Haley Bocko IB History Review Paper 2 Topic 1-Causes, practices and effects of wars Different types and nature

e of 20th century warfare o Civil War Fought between people of same country Similar to total war Few end in compromise Most go until one side wins or gains objective Compared to total war More bitterness Line between civilian and soldier= less clear Enemy Is not just troops but entire opposing side o Everyone chooses sides Results in the militarization of communities and rise to power of one powerful leader Usually dictatorships Intervention of other countries To take advantage of divisions Support the side that would be favorable if victorious Can arise because: People in certain regions of a country feel oppressed Political divisions Different religious ideas in a country Social conflict Lots of social pressure More personal than in other types of wars o Guerrilla Warfare Groups of civilians who took up arms to attack the enemy Smaller groups than the army operate independently to attack the enemy wherever possible Attack essential communication and supply lines Useful when fighting a bigger and better supplied army Tactics=ambush and sabotage o Limited war Not regional or international conflict o Total war All resources of a nation used by state to achieve victory No distinction between home front and fighting front Home front: people produce war materials and food to supply troops o Provides soldiers for mass armies Fighting front: where war is waged State takes over/controls production, imports, and exports Distribution of resources o Rations for food and raw materials

Whole nation encouraged by propaganda Hard to oppose conflict Total commitment needed Vital survival of the nation No compromise for peace o Until one enemy surrenders o Any thing goes Atomic bomb New weapons Mustard/ poison gas o Economic warfare to starve enemy Bombing raids to destroy economy Kill people producing resources Limits: prisoners, not mass killings

Chinese Civil War (1927-37 and 1946-49) o Origins and causes Long-term: Collapse of imperial power o Manchu Qing dynasty = fragile Major external and internal threats Increase in foreign interest in the country o After the defeat of the British in the Opium wars 1839-42 o Superpowers in the world started to carve up China among them and control her trade Emperors inability to resist this influx of foreign involvement Rising nationalist resentment and internal opposition to the imperial power Abdication of the emperor was necessary to modernize the country A military nationalistic uprising Power vacuum arose The KMT and CCP fight over later in the civil war Warlords and regionalism: o Failure to fill the power vacuum divided up China into different regions where warlords brutally exercised their power over the peasants o 1912 Yuan Shikai set up a military dictatorship Failed to resolve any of Chinas big problems Such as foreign interest in the country Died in 1916 the country descended into

chaos Not appointed a successor For the next decade powerful warlords divided up the country into independent regions As country was divided up, more people became nationalistic and wanted to unify China The social conditions under the warlords were very poor, and the exploitation of peasants would lead to later significant support for the CCP. As China was internally weak, it had to accept the TOV and grant the former German colony of Shandong to Chinas greatest enemy, Japan. This created more nationalistic feelings. o Two different political parties, the KMT and the CCP, were formed. The two parties both offered a solution to Chinas problems and they were willing to fight for it as well KMT Leader: Sun-Yat-Sen Three main principles: 1) Nationalism (take away foreign influence) 2) Peoples democracy (establish a democratic state) 3) Peoples livelihood (establish socialism, where the poor are benefitted) Under Chiang Kai-Shek Shifts right Focuses more on nationalism Leads to the white terror in Shanghai in 1927 CCP Communist ideology Mao adopts Soviet communism to Chinese conditions Revolutionize Chinese society 1) Eradicate rural poverty through collective ownership 2) Replace traditional Chinese values with CCP values 3) Abolish foreign influence especially western CCP want a central economy whilst KMT

wants to maintain capitalism Initially parties worked together to defeat regionalism Chiangs shift to the right the white terror (killing of CCP officials) what some historians have called the first Chinese civil war between 1927-37 Ideological divisions also essential to foundation of conflict in 1946

Short Term: Failure of KMT to secure single party state o Civil war inevitable o Failed to defeat the CCP in 1927 CCP severely weakened Nationalist government failed to establish control of China CCP builds up its strength and emerged as much stronger in the "united front" with KMT in 1937 against the Japanese invasion After the Japanese invasion, the fighting between KMT + CCP continued CCP had emerged in a much stronger position able to wage war against KMT End of WW2 and failure of US diplomacy: o Failure of US to secure peace in China in 1946 Proper civil war broke out between CCP and KMT in the same year Dropping of atom bombs over Hiroshima and Nagasaki meant that Japan had to withdraw from China Fighting between CCP + KMT could commence o Heavily divided between communists and nationalists, Cold war emerged in Europe US sought to stall a communist victory in China o Intervened to promote a coalition government in China between KMT + CCP General Marshall led the negotiations between Both parties were not prepared to honor the terms of the agreement in practice Were fighting again as

they moved troops into Manchuria o Nature Civil war: Lots of political ideologies involved o Not so much due to regional differences Civilians suffered greatly, bot during and in after math of war Resulted in prolonged dictatorship Tactics: Guerilla war: o Much of communist success on small scale, not in large open-order conflict Especially with Japanese opposition o Mao felt was an important part of achieving revolutionary goals Derived from masses and is supported by them If it truly represents what people want o Useful vs. Japanese and KMT Both = bigger and more equipped o Help from Russia Course: Reasons for Communist victory: After the Long March, Mao finally gained unchallenged command of the CCP Reasserting guerrilla strategy Communists set up their headquarters at Yan'an, where the movement would grow rapidly for the next ten years o Due to aggression by the Japanese Undermine the Nationalist government Loss of Manchuria, and its vast potential for industrial development and war industries, was a blow to the Nationalist economy. KMT-CCP united front against Japan Communists expanded their influence wherever opportunities presented themselves through mass organizations, administrative reforms, and the land- and taxreform measures favoring

the peasants Nationalists attempted to neutralize the spread of Communist influence The Red Army fostered an image of conducting guerrilla warfare in defense of the people Mao began preparing for the establishment of a new China Skillful organizational and propaganda work The Communists increased party membership from 100,000 in 1937 to 1.2 million by 1945. Nationalist internal reforms In vain Corruption and political and economic chaos Demoralized and undisciplined Nationalist troops proved no match for the People's Liberation Army (PLA) Nationalists exhausted by the long war with Japan and the attendant internal responsibilities Communists take over Little resistance o After Chiang Kai-shek and a few hundred thousand Nationalist troops fled from the mainland o Effects and results China remained a single party state in which individual rights and freedoms were suppressed Challenges facing the Government: After war with japan, China's economy and its people were exhausted Agriculture production had fallen because people taken away to fight o Food shortages o Industrial production had also fallen Economy bad o KMT leaders took treasury with them when they fled Rift between China and the Western powers o Cut off from trade and contact with the west, China's only source of foreign assistance was from the Soviet Union. Still had problems with some landlords o Social and ethnic divisions Effects on West and USA: US Cold War anxiety

Refuses to recognize CCP- seat in UN in Taiwan (KMT) and not PRC (chinas) seat New front in Cold War- US interpretations of USSR being the mastermind behind the CCW- cold war context.

World War 1 o Origins and causes: Long Term: Nationalism o Emergence of aggressive patriotism in Europe Austria-Hungary had a large number of ethnic groups after collapse of ottoman empire Minorities wanted independence tension France= resentment France had to give up Alsace and Lorraine to Germany in the FrancoPrussian war. Political o Colonies Growing industries needed more raw materials Scramble for Africa Colonies wanted independence o Germany and Britain arms race Disagreed over railroad from berlin to Baghdad Increase in German navy Historiography: o Britain feels threatened, which leads to their alliances with France and Russia Germany has strongest army Historiography: o Germany was determined to start a war At the height of its military power and wanted to exploit the situation Alliances o Reduced the ability to deal with responses flexibly o The Triple Alliance Germany, Italy and Austria-Hungary Nations offered to support each other militarily in the event of an attack against any of them by two or more great powers o Franco-Russian Alliance In response to Triple Alliance

Mutual military assistance if either country was attacked o Entente Cordiale Britain and France Ending conflicts o Triple Entente Britain, France and Russia Counterweight to the Triple Alliance. Economical: o Commercial Rivalry Britain dominated the market Most manufactured goods Germany closing in on France Exporting more Iron Historiography: o More British insecurity towards Germany Short Term: Assassination of Archduke Franz Ferdinand o Serbian nationalist group black hand Blank check from Germany o Kaiser Wilhelm o Allowed Austria to declare war o Nature Total war: Entire population expected to contribute to the war effort Technological developments: 75mm Field Gun Magazine rifle Machine gun Tactics: Germany o Bringing up forces by railway, dividing its forces and attacking with infantry supported by cannons Defensive: used machine guns, barbed wire and heavy big guns to defend lines o Germany sent Mexico an invitation to start a war against the US Zimmerman Telegram o Unrestricted Submarine Warfare tactic Sank US ships Trench Warfare Strategies: Land: o Germany:

Defend on eastern front and attack rapidly on the west Schlieffen Plan Distract USA so no threat

Seas: o Britain starts a blockade in the North Sea Make Germany rely solely on its internal goods Starve it o Effects and results Social: Improved status of women Social barriers undermined because of the emphasis of national unity Nationalism exploded Most killed were between 18-38 Fall in the birth rate between 1914-1918 Manpower shortage during the 1930s. Political: Increased Role of Governments o Health and education o Greater control over the private sector Spread of democratic ideals The US came out favorable in the war o The power of France, Germany, Russia, and England all declined League of Nations to prevent this from happening again Economic: Belief in need for economic self-sufficiency Economic problems due to land that was destroyed o Partially due to Trench warfare Germany ruined o Declined as world power and in general o In ruins because lost of fighting in home o Blamed for war The Treaty of Versailles Germany to blame o Lost 10% of its land o Lost All its overseas colonies With this lots of its natural resources and industries (iron and Steel) that had made it economically prosperous before o Alsace-Lorraine returned to France. o No annexation of Austria, Czechoslovakia, or Poland and Danzig o Rhineland was to be declared a demilitarized zone o Armed forces can be no larger than 100,000

No manufacturing of weapons. No importing or exporting weapons No poison gas. No tanks. Small navy, 12 destroyers, 6 battleships, and 6 cruisers o No Submarines o No military aircraft o War Guilt Clause justifies reparations. According to Germans: o Did not feel as though they started the war o Did not lose o Supposed to be a peace conference and not a surrender Effects of treaty: o Germany falls behind in its Reparation payments o French and Belgian soldiers invade the Ruhr region and sack raw materials and goods in order to compensate Allowed under the Treaty of Versailles o German government orders the workers to strike The strike aids in causing the growing inflation o French kill 100 workers and expel 100,000 protestants from the region in retaliation o o o o o

World War 2 o Origins and causes: Long-term: Versailles: o German resentment: Had expected Wilsons 14 points (not a blame game) Treaty of Versailles= unfair Many displaced due to new boundaries (land lost by Germany) Took everything Germany could use to rebuild economy recession resentment o Historiography: Orthodox: failed to solve problems and made some worse Revisionist: problem was not treaty but failure to uphold its terms Communist Russia: o With Germany defeated, no power strong enough to prevent Russia from spreading communism to Europe Not much about remilitarization

Weakness of League of Nations: o Never granted any army o Weapon=economic sanctions imposed on those who did not comply Did not have much impact because biggest economic power (US) not a member Germanys situation could not get much worse o It was completely ignored by aggressors (japan in Manchuria) Short-term: Great depression: o Hurt economy=mad people Germany really not able to recover o Break down of diplomatic system o Attempts to fix economy not prevent a war o Also aided in rise of Nazis to power End of reparations o Allowed Germany to recover economically o Showed looseness of punishments Pushed for more Failure of disarmament o Germany demanded to be considered equal at conference in Geneva to other allies in league of nations or they would quit Meaning that Germany could create an army as large as any of the other powers Granted and Germany could remilitarize Quit league because did not want to be obligated to fight in a war because of league of nations Rise of fascist leaders and appeasement o Fascism: exalts nation and often race above the individual o Britain was too weak to declare war on Germany in the beginning after ww1 o Remilitarized Germany and sought to reunite German speakers Troops in Rhineland Nazis in formally German states stir up trouble Sudetenland: voted to reunite with Germany o Hitler demands it and it is given to him o Promised not to take rest of country Does so anyways Appeasement abandoned

Nazi-soviet treaty Avoid war on two fronts Hitler attacks Poland o Britain and France declare war Orthodox view: Hitler wanted to expand Germany Revisionist: improvisation and took advantage of opportunities

o Nature Total war: Entire population expected to contribute to the war effort Mass bombing of civilians brought the front line to ordinary people People killed in Germany due to bombings = 4x number of British soldiers killed in WW1 Technological developments: Long range air craft Homing torpedoes Air craft carriers as warships o Used to be just support Tactics: Airborne assaults o Parachutes from planes o To seize or sabotage things behind enemy lines Strategies: Air: o Bombers to destroy enemys industry, cities and morale On battlefield Strategic air raids Land: o Tanks Fast, low, and heavily armored Seas: o Submarine German: Wolf-pack method Us vs. Japanese Resistance and revolutionary movements: German forces faced lots of guerrilla warfare tactics in places they occupied o Effects and results Peace (not so much) settlement Hitler kills himself o 2 front war = too much Going to lose Japan: after atomic bombs o Surrender

Results: Huge physical and economic destruction o Most killed in any war in history by far o 20 million people displaced or without homes o Aerial bombing= mass destruction over all of Europe Cities destroyed Communications and transportation destroyed Total war meant victors in same condition as losers (destruction) Political: o No redrawing of map of Europe No major treaty or peace settlement o Yalta and Potsdam: Germanys position Polands borders Fate of eastern European states Keeping future stability o Germany vanished Partitioned between US, France, Britain and Russia o Eastern European bloc: dominated by Russia o Fascism and Nazism disappeared o United nations Aimed to maintain peace, promote dialogue between nations and international cooperation (like LON) Many more nations involved in the development Vs. fascism o Balance of power changed from Europe USSR and US emerge as super powers European nations all damaged by war Economic costs meant they could not maintain overseas empires

Americas: Falklands/Malvinas (1982) o Origins and causes: Long term Dispute over sovereignty of the island o Had little strategic or economic importance or value to Britain or Argentina o Once Argentina had gained independence from Spain she laid claim to them o In 1833 the British had sent a force to protect them. o So the dispute between the two countries over the rightful ownership of these islands has a 150-year history.

Argentinian foreign Policy strategy o A stronghold in the South Atlantic o Chile=major rival Short term Political instability in Argentina led to the rise of the military junta o Dirty war = the disappeared o Increasing unpopularity Systematic execution of left-wing opponents o War was fought to divert attention Severe economic crisis o Argentina, stemmed particularly from foreign debt o British Thatchers austerity measures (privatization) to fight inflation were very divisive, all the more so due to the high unemployment. She did not plan it but used it to bolster support and to keep her image Argentina thought they had good relations with Us, so they might get aid if needed o Diplomacy failed USA failure to mediate Immediate Negotiations broke down in early 1982: o Both had faulty or unclear intelligence about the other sides intentions. March 26th the Argentinian junta order a full invasion. This occurred on April 2nd.

Topic 5: The Cold War Origins of the Cold War o Ideological differences USSR Communism: politics o No central government o Dictator ship of proletariat would fade away and society based on complete equality Communism economics o Everyone takes what they need gives according to their ability o Production community owned o Communal gain, not individual gain USA Democracy: politics o Centralized government elected by people

Capitalism: economics o Supply and demand drive motivation and economic growth o Production privately owned o Mutual suspicion and fear Communism viewed by capitalist states with mistrust and fear of it spreading Stalin attempts to take advantage of post WW2 state to increase Russian influence in Europe o Tried to occupy as much of Germany and Eastern Europe as possible USSR feared an uprising to end communism Capitalists states= hostile towards Russia o USA: Truman Suspicious of Stalin Some believe dropping atomic bomb was also directed towards Russia Look what we can do if you piss us off Did not tell Russia, their ally at the time, that they were going to do so Told Churchill about bomb o Delay to launch D-day= deliberate to exhaust USSR before ending the war o From wartime allies to post-war enemies During Russian revolution, USA and other capitalist states sent troops to help anti-communists Stalin sure there would be another attempt to destroy communism Hitler invades in 1941 USSR angry with appeasement policy of west o Yalta Conference: In Russia, between allied leaders (Roosevelt, Stalin, Churchill) Agreements: Establishment of UN o 5 permanent members each with a veto in Security Council Germany o Demilitarized o Divided between USSR, USA, France, and Britain East and West Berlin split too West=bigger than East and had the better part More industrious Eastern Europe o Stain agreed that governments of eastern Europe should have free elections Did not happen, USSR just took over Japan:

o Stalin to enter war with Japan as soon as Europes war ended Wanted land in return Dropping of bomb eliminated the need for Russias help Problems: Poland Potsdam Conference: Truman replaced Roosevelt Tougher on communists Truman did not like Russia communist government in Poland Russia promised to include more noncommunist in government from old regime but Truman not appeased Communism in Eastern Europe: Cause alarm in the west Stalin interferes with Hungary, Romania, Bulgaria, Albania, Poland Speech: Communism and Capitalism cannot coexist o War inevitable Iron Curtain Speech Addressed lack of free elections as promised in Yalta USSR compared Churchill to Hitler The grip tightens Churchill agrees to let Russia keep the satellite states o How it got control was the problem Truman Doctrine Policy of containment USA would provide economic and military assistance to prevent the spread of communism past 1947 borders Change from isolationism Inspired by Greece o Communists try to overthrow monarch Monarch restored by British but strain from fighting communistsaid from USA Marshall Plan: Economic expansion of Truman Doctrine Economic aid to rebuild after WW2 Economic recovermarkets for America exports and safeguards Economic prosperity meant less need for communism USA got to investigate money records USSR left out (had none) Dollar imperialism No satellite states or Czechoslovakia allowed to accept it o Molotov Plan in response COMECON

Council for Mutual Economic Assistance o Centralized agency linked to Eastern bloc countries to Moscow o Stimulate control of economic development

o Czechoslovakia: Moving towards west 12 noncommunist forced to resign form Gov. Foreign minister killed Elections of all communist members Protests from west, but could not prove Russian involvement o Berlin Blockade and Airlift: Disagreements over treatment of Germany West=revival o Called for unification of 4 zones o New currency East=satellite state Communists irritated that there was island of capitalism in berlin in middle of soviet zone New currency put over edge Closed all road, rail, and canal links Force west to withdrawal o West holds on fearing the results of appeasement West sends supplies by planes o Neither side wanted war so predicted that USSR would not shoot down planes Division of Germany West: German Federal Republic East: German Democratic Republic o NATO: North Atlantic Treaty Organization Collective security army Agreed to regard an attack on one of them as an attack on all of them Berlin crisis UN needs an army Warsaw Pact in response o Historiography: Traditionalists: USSR to blame Blame=most active during war US supported mutual cooperation o UN o Attempts to negotiate between USSR and Britain US acted in response to Russian hostility Revisionists: Even before start, USA had sought to limit USSR influence

USSR acted in response to USA aggression and ambition Post-revisionists: All forces played a part Nature of the Cold War o Cuba: o Cubas relative economic wellbeing Depended much on the USA as principal market for it agricultural output and investments Had been ruled by Fulgencio Batista Had degenerated into a repressive and corrupt dictatorship Communists had agreed to support the pro-Batista government in 1938, and in returned they were allows to operate as a legal political party, the Partido Socialista Popular Castro: no alternatives but a resort to armed force o Political scene was not open to opponents o 26 July 1953, led a small group of revolutionaries in Santiago, but taken prisoner Amnesty and fled to Mexico Che Guevara With him to Cuba in another coup Defeated Fled and groped with other ant-Batista forces o Batista was suggested by the USA to step down in favor of a Junta He fled the country Revolutionary forces marched into Havana and a new government was established Castro and Guevara immediately took charge of the army Castro = Prime Minister Castros rule: Typical reforms of a newly installed nationalist regime: Takeover of US companies Reduction of utility and service fees o Expect trouble with the USA Guatemala-style intervention o Move against other political factions Many middle classes into exile Counterrevolutionaries USA = hostile The CIA started recruiting o Did not declare himself a Marxist-Leninist until late 1961. o Agrarian reform took place

o Trade and credit agreements with the USSR Bought weapons from east Europe Oil from soviet=cheaper o Eisenhower cut the sugar quota In response nationalized US companies and all US banks Trade embargo o Kennedy Bay of Pigs (originally Eisenhowers idea but Kennedy ruined it) The Missile Crisis Soviets nuclear missiles in Cuba o Khrushchev: although the USSR would defend Cuba from another attack, it would not establish military bases there of its own o Refused to place offensive missiles in other countries despite USA missiles in Turkey and Western Europe Problems to be address: o Berlin Wanted to end Western occupation city An escape route for thousands of refugees Berlin Wall o Presence of American missiles in Turkey and Italy Arms race and nuclear power o Ussr far behind USA o Restore credibility in the Russian nuclear threat quickly Cuba US blockade o Wasnt working as construction of the missile sites continued o Two letters from Khrushchev Ordered the Missiles in Turkey disarmed US pledge not to invade Cuba o Arab-Israeli Conflict: o Mass immigration of Jews to Palestine Arabs mad British wanted two to live together Divide Palestine in two states was rejected by the Arabs

Unable to cope with the problem after WW2 Asked the UN to deal o Divide Palestine Independence of Israel Immediately attacked by Egypt, Syria, Jordan, Iraq and Lebanon British to blame because they did not keep troops there to keep everything peaceful US to blame using influence in UN o Israel set up by UN in 1948 in Palestine Area belonging to Palestinian Arabs Outraged Arab opinion around the world Blamed Britain = more sympathetic to Jews than to Arabs Blamed USA Supported the idea of a Jewish state very strongly Arab states refused to recognize Israel Vowed to destroy it o Achieve political and economic unity among the Arab states o End to foreign intervention in their countries Interference in the Middle East by other counties Britain and France had been involved in the Middle East for many years o Britain with Egypt Important position in the world o Crossroads between the Western nations, the communist bloc and the Third World of Africa and Asia o Oil supplies Lack of unity among the Arab sates encouraged other countries to intervene Most Arab countries = nationalist governments Bitterly resented Western influence Pro-Western govs were swept away and replaced by regimes which wanted to be non-aligned Arab countries were divided among themselves and poorly equipped Results: refugees and mass immigration of Arabs (due to mass killings of them by Jewish troops) Suez War: 1956 Nasser signed an arms deal with Czechoslovakia for Russian weapons o Russian military experts went to train the Egyptian army Americans therefore cancelled a promised grant of 46 million

for the building of the Aswan Dam o Nasser nationalizing the Suez Canal Income from it to finance the dam Secret talks between British, French and Israelis o Israel would invade Egypt across the Sinai peninsula and Europeans would step in to protect the structure from the damage Captured the entire peninsula in less than a week Britain and France bombed Egyptian airfields and marched troops in Americans refused to support Britain UN: Americans and Russians demanded an immediate ceasefire Prepared to send a UN force o Withdrew Six day war Still refused to recognize Israel Iraq ready to cooperate with Egypt to attack Israel Syria bombing Jewish settlements Egypt started mobilizing its troops to the Sinai border. USSR: flow of anti-Israeli propaganda o Israel was being supported by the USA Israelis decided that they had to attack first o Launched a series of devastating air attacks Cleared out the enemys air forces on the ground and captured the Gaza strip, the entire Sinai peninsula, the West Bank and the Golan Heights Arabs accept ceasefire Results: o Now kept the gained territories as buffer zones Arab displacement again Yom Kippur War Need for a negotiated peace settlement with Israel o Wanted US help to be mediator, but Us refused Decided to attack Israel again o Force Americans to act as mediators Russian weapons and tactics On the Jewish feast of Yom Kippur o Some early Arab success o The Israelis turn the tables Kept all territory they had captured in 1967 and even crossed the Suez Canal to Egypt USA and the USSR intervene to try to bring out a peace settlement

Acting with UN co-operation, they organized a ceasefire which both sides accepted

Results: o Hope of permanent peace o Arab states made use of the oil-weapon o The Peace treaty The state of war which had existed between the two countries since 1948 was now over Israel promised to withdrew it troops from Sinai Egypt promised not to attack Israel again and guaranteed to supply her with oil Israeli ships could use the Suez Canal o Election of the less aggressive Labour government in Israel Better relations with the Palestinians o Oslo accords Israel formally recognized the PLO The PLO recognized Israels right to exist and promised to give up terrorism The Palestinians were given self rule in the West Bank and in part of the Gaza Strip, areas occupied by Israel since 1967 o Dtente: o 1945 to 1952 there was an increase in tension o Until 1956 = improved relations between the sides In 1953 a cease fire was declared in Korea 1954 the peace agreement for Indochina was concluded Eisenhower talked about liberation this policy was more theory than practice: neither during the revolt in East Berlin in 1953 nor in Hungary 1956 did the USA plan to intervene Advocated a reduction in defense budget US away from armed conflicts Decrease the tension 3rd party congress of 1956, were Stalin was denounced and the possibility of peaceful coexistence between capitalist and communist nations was now emphasized Austrian question was solved Relations were established between the Soviet Union and Japan. Geneva= new relations Trade between East and West increased Tourists began to cross the Iron Curtain Negotiations on arms control o Tension increase up to Missile Crisis of 1962 Middle east problems Germany and berlin still not resolved Berlin wall o Extended period of dtente until the mid-1970s: Contact between the power blocs increased and several conflicts temporary solutions

After missile crisis: Washington and Moscow had seen into the abyss that a war and not interested Arms limitation and confidence-building measures between East and West o Test ban treaty of 1963 Banned nuclear testes in the atmosphere, in outer space and under water o Non-proliferation treaty was signed in 1968 Promised to refrain from transferring nuclear weapons to countries not having them Other countries promised not to accept or develop them o SALT I and SALT II o USSR and West Germany: Moscow treaty No use violence to alter existing boundaries in Europe o Four Power agreements solved a number of conflicts related to Berlin. Trade between East and West Germany was particularly important, as well as the human gains o Summits common between East and West Aimed at the mutual contact and prevention of future conflicts between the superpowers

o Vietnam: o Failure: North Vietnamese communist were not contained The loss of hundreds of thousands of American lives, billions of dollars and damaging division of U.S. public opinion The Americans pulled out in 1973. o Fear of other countries falling to communism like dominos o 1945, Ho Chi Minh declared the independence of the Democratic Republic of Vietnam. Hostilities broke out between French and Vietminh in 1946 President Roosevelt had pressured France to relinquish its hold over Vietnam Views of USA hardened when Truman became President o 1950 military aid was sent to help France defeat the Vietminh Aid continued by Eisenhower (domino theory) Funding 80% of war but not direct involvement o Geneva Accords The French would withdraw from Indochina There would be a temporary division of Vietnam at the 17 th parallel Ho Chi Minh would control the north. Free elections to unite Vietnam in 1956 Laos and Cambodia would be recognized as independent states.

o USA attempted to strengthen the area south of the 17 th parallel To resist an invasion from the north SEATO (South-East Asia Treaty Organization) Agreed to meet together if there was an armed attack on one of them and to take action o US backed Ngo Dinh Diem lead Government in south Catholic Educated USA 1955 Diem establishment of the Republic of Vietnam US aid to Diem US training of the South Vietnamese army Ruthless leader Land reforms not established 1956, Diem refused to hold elections o Groups of communists Vietcong formed themselves in military units with a political arm known as the National Liberation Front Supported by North Vietnam o Kennedy flexible response o Diem continued to generate mass discontent o Kennedy cut off its aid to the regime o Johnson inherited a situation where there was no longer a stable government in the South Where the strength of the Communists in the South was increasing o Gulf of Tonkin incident 1964 American destroyer Maddox was fired on by North Vietnamese patrol boats off the North Vietnamese coast Two days later, Maddox and Turner Joy were also allegedly fired on No physical evidence of the assault was found Open aggression Bombed North Vietnamese installations Gulf of Tonkin Resolution Authorized the President to take all necessary measures to repel any armed attack against the forces of the US and prevent further aggression Legal basis for the war in Vietnam. o Bombing in North Vietnam o Sending 100,000 ground forces to South Vietnam in 1965 o The Great Society and the credibility gap Improving civil rights, eradicating poverty, increasing access to health and education, and creating a cleaner environment Development of the credibility gap This was the difference in reality with what the Johnson administration told Congress and what was actually happening. o The Tet Offensive

o o o

War of attrition Anti-war movement was gaining support Communists launched a surprise attack on holiday Communists were gradually pushed back from all cities after the use of massive firepower Military failure for the Vietcong Hoped to trigger rebellion, but did not work Televised war Not winning Bloody Regime violated basic human rights Anti war protests reached a new peak Bombing of the North was halted and peace talks initiated Nixon was elected president in Nov 1968 Wanted American withdrawal form the war Peace with honor: the USA could not merely withdraw from Vietnam Nixon wanted a settlement that would guarantee the South a reasonable chance of survival. Henry Kissinger To use force to reach a peace agreement A bombing campaign along the Ho Chi Minh trail Vietnamization The gradual withdrawal of US troops and handing the war over to the South Vietnamese government Nixon doctrine stating that nations were responsible for their own defense. Paris Peace Talks Neither side willing to compromise North demanding that it have representation in the government of the South All sides continuing to try to win an advantage at the negotiating table by achieving an upper hand on the battlefield Us: airpower to put pressure on the Communists Nixon and Kissinger dtente with the Soviet Union and China o Aim of improving relations with these countries o Get them to put pressure on North Vietnam to agree to a peace settlement Signed in January 1973 Troops would withdraw North and South would respect the dividing line of the 17 th parallel North took the initiative By end of 1975, Vietnam, Cambodia and Laos all fallen to the forces of communism Historiography:

Most: failure Broader aims of Americas effort in Vietnam To keep capitalist democracies in South East Asia from falling to Communism o Malaysia, Thailand and Singapore all of whom faced Communist threats- survived o Renewed Tensions: o USA disappointed with the Soviet intervention in conflicts around the world o A new Globalism Ideological differences still remained There could be no peaceful ideological coexistence o Moscow strengthened its capacity to pursue a global policy o Overall level of defense was increased The navy expanded and air capacity More active in the export of armaments and in the early 1980s had surpassed USA o Invasion of Afghanistan in 1979 Close relations with the changing Afghan governments Pro-communist government assumed power Proposed only moderate reforms Growing Soviet influence Political repression and opposition to the reforms large-scale Muslim guerrilla against new communist government Soviet Union directly intervened with 90,000 troops More pro-Soviet leader installed o Arms limitation treaties had stopped and the USA now expanding its armament in NATO o Less economic and technological help from the US Us grant China advantages USA opening to China To scare USSR o US response to the Soviet invasion: Carter proposed major increases in the defense budget Grain trade was limited Exports of high technology halted Olympic games boycotted o Reagan was firmly anti-communist and had always opposed dtente USA had to act as the leader of the free world o Reagans mandate Defense budget increased dramatically Verbal attacks on the Soviet Union o The Reagan administration expected the Soviet Union to yield if the USA conducted firmly enough o Relations between the USA and the USSR were worse than at any time since the Cuban crisis in 1962.

End of the Cold War Gorbachev o Determined to revitalize Years of stagnation o Modernizing and making more efficient the communist party with the policies of glasnost and perestroika (economic and social reform). o Did not want to end communism Replace the existing system with a socialist system which was humane and democratic o Glasnost Human rights and cultural affairs Dissidents released Freedom of speech Aims: Use the media to publicize inefficiency and corruption Educate public opinion Mobilize support for the new policies o Economic affairs Small scale private enterprise allowed To provide competition for the slow and inefficient services provided by the state The hope of stimulating a rapid improvement Quality control throughout industry taken over by independent state bodies o Political changes Move towards democracy within the communist party Members of soviet elected by people rather than appointed Top party positions and factory managers would be elected Supreme Soviet replaced by smaller one Elected through a Congress of Peoples Deputies Proper parliament Reserved seats for communist party cancelled o Communist party was on the verge of losing its privileged position o Problems: Opposition from radicals and conservatives Some party members felt that reforms not drastic enough o Change to a market system as soon as possible Conservative communists o Changes too drastic o Party was losing control The economic reforms did not produce results quickly enough Wages were dependent on output Factories did not increase overall output o Instead concentrated on expensive goods o Higher wages government print more money

soaring inflation o Basic goods in short supply Nationalist pressures Soviet republics had ben under tight control in Stalins time Reforms hope for more independence o Eastern Europe Poland Solidarity popular support o Combination of economic stagnation that the government failed to resolve o Also support of Pope and Church o ReformsSolidarity legalized and won first free elections o Gorbachevs refusal to support the old Communist regime Polish Communist party collapsed East Germany Living standards well below West No sense of Eastern German nationalism People look forward for reunification Regime was unpopular o Its leader was particularly hated Pressure to remove leader Criticized the repressive system and openly demanded reforms Government wanted to use force to stop protests, but Gorbachev would not intervene if needed The politburo in power Elections were held in 1990, when parties in favor of unification won East and West Germany unified 3 October 1990 Hungary Reform from Communist Party o Reformers sacked the hard-line leader Dominated the government October 1989 a new Hungarian Republic was declared Elections took place the following year. Czechoslovakia Velvet Revolution o Little violence o People power clear driving force o Mass demonstrations calling for reform o 1989 elected president

Romania Violent One of the most repressive regimes in the East o Killing of demonstrators by the army o Uprising against the leader o Army refused to act against the demonstrators