipped on to Burma and Malacca before returning
to ENgland. His descriptions of Asian wealth contributed to the founding of the
British East India Company. December 31, 1600 - Queen Elizabeth I signed signed a
charter to a group of 125 london merchants organized into an East India Company
which sought to trade with India. The company excluded as members any gentlemen
(hereditary aristocrats - most of whom owned land - represented Old England in
contrast to New Order composed of merchants and manufacturers). Rubber in Malay is
GETAH.

The first English ship under William Hawkin HEctor reached India in 1608. they
founded factories in Pattani and Ayutthaya. In eastern INdonesia, the English
opened a factory in MAKASSAR. They gained control of the Islands of RUN and
NAILAKA in the Banda Islands. The English finally obtained access to cloves,
nutmeg and mace and therefore imperiled VOC monopoly.

The VOC's chief rival was now the British which they finally ousted from the East
Indies in 1623. The English East India Comany retreated to India where they based
until 1750. Opium in Pataliputra. They bought INdian cotton on Koromandel coast
and sold them in mainland Southeast asia, china and japan where they were in great
demand and where there was no Dutch. British acknowledged that Asian civilization
was greater because of China and INdia. They were awed by Oriental power and
wealth. Racial and ethnic difference.

19th century - Rudyard Kipling - White Man's Burden - was written for the
Americans to acquire the Philippines, offered the advice of an Englishman in
trying to civilize "half-devil, half-child Filipinos", their "new-fought sullen
peoples." RISE OF THE COLONIAL CITY - there were three European-controlled,
multiracial cities - Malacca, Manila and BAtavia, which gained prominence. MALACCA
- profits from the Spice Trade animated the Portuguese.

Malacca by the 17th century had large stone structures - cathedral, churches, and
headquarters of the religious orders, palacce of the bishop, the town hall; the
center of Malacca was a small hill where stood a church, the towers of St. Paul
and a Jesuit convent. However, it was the massive fortress which dominated the
landscape. Portuguese Malacca was headed by a captain and a council, assisted by a
FACTOR, JUDGE, SCRIBES and MARKET INSPECTORS and CONSTABULARY OFFICIALS. The
administration of Malacca was under Viceroy and Council of State based at Goa.
In addition, there were two other institutions that were regarded as twin pillars
of the POrtuguese colonial system: (1) SENADO DA CAMARA (Town Council) and (2)
SANTA CASA DE MISERICORDIA (holy house of mercy). The Senado da Camara controlled
city finances, all provisions, established correct weight and measures, maintained
the fortress and fort towers, and also acted as court of first instance. The
Misericordia was responsible for the sick and the needy, maintained hospitals.

JANUARY 27, 2009, TUESDAY

_______________________________PHRAI LUANG class- many in Ayutthaya performed

compulsory labor. In Siam, the Phrai Luang was required for 3 to 4 months a year
to render service to the king - to dig canals and accompany military expeditions.
PHRAI SOM - labor service in the households of local officials and rulers.
Maintained relationship with a master or family over several generations. these
peasants had close personal ties with their patrons. Time of Rama I - culture and
language of Thai kingdom becoming more uniform.

He composed the Ramakian which runs to 3,000 pages of modern script. This was a
complete rewriting of the Ramayana, made meaningful to Thai civilization,
dramatized in Ramakian ballet. His reign was marked by (1) extension of Thai
influence in Malay Peninsula, Pattani, Laos and Cambodia (reduction of Burmese
military and political power. His successpr, Rama II (1809-1824), his son,
developed trade with China. Chinese planters introduced commercial sugar
production in 1816, which soon became an important item of trade with the British
who were concentrated in Singapore in 1819, and also with the American.

Siamese experiment with European tactics and rifles in LUANG PRABANG. Siam
augmented its exchange of rice, tin, pepper, rhinoceros horn, sappanwood (source
of red dye), rosewood (reddish-dark wood, with good grain) for Chinese silk,
porcelain, paper, tea and saltpeter (potassium nitrate) (a chemical used in
pyrotechnics, matches and fertilizers, which causes cancer). Production of
sugarcane and pepper was expanded as royal monopolies, to the anger of the
British.

Tobacco exported to Cochin-CHina (S. Vietnam), Cambodia. Sugar milling, iron

smelting and tin mining were based on the enterprise of the Chinese when
immigration was encouraged by the Chakri kings. CHinese enjoyed freedom of
movement for cash-cropping and business enterprise. Export of pepper and other
products improved shipping industry. 8 to 10 vessels were built annually, these
were first made of teak. PRINCE CHETSADABODIN (son of Rama II by a concubine)
succeeded as Rama III in 1824.

His younger half-brother, King Mongkut, born from a queen, barely 20 years old,
had entered monkhood. Rama III (1824-1841) played an important role for trade with
CHina for official as well as for personal profit. By Rama III's reign, the
CHinese had equal rights with Thai in buying land, property and shipping vessels.
Many intermarried with Thai, gaining access to official positions. 1825 - threat
of Britain when gov-gen of India dispatched Captain HENRY BURNEY as an envoy to
the Thai court. He came to obtain Siamese participation in the Anglo-Burmese war,
but failed to obtain it.

After negotiations, Burney treaty was ratified. This treaty recognized Thai
position in the Malay states of Pattani, Kedah, Kelantan and TRengganu. Rama III
agreed to increase trade with the British in Singapore and Penang. However, the
1826 Burney Treaty also encouraged the Lao ruler of Vien Tian to believe that Siam
was weakened by the British. 1826 - kingdom of Vien Tian launched an attack from
the East across the Khorat plateau. Thai counterattack spread across Lao.
Influence of West was felt in Bangkok.

Prince Mongkut undertook Westernization. MOngkut (1851-1868) soon began the study
of languages: Latin, English, etc., mathematics, astronomy, physics and foreign
ideas. Sons of the members of the nobility studied Western medicine, navigation,
shipbuilding and military science. The significant event of these studies was
modernisation/Westernization. Mongkut contributed articles to the Siam times, a
Western local newspaper. In the same manner, KARTINI, a Javanese prince,
contributed to a Dutch paper.

Mongkut after years of celibacy and study of ENglish decided that his chief queens
should learn English as well. Urge to Westernize was stronger in Mongkut's younger
brother (full brother) CHUDHAMANI, who named his younger son, Prince George
Washington. The men of the nobility closely followed course of the Opium War with
China and also the affairs of the neighbouring countries, thus they were unlikely
to underestimate the power of the West to include SIam in its sphere of influence.

1850 - American and British envoys came to Bangkok and demanded (1) free trade
(2) extra-territoriality - exemption from local legal jurisdiction (such as that
granted to diplomats). Neither was able to conclude a treaty. 1855 - Western
demands were revived by Sir john BOWRING, British governor to Hongkong, envoy to
China, 1849-52, British consul at Canton. by the time he arrived in Bangkok, the
2nd Anglo-Burmese war took place.

To king Mongkut, the threat of war and inttervention was real based on what he
heard and read of Burma. Sor John Bowring toured Luzon and was housed in the
house of Teodora Alonzo's brother. Bowring wrote 'A Visit to the Philippine Isles'
published in London 1859. Jose Alberto Alonzo, accdg to Bowring was well-educated
and spoke foreign languages. Bowring was able to conclude the Bowring treaty of
1855. Terms: Siam accepted free trade, and the abolition of royal trading
monopolies, extraterritorial rights for British subjects with the right to rent
land, construct residences, travel a day's journey inland from Bangkok, British
ships should have access to all Siamese ports, a Consulate should be established
at Bangkok when volume of trade reached ten ships a year.

Texes on land were fixed at low rates. Prohibitions on exports of rice were
removed. The only concession to Siam was stipulation that import and sale of opium
continued to be government monopoly. Chinese and the elite were smokers of opium.
Siam gave away a great deal for the sake of security, without any way of knowing
if it could withstand the sacrifices. Mongkut was convinced that his kingdom's
survival depended on generous accomodation with the West. Because of this treaty,
Siam survived the aggressive push of Western Imperialism, to survive as a kingdom
with a king. Mongkut created new government monopolies such as opium, gambling,
lottery, alcohol was contracted to the Chinese (economic collaborators). Number of
foreign ships visiting Bangkok multiplied.

Commercially, the CHinese played a big role in Bangkok. Siam became one of the
world's largest exporters of rice and teak (from Chiang mai). Harbor facilities
were constructed with the help of foreign firms. Westerners came not only as
traders but also as diplomats and missionaries, artisans, professionals, tutors,
translators and shipmasters. King Mongkut was aware that his country's fate
depended on learning from the West. He and his followers borrowed foreign
techniques where Siamese security was at stake. Western drill masters trained
Siamese troops.

In the 1860s two events caused Siam to reconsider its relations with the West: (1)
shelling of Trengganu by British ships which had previously...1863 - France
eliminated Siam's power over Cambodia. King Mongkut died of Malaria in 1865 (aged
65). CHULALONGKORN, son of MOngkut, RAMA V (1868-1910), was 15 years old when he
succeeded to the throne. For five years he was powerless. Power lay in the hands
of his regents - CHAO PHRAYA SI SURIYAWONG. King Chula. travelled to Java, Burma,
SIngapore, INdia. He gathered around him a group of young men, some with Western
education.

1873 - he announced the abolition of slavery and compulsory labor service. He

encouraged the sons of nobilities to attend modern, secular, western-oriented
schools. His brothers (27 of them) were the best educated men of his generation.
Attempts were made to master French. They were put in charge of departments and
ministries, especially the Department of Finance. Provinces were controlled by
commissioners, who were also brothers of the king. Western imperialist pressures
continued.

1880s - French imperial ambitions on Siam increased. 1890s - Siam had to accept
French demand of surrender of Lao territory. The least that the French and the
English could agree on in 1896 was to guarantee the independence of the Chao
Phraya River VAlley

JANUARY 29, 2009, THURSDAY

Chao Phraya river Valley - the heart of Thailand. The difficulties with France
were resolved with treaties (later broken). Siam ceded territories in Laos and
Cambodia: ex. Champassak (Khmer territory), Battambang (Cambodia), in return for
an end to further French claims and French abuses of extra-territoriality in the
kingdom. 1909 - Siam ceded 4 malay sultanates: KEDAH, PERLIS, KELANTAN, TRENGGANU
to Britain. The agreements after 1909 secured the present territory of Thailand's
boundaries.

VIETNAM MERITOCRACY AND MONARCHY - Confucian ideal of monarchy was promoted by LE

THANH-TONG of the LE dynasty (15th century), he pictured the monarch as son of
heaven or sage who mediated between nature and humankind. AS such, the monarch
supposedly governed by means of his moral virtue in an ideal political system that
fused two processes of administration and moral indoctrination. Le Thanh-Tong
insisted on recruiting government officials through public civil service exams
carried out in Mandarin (Chinese proper), the language of the dragon, not of the
fish (Vietnamese).

Le dynasty broadened the principle of holding lower-level exams in the provinces

every three years, success in the lower-level exams led to higher exams in the
cities, presided over by the king himself, who became in effect, the kingdom's
chief examiner. Students who passed the higher examinations could usually count on
good government appointments. Even passing preliminary exams, could gain exemption
from labor service tax, as in the NGUYEN exam rules of 1730. To pass, students had
to write essays about COnfucian philosophy and Northern (China) Imperial
Histories, write poems with standardized rhyme schemes ( tests the vocabulary),
even prepare policy notes for their rulers.

The monarch and the mandarin (scholar-official) (SHIH in chinese) were expected to
take Confucian ideal of gentleman seriously, to fully exemplify the code of the
gentlemen. This was laid down by the Vietnamese philosopher LE QUY DON (18th
century) also of the LE dynasty. The gentleman was someone whose serenity was
strong enough to transcend poverty and loss of office. His virtue impressed both
palace (royalty) and countryside (peasants). His penmanship has to be good enough
to recapture the spiritual essence of ancient sages.

Talents include both commanding armies and writing poetry. The basis of Confucian
ethics was the 3 bonds: (1) obedience of ministers to rulers (2) children to
elders (3) wives to their husbands. Man-made society (patriarchal) was properly a
hierarchy. Daughters, wives and younger brothers counted less than sons, husbands
and older brothers. Younger brothers were not to presume equal status with their
older brothers, and thereby violate the hierarchy.

Le monarchs enjoined wives to be submissive, obedient and chaste widows after the
death of their husband, to cherish the children of their husband's concubines as
if they were her own. Ancestor-worship - were crucial to maintaining Confucian
ethics. Incense, rice wine, betel, prayers were used. The ancestor cult was
designed to keep the family united as an institution, as an eternal corporation.
Secrets were kept inside the family. Not all the VIetnamese accepted the whole of
Confucianism.

A famous exception was HO XUAN HOUNG, a Northern poet, a Confucianism critic. SHE
was an educated elite. Twice married as a concubine to elites. Among other things,
she compared women's situation to that of a jackfruit on a tree which farmers
threw wedges to see if it is ripe. She attacked concubinage as an institution
saying that secondary wives were nothing but exploited wageless maids. She
articulated these in her poems.

In theory, COnfucian ideology was the source of the rules of politics. COnfucian
ideal was political unification - a unified state, over which the gentleman would
rule. NORMAN OWEN, an American scholar said "few rulers could live up to this
ideal, inevitably, divided authority was the norm in COnfucian Asia." Warlords of
China, Shoguns of japan, Yang Ban aristocrats of Korea, all questioned the
monarchy's authority. Vietnam in the 18th century - there was a split between the
LE (1427-1788) dynasty and the regional ruling families.

1528-1802 - real political control was subdivided. TRINH family lords controlled
the Northern region of TONKING from HANOI (THANG LONG). The NGUYEN governed
SOuthern region of COchin-China, through a series of capitals that shifted 8
times before a final one was chosen -> PHU XUAN (later called HUE) in Central
Vietnam. 1802 - descendants of NGUYEN lords created a territorially-
enlarged...Nguyen lords through its army ended the political life of the
Indianized kingdom of CHAMPA (in present day KHANH HOA and BINH THUAN provinces).
1720 - end of CHampa, finally erased from map of Asia.

The Last King of Champa along with followers fled to Cambodia, some lived in
Saigon and intermarried. Thereafter, Vietnamese extended control to Mekong Delta,
then part of Khmer Kingdom. Nguyen rulers encouraged retired soldiers to establish
colonies beyond Cochin-China. By 1750s, virtually all Khmer territory came under
Nguyen rule. Army conscription victimized peasantry because of civil wars between
the TRINH and NGUYEN. These diverted many men away from commerce. North Vietnamese
observers were astonished to encounter horseback-riding women traders in the south
who dominated trade and commerce. The Chinese were astonished as well. These women
traders travelled from place to place.

FEB 3 Tuesday

Nguyen lords ultimately survived the civil wars of 1771-1802 because of foreign
help from the Siamese and the French, and their access to Mekong Delta rice
supplies. The TRINH and LE rulers were subsequently overwhelmed by a rebellion by
the 3 TAYSON Brothers, named after their village in South Central Vietnam. The
TAYSON brothers preached equality of rich and poor. The brothers had some
education. They even attracted Confucian scholars as advisers. Their anti-Chinese
sentiment manifested in 1783 when they massacred ethnic Chinese in Saigon.
NGUYEN HUE - was the most intelligent brother. Destroyed both Le and Trinh
dynasties, proclaimed himself emperor and hero of commoners. Defeated a large army
that the Chinese emperor sent against him. As a ruler and army commander, dreamed
of translating COnfucian classics into Vietnamese and of seizing southern Chinese
provinces. Instead, by 1792, TAYSON brothers were doomed. Nguyen power revived in
1802, this time, all over Vietnam.

1802-1945 - NGuyen Rule - began to succumb to French in 1859-1885. The Nguyen

emperor MINH-MONG (1820-41) had executed Catholic French Missionaries. This
allowed the French to invade Vietnam. His predecessor was GIA LONG. Unlike Gia
Long, MInh MONG was a centralizer. Minh Mong unified HANOi, HUE and SAigon. He saw
Vietnam as a South that opposed itself to the North (China), but he also believed
that the Vietnamese people had the right to call themselves HAN PEOPLE, as part of
the heritage of being part of the Han Empire.

He also feared Christianity which he believed threatened COnfucianism. The

independence of Vietnam ended two decades after the death of Minh MOng. The French
navy gunboats seized the 6 provinces of Vietnam (from south to north) and
converted it to the colony of Cochin-Chin (1859-1867). Another Nguyen, TU DUK,
after appealing to CHina for help, was forced by France to convert parts of
Vietnam into protectorate.

With China itself in decline, lost the Sino-French war (1884-85), resulted from
Vietnam's appeal. The French punished China. France France succeeded because of
(1) greater weaponry of industrializing Europe (2) France exploited social
divisions in Vietnam: peasant rebellions, conversion of hundreds of thousands to
Roman Catholicism, especially in the South. The prohibition by the Nguyen court
and its mistreatment of missionaries provided reason for French invasion.

DOMINGO ABELLA - once director of National Archives. His article told of when
Filipinos fought in Vietnam in 1858. We learn that a contingent of Filipino troops
landed in Vietnam. They were to fight a war against the Vietnamese, who were then
fighting the French. French believed in civilizing mission. Spain had been induced
by France to join their campaign.

Spaniards in Manila agreed to send an expeditionary force and join French campaign
in Vietnam. A royal order commanded Gov-Gen Fernando de NORZAGARAY. Was commanded
by king to impart 1500 men for Cochin-China and to place them under the command of
French whose rank and file were composed of African colonial troops. Meanwhile,
Spanish government allowed the French to recruit 900 indios for French navy. They
were mostly Tagalog.

On June 5, 1862, a peace treaty was signed. representatives of emperor tu duk and
french and spanish governments. Supremacy of the French. French-Vietnamese treaty.

CAMBODIA - 1796-1884 - tributary kingdom. Tribute paid by one ruler to another. As

price of security or acknowledgement of submission. Khmer kingdom included
Cambodia and much of S. Vietnam, East Thailand, Southern Laos. By the 1790s, it
was reduced to tributary state by expanding powers of CHAKRI and NGUYEN. 1850s -
Cambodia was battleground between Vietnam and Siam. Cambodia almost disappeared.

Khmer provinces of Battambang and MAHANOKOR contains ruins of ANgkor. These

remained Under Siam, governed by a collaborator and his descendants. The 2
provinces were restored to French Cambodia in 1907. Cambodia's tribute to Nguyen
was sent every four years. This consisted of forest products, lac, ivory, beeswax.
These products were extracted in the mountains that lay between Cambodia and
Vietnam. The Nguyen saw Cambodia as a barbarian region. Cambodians were not
COnfucians. 1833. Same way China viewed Vietnam. By 1860 - Cambodia had become a
"two-headed bird", according to Siamese view, caught between Siam (the Father) and
Vietnam (The mother). 1833 - Vietnam invaded Phnom Penh, new Cambodian capital.
The Vietnamese sought to control kingdom, renaming Cambodia TAN TAI 'Western
Commandery.' Administered through Vietnamese officials. The Vietnamese in Cambodia
imposed their culture. Vietnamisation. They forced hig-ranking Vietnamese
officials to wear Vietnamese costumes. They desecrated Buddhist temples.
Vietnamese renamed the provinces. The Vietnamese invasion set off rebellions.

One of these was led by Buddhist monks. The Khmer objected specifically to
imposition of cadastral records - public records concerning value, extent and
ownership of land as basis of taxation. Submitting to census was a hated activity.
Paying taxes on land was another hated activity. Meanwhile, Viet-Siamese fighting
went on until 1847. Siamese and Vietnamese groups were aided by rival Cambodian
factions, ddevastating the landscape. No rice was planted in much of Cambodia.
Population reverted to semi-nomadism. They survived through a large extent by
eating leaves and roots.

The war between Siam and Vietnam lasted until 1848. when the two agreed to
withdraw from Cambodian territory and to accept DUANG (52 years old) as Cambodian
king. it witnessed revival of Buddhism and reconstruction of temples. 1853 - Duang
transmitted a letter to Napoleon III, telling of his desire for friendship. French
began to take interest in Cambodia, during time of king Norodom, eldest son of
DUANG.

The French loved to travel along the Mekong. These travellers convinced the
Emperor that Cambodia's economic potential was enormous. The unmapped Mekong river
would lead to China, moreso, in early 1860s, French interest further aroused by
discovery of Angkor ruins in SIEAM REAP area.

The French travelled to Norodom's court. Agreement with French, accepting their
protection. Siamese influence in Cambodia ceased after the signing of the FRANCO-
SIAMESE TREATY of 1867. By this treaty, France recognized rights of Chakri dynasty
to the Cambodian provinces of Battambang and Siem Reap. On the other hand, the
Siamese king Mongkut (Rama IV), accepted the existence of French protectorate over
the rest of Cambodia.

Protectorate - protection and partial control - assumed by a superior power over a

dependent country or region. Phnom Penh - capital of Cambodia's French
Protectorate. Was more accessible to French in Saigon. (1) They abolished slavery
(2) permitted sale of land to foreigners (3) extended powers of French president
(4) They imposed administrative, judicial, commercial and financial reform.
Encouraged free enterprise and agriculture. Abolished court monopolies.

DUTCH EAST INDIES - 1750 -1914 - this period witnessed the expansion of Dutch
power within INdonesia. Control radiated from Java to the outer islands. This led
to the rise of one colonial state called 'the Netherlands East Indies' or
'Tropical Holland' Central Java - Duthc intervention resulted to division of the
royal domain of the Muslim kingdom of Mattaram into two kingdoms. (1) kingdom of
Surakarta (Solo) (2) YOGYAKARTA (birthplace of Suharto). The Hindu-Javanese title
for king, SUSUHUNAN, was used in both kingdoms. "the admirable king"

One recognized a king by the WAHYU, the divine light that descended upon him as
shone from his eyes. It was then impossible to look at the king straight in the
eyes. When the Wahyu left him, one knew that his time as king was up. It was time
to look for successor. In central Java, within these kingdoms, king took the name
of Javanese kings: (1)HAMENGKUBUWANA (2) PAKEBUWANA - 'he who holds the world on
his lap' 'axis of the world.' As such, the function of the king was to maintain
natural order of things, harmony, social and political hierarchy.

The kingdom over which the king ruled had no boundaries. The kingdom as conceived
of as a series of four concentric circles. Going outward from the capital towards
infinite distance. At the center was the KRATON NEGARA /negoro/. Kraton - 'state'
where the WAHYU stays. It is also the sacral palace-city from which the king sends
forth rays of his influence. The kraton was the sun. The Kraton in YOGYAKARTA, was
a vast complex of building and squares, enclosed by walls and moats, protection
against outside assault.

Inside the kraton, were the king, his queens, concubines, officials such as
scribes, royal dancers, corps of female guards. Multitude of servants - slaves
(before Dutch abolition). Outside the Kraton was the rest of the kingdom. Negara
Agung. immediate yogyakarta-surakarta area, supporting the center. MANCA NEGARA -
outer provinces. TAWAH- SAbRONG - lands overseas, might include Moluccas, SUnda
Islands, etc., consisting of distant states and polities.

KRATON NEGARA - NEGARA AGUNG - MANCA NEGARA - TAWAH SABRONG

Part of the Tawah Sabrong send tribute to the center (NEGARA), central power. By
1914, all of Indonesia had only one center - BATAVIA - which used to be a
hinterland / periphery. For the Dutch, this was a period of change from trading
company, to colony administered by Dutch parliament, through a minister of
colonies. The Dutch deposed the hereditary kings (SUSUHUNAN and SULTANS), and
ruled directly through Batavia's representatives. They became allies, then vassals
of the Dutch.

The revenues of both the Sultans and the Dutch were based on export of rice to
China, timber (to Holland), salt (to CHina), sugar (to Europe), later on coffe and
indigo. Both sultans and the Dutch encouraged immigrant CHinese to (1) mine for
gold and tin (2) to plant and process sugar (3) to collect taxes (4) operate
markets (5)circulate goods between coast and interior.

PASISIR- coast

PEDALAMAN - interior

The natives became angry at the Chinese. Meanwhile, the VOC was allied to the
hereditary kings. the CHinese spoke Malay, later learning Javanese. The VOC was
committed to preserving monarchical rule under Dutch supervision. They employed
local methods of labor control and taxation, through forced labor, and then brief
restoration of slavery. The Javanese paid their taxes in cash - wage-workers for
Dutch enterprise. They purchased most of their daily needs rather than making
their own clothes and producing their own food. Workers were dependent on rice.
Ambonese and people from BATAK (N. Sumatra), converted to Protestant religion of
Dutch ruling class (Calvinism).

But this conversion was in part an achievement of the German missionaries

(Lutheran). Dutch Catholic missionaries did a lot of conversion in CEntral Java
(Catholic Dutch were a minority). These converts opted for careers as soldiers,
clerks and school teachers. the major languages were Malay and Javanese. Arabic
and Malay - lagnuages of religious scholarship. Malay - lingua franca of ports for
speakers of other languages. Malay, as lingua franca, was simplified.

In Batavia, Dutch was the administrative language for the maintenance of secrecy
of their records, language of their dictionaries and scientific reports. Malay
because it is the language of trade and Islamic schools, popular religious texts
of Islam. Dutch and Malay texts. A lot of dictionary were produced by Dutch. Also
excelled in linguistics, anthropology.

Dutch and Malay texts were printed in Roman alphabet for use in church services.
Malay was set in Arabic print in Islamic schools. BLIJVERS /blaivers/ and
TREKKERS, Dutch were either one of these. BLIJVERS were 'stayers' - they though of
the indies as their home. During the time of Sukarno, BLijvers were told to move
out of Indonesia. Trekkers were Dutchmen who came out to the Indies for a career
of specific length and who plan to retire in Holland.

The Dutch Blijver, in 19th century, like most Europeans in Indonesia, adopted
INDISCHEKULTUUR - 'Indies Culture' - mixed Dutch-Javanese culture, but they still
knew how to speak Dutch, while mastering Javanese.