1. Debate A debate is, basically, an argument.

That is not to say that it is an undisciplined shouting match between parties that passionately believe in a particular point of view. In fact the opposite is true. Debating has strict rules of conduct and quite sophisticated arguing techniques and you will often be in a position where you will have to argue the opposite of what you believe in. 2. Important things to be considered in having a debate, If a debate is a form of argument then it logically follows that there must be something to argue about. This is called the TOPIC. The topic changes from debate to debate. They are often about current issues of public importance ("That Canberra should have self government") or about general philosophies or ideas ("That beauty is better than brains"). All topics begin with the word "That". As in other arguments there are two sides to any topic. The team that agrees with the topic is called the AFFIRMATIVE (or the `government' in parliamentary debating) and the team that disagrees with the topic is called the NEGATIVE (or the `opposition' in parliamentary debating). When organising a debate it is important to select a topic that is appropriate to the age and education of the debaters concerned. Often topics will cover areas that the debaters have a specific interest in or, in the case of schools debates, that have been covered in classes or are current news items.

"Yung halaman para sa CAT. Kapag camias/kalamansi/mangga/gumamela yung plant, pwedeng 3 tao sa isang plant. Pero kapag hindi yan, 1 plant per person na. Tapos, dapat daw nakalagay sa plastic pot, yung black. Wala daw magpapasa ng nasa paso na babasagin. Dapat rin daw, fertile soil gagamitin. :)) Next week na ata deadline neto."

Jaycee Angeline C. Lorenzo IV-Fermi 1. Nomenclature of Ketones The carbon atom of this group has two remaining bonds that may be occupied by hydrogen or alkyl or aryl substituents. If at least one of these substituents is hydrogen, the compound is an aldehyde. If neither is hydrogen, the compound is a ketone. The IUPAC system of nomenclature assigns a characteristic suffix to these classes one to ketonesA ketone carbonyl function may be located anywhere within a chain or ring, and its position is given by a locator number. Chain numbering normally starts from the end nearest the carbonyl group. In cyclic ketones the carbonyl group is assigned position #1, and this number is not cited in the name, unless more than one carbonyl group is present. Examples of IUPAC names are provided (in blue) in the following diagram. Common names are in red, and derived names in black. In common names carbon atoms near the carbonyl group are often designated by Greek letters. The atom adjacent to the function is alpha, the next removed is beta and so on. Since ketones have two sets of neighboring atoms, one set is labeled , etc., and the other ', ' etc. Very simple ketones, such as propanone and phenylethanone (first two examples in the left column), do not require a locator number, since there is only one possible site for a ketone carbonyl function. 2. Occurrence of Aldehydes and Ketones Natural Products Aldehydes and ketones are widespread in nature, often combined with other functional groups. For example, carvone is found as its levorotatory (R)enantiomer in spearmint oil, whereas, caraway seeds contain the dextrorotatory (S)-enantiomer. Note that the aldehyde function is often written as CHO in condensed or complex formulas.

warranted, since both have a double bond functional group. Because of the greater electronegativity of oxygen, the carbonyl group is polar, and aldehydes and ketones have larger molecular dipole moments (D) than do alkenes. The resonance structures on the right illustrate this polarity, and the relative dipole moments of formaldehyde, other aldehydes and ketones confirm the stabilizing influence that alkyl substituents have on carbocations (the larger the dipole moment the greater the polar character of the carbonyl group). We expect, therefore, that aldehydes and ketones will have higher boiling points than similar sized alkenes. Furthermore, the presence of oxygen with its nonbonding electron pairs makes aldehydes and ketones hydrogen-bond acceptors, and should increase their water solubility relative to hydrocarbons. Specific examples of these relationships are provided in the following table. For a review of the intermolecular forces that influence boiling points and water solubility Click Here. Compound (CH3)2C=CH2 (CH3)2C=O CH3CH2CH2CH=CH2 CH3CH2CH2CH=O Mol. Wt. 56 58 70 72 96 Boiling Point -7.0 C 56.5 C 30.0 C 76.0 C 103.0 C Water Solubility 0.04 g/100 infinite 0.03 g/100 7 g/100 insoluble

98

155.6 C

5 g/100

3. Synthetic Preparation of Aldehydes and Ketones Aldehydes and ketones are obtained as products from many reactions discussed in previous sections of this text. The following diagram summarizes the most important of these. To review the previous discussion of any of these reaction classes simply click on the number (1 to 5) or descriptive heading for the group. 4. Properties of Aldehydes and Ketones A comparison of the properties and reactivity of aldehydes and ketones with those of the alkenes is

The polarity of the carbonyl group also has a profound effect on its chemical reactivity, compared with the nonpolar double bonds of alkenes. Thus, reversible addition of water to the carbonyl function is fast, whereas water addition to alkenes is immeasurably slow in the absence of a strong acid catalyst. Curiously, relative bond energies influence the thermodynamics of such addition reactions in the opposite sense. The C=C of alkenes has an average bond energy of 146 kcal/mole. Since a CC -bond has a bond energy of 83 kcal/mole, the -bond energy may be estimated at 63 kcal/mole (i.e. less than the energy of the sigma bond). The C=O bond energy of a carbonyl group, on the other hand, varies with its location, as follows: H2C=O RCH=O R2C=O 170 kcal/mole 175 kcal/mole 180 kcal/mole

The CO -bond is found to have an average bond energy of 86 kcal/mole. Consequently, with the exception of formaldehyde, the carbonyl function of aldehydes and

ketones has a -bond energy greater than that of the sigma-bond, in contrast to the pi-sigma relationship in C=C. This suggests that addition reactions to carbonyl groups should be thermodynamically disfavored, as is the case for the addition of water. All of this is summarized in the following diagram (H values are for the addition reaction).

Although the addition of water to an alkene is exothermic and gives a stable product (an alcohol), the uncatalyzed reaction is extremely slow due to a high activation energy . The reverse reaction (dehydration of an alcohol) is even slower, and because of the kinetic barrier, both reactions are practical only in the presence of a strong acid. The microscopically reversible mechanism for both reactions was described earlier. In contrast, both the endothermic addition of water to a carbonyl function, and the exothermic elimination of water from the resulting geminal-diol are fast. The inherent polarity of the carbonyl group, together with its increased basicity (compared with alkenes), lowers the transition state energy for both reactions, with a resulting increase in rate. Acids and bases catalyze both the addition and elimination of water. Proof that rapid and reversible addition of water to carbonyl compounds occurs is provided by experiments using isotopically labeled water. If a carbonyl reactant 16 composed of O (colored blue above) is treated with water 18 incorporating the O isotope (colored red above), a rapid exchange of the oxygen isotope occurs. This can only be explained by the addition-elimination mechanism shown here.