Waste Management 33 (2013) 251254

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Waste Management
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A Glance at the World

Edited by Maria Cristina Lavagnolo This column comprises notes and info not subjected to peer-review focusing on waste management issues in different corners of the world. Its aim is to open a window onto the solid waste management situation in any given country, major city or signicant geographic area that may be of interest to the scientic and technical community.

Analysis of the daily per capita generation of municipal solid waste in the central region of Veracruz Mxico, using a statistical experimental design
The Mexican General Law for the Prevention and Integrated Waste Management published in the Mexican Ocial Daily of the Federation in 2007, establishes that the municipalities are the responsible for the integrated waste management (IWM) of MSW. To fulll this responsibility, it is essential that the municipalities and local authorities have reliable information on the generation of MSW based on direct sampling. Currently, the available data in Mexico are scarce (Bernache, 2003) and are based on individual projects and surveys. As a result, the information is isolated and disjointed and cannot be integrated into a global system. The Mexican Ministry of Environment and Natural Resources and the Mexican National Ecology Institute have reported that the variation in the per capita generation of MSW presents statistical features during the week, since an apparent rate of MSW decreased on Wednesdays and Thursdays compared with other days. However, the formal evidence to support this observation has not been provided. So far, most studies in Mexico on this subject have been conducted in metropolitan areas, leaving aside the small urban localities, which according to the Mexican Ministry of Social Development (SEDESOL) have a population of between 15.000 and 50.000 habitants. This is the case of the small urban localities of Xico, Banderilla and Coatepec, which are located in the central highlands of Veracruz, Mexico, and deposit their MSW in Pinoltepec, Veracruz landll, which at the same time complies partly with the Mexican environmental regulations. These localities do not have surveys of their per capita generation of MSW and its daily variation; therefore, the generation of this information is not only necessary, but also urgent in order for the municipalities to plan an IWM. The objectives of this study were to determine the per capita generation of MSW in Xico, Banderilla and Coatepec and to determine whether signicant statistic differences exist in the per capita generation between the days of the week through a statistical experimental design of one factor. Materials and methods For this research, the ofcial guideline established in the Mexican standard NMX-AA-61-1985 Environmental protection

soil contamination-municipal solid residues-determination of generation was followed. For the selection of households to sample we used a stratied random sampling method based on that the localities of Xico, Coatepec, and Banderilla are organized in blocks and these in households. The procedure implied the identication and numbering of all the blocks and households in maps of urban traces and the determination of the sample size of the blocks and consequently of the households. To determine the number of residents and socioeconomic status a survey was applied on Friday prior to the week of sampling. On the same day, a polyethylene bag was delivered to collect MSW generated on Friday to Sunday (clean operation). The MSW were collected the following Monday, which also corresponded to the rst day of the week of sampling. At the same time, a new bag labeled for depositing the MSW generated in the following 24 h was delivered. All the bags were closed with rubber bands and carried out to the site of separation. The bags were weighed and the data were recorded in the corresponding eld surveys. To determine the per capita MSW generation in kg/inhab-day, the weight of MSW was divided by the number of household residents. The grand mean of the per capita MSW generation was obtained through the average of the average per capita MSW generation per household for each of the localities. Finally, to calculate the daily average per capita MSW generation, a matrix of the per capita MSW generation was elaborated, sorted by day of the week and sampled households. These per capita MSW generation values were averaged for the 7 days of the week. In the rst analysis of this study, hypothesis testing was selected for the mean with unknown variance, using statistic t-Student with 95% of condence, to prove if the per capita MSW generation reported by SEDESOL for small urban locations is higher than per capita MSW generation of the three localities under study, according to the following statement:

H0 : l > l0

H 1 : l 6 l0

where l is the per capita MSW generation reported by SEDESOL and updated (0.674 kg /inhab-day) and l0 is the per capita MSW of the sample (per capita MSW generation in Xico, Banderilla and Coatepec). In the case of the experimental design, a statistical analysis was proposed to verify whether there were signicant differences in the per capita MSW generation between the days of the week. The data from this study were the per capita MSW generation

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Fig. 1. Per capita daily MSW generation in the localities of Xico, Banderilla and Coatepec, Veracruz, Mxico.

Table 1 ANOVA. One way analysis of daily MSW generation per capita in Xico, Banderilla and Coatepec, Veracruz, Mxico. Source DF Sum of Squares Mean Square F Ratio 0.3229 Prob > F 0.9251

Analysis of Variance of Xico, Veracruz, Mxico Day 6 0.35082 0.05847 Error 553 100.15112 0.181105 C. Total 559 100.50194 Analysis of Variance of Banderilla, Veracruz, Mxico Day 6 4.16775 0.694625 Error 553 306.76324 0.554726 C. Total 559 310.93099 Analysis of Variance of Coatepec, Veracruz, Mxico Day 6 0.492043 0.082007 Error 868 78.905029 0.090904 C. Total 874 79.397071

1.2522

0.2779

0.9021

0.4926

Fig. 1 shows the per capita daily MSW generation of the three sites under study during the week of sampling. The data shows that there were differences between the per capita daily MSW generation in all the localities, presenting the greatest difference in Banderilla according to the standard deviation obtained from 0.093, and less difference in Xico and Coatepec with standard deviation values of 0.027 and 0.026 respectively. The per capita MSW generation was higher in the early days of the week in Xico and Banderilla. Coatepec did not comply with the same behavior. This analysis also revealed that the lowest per capita MSW generation values were on Friday, possibly because the greater percentage of the population of these localities perceive a very low income (over 90% of the active population receives less than ve minimum wages) and get their payment usually on Saturdays. Therefore, on Friday, the purchasing power of the population is reduced considerably.

Statistical experimental design of per capita daily MSW generation values obtained from each household in each day of the week of sampling. The design used was of one factor with a condence level of 95%. The factor studied was the days of the week and the response variable was the per capita MSW generation. The ANOVA was conducted to identify statistically signicant effects of the proposed design. To make this design JMP statistical software version 5.0 was used. MSW generation A total of 1,995 MSW samples were collected from the three cities of study throughout the entire week of sampling in the winter season. The daily production of MSW per location as well as the total number of households included in the study was 285 and the sampled population 1357. The number of residents for each household varied between 1 and 14. The individual amount of MSW collected in Xico, Banderilla and Coatepec was 880 kg, 961 kg and 1246.7 kg, respectively. Thus, the total amount of MSW collected and analyzed in this study was of 3087.7 kg. This study also revealed that the average per capita generation of MSW was 0.384 kg/inhab-day in the locality of Xico, 0.379 kg/inhabday in Banderilla and 0.355 kg/inhab-day in Coatepec. These values were clearly lower than the per capita MSW generation of 0.674 kg/ inhab-day. The statistical evidence showed the acceptance of the null hypothesis. The per capita MSW generation in Xico, Banderilla and Coatepec was also lower compared to the MSW generated in the small urban localities in the state of Michoacn, (Buenrostro et al., 2001). This can be due to factors like level and living conditions of the people, customs (for example, festivals of each location), consumption patterns, economic activities, purchasing power of the population, season of the year, existing tourist areas and weather. Table 1 shows, the analysis of variance (ANOVA) of the per capita daily MSW generation for the localities of Xico, Banderilla and Coatepec respectively, where the p-value is greater than 0.05 for all the localities, indicating that there were no signicant statistical differences in the per capita MSW generation between the days of the week with a condence level of 95%. Therefore, results obtained under the specic conditions of this study including methodology, socioeconomic and geographic characteristics do not support the observation of previous authors with regard to differences in the generation of MSW between the days of the week.

Final remarks In this study we found that the per capita MSW generation value for small urban localities estimated by Mexican government agencies, such as SEDESOL, has been overestimated, leading possibly to an inadequate design of municipal programs for the prevention and integrated management of MSW, and therefore, causing unnecessary investment and operating costs in MSW treatment. In the literature it has been suggested, without statistical support, that the day of the week is a factor that may affect the generation of MSW. Although our results showed a daily variation in the per capita MSW generation, this was not statistically signicant different. The information generated in this study will not only support authorities of the municipalities of Xico, Banderilla and Coatepec, Veracruz, Mexico to plan the frequency and design of collection routes, but it will also serve as a reference for other small urban localities in the same state of Veracruz, or other states in Mexico with the same socioeconomic characteristics or customs. Similar

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studies must be extended to other regions and include other factors such as the season of the year. Acknowledgements We would like to thank CONACYT Mexico for nancially supporting this research and to Ph.D. Adriana Sumoza-Toledo for her invaluable support. References
Bernache, G., 2003. The environmental impact of municipal waste management: the case of Guadalajara metro area. Resources, Conservation and Recycling 39 (3), 223237.

Buenrostro, O., Bocco, G., Bernache, G., 2001. Urban solid waste generation and disposal in Mexico: a case study. Waste Management & Research 19, 169176.

Lorena De Medina-Salas Eduardo Castillo-Gonzlez Luis Omar Jamed-Boza Facultad de Ingeniera Qumica, Universidad Veracruzana, Xalapa, Veracruz, Mexico Rabindranarth Romero-Lpez Facultad de Ingeniera Civil, Universidad Veracruzana, Xalapa, Veracruz, Mexico

Energy potential of municipal solid waste for power generation in Nigeria

Nigeria has a population of over 150 million people and generates 0.440.66 kg/capita/day of MSW which amounts to a waste density ranging from 280 to 370 kg/m3 from thirty-six states, a Federal Capital Territory, and 774 Local Government council Areas. At a population and economic growth rate of 2.03% and 7.3% respectively, energy consumption and waste generation is expected to soar over the next few years, driven by industrialisation, urbanisation, and population growth. With the volume of solid waste generation rapidly increasing, dump sites have become a common sight on most undeveloped land, streets/roads and environs of all Nigerian cities. Therefore, solid waste management has emerged as one of the greatest challenges facing government environmental protection agencies in Nigeria today as the volume of solid waste being generated continues to increase at a faster rate than the ability of the agencies to improve on the nancial and technical resources needed to parallel this growth. Solid waste management in Nigeria is currently characterized by inefcient collection methods, improper disposal of solid waste, open air incineration with no emissions control and no signicant recycling programs. However, limited recycling programs have been observed where scavengers look for recyclables items such as cans, plastics, bottles, and papers for resale or reuse, with sanitary landll limited or no funding available for solid waste management. Waste To Energy (WTE) adoption in Nigeria is currently not feasible due to lack of adequate data on generation rates, composition, caloric value, technology, strength of solid waste management policy and enforcement, environmental education and awareness among other factors affecting solid waste scenario in Nigeria. The objective of this paper is to characterize Nigerian MSW and determine its caloric value, its physical and chemical properties, and to evaluate the potential energy exploitable from it for power generation from direct incineration, as MSW can be seen as a resource to be exploited rather than a waste requiring disposal. Studies on the quantity, generation rate and composition of solid wastes in several cities in Nigeria have been reported in Ogwueleka (2009). In this paper the various laws and regulations promulgated by The Federal Government of Nigeria to protect the environment are outlined, amongst which include the Federal Environmental Protection Agency Act of 1988, and 1999. Under this FEPA Act, each state and local government in the country set up its own environmental protection body for the protection and improvement of the environment within its jurisdiction. The present state of this act sees the Federal Government experimenting with the privatization of this sector, where homes and ofces with-

in the municipality enjoy the luxury of having their garbage cleared by paid waste disposal contractors; their counterparts in satellite areas make use of local truck pushers commonly referred to as mai bola (Hausa word for refuse collector) by depositing it in National Integrated dumpsites where mass incineration of solid waste in the open environs with no effort to control emissions. This paper presents the energy potential of MSW in Nigeria for power generation by adopting WTE. Materials and methods Samples of raw MSW weighing 15 kg were each randomly sourced and selected from dumpsites in eight cities, whose waste were generated by different activities and harboured the largest populations, becoming the economic nerve of the respective states. The total amount of waste collected was 105 kg. The sampling was done between January and February, a period of dry season in most Nigerian cities. The collected wastes were weighed and placed on a precleaned at surface where segregation of the waste to its components was carried out. Segregated waste components were weighed and the samples were analyzed further for their physical and chemical characteristics. Caloric value determination was in accordance with ASTM E 711-87. Results Sorting the municipal solid waste samples according to their possible generation sources showed that the residential sector contributes the largest amount of waste, accounting for 57.5%, followed by the commercial sector estimated at 26.9%, and the waste generated by various institutions at 10.8 percent. Industries generate a small amount of solid waste, namely 2.5% and others contribute 2.3% respectively. Ninety per cent of the total urban waste is contributed by the residential and commercial sectors. Fig. 1 shows the waste stream distribution for the various cities where the waste samples were collected. The constituent materials present in the MSW waste stream of each dump site was similar except that the amounts and proportion present in each waste sample differed in quantity, which is determined by the type of activity dominant in the environment. The average percentage composition of various components in the waste stream showed that 49% of the entire waste constituted organic component, 8% paper and cardboard, 22% plastics and rubber, 1.5% glass, 2.5% metal and cans, 2% textile, and 9% residue. MSW was put through an ultimate analysis, proximate analysis and caloric value presented in Table 1 above. The proximate analysis revealed 35.28% volatile matter (VM), 4.27% Fixed Carbon (FC) and 4.2% Ash Content (Ash), while the Ultimate analysis revealed

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Fig. 1. Waste stream characteristics from sample dumpsites in eight cities.

Table 1 Physical and chemical properties. Net caloric value (MJ/kg) (dry) Net caloric value (MJ/kg) (wet) Proximate analysis (wet) Moisture content Volatile matter content Fixed carbon content Ash content Ultimate (elemental) analysis (dry) Carbon content Hydrogen content Nitrogen content Oxygen content Sulphur content Chlorine content Heavy metal Cadmium (Cd) Chromium (Cr) Mercury (Hg) plumbum (Pb) Chlorine (Cl) 17.32 MJ/kg 11.38 MJ/kg Weight (%) 49.90 38.28 5.80 5.75 Weight (%) 51.30 6.77 1.42 30.12 1.34 0.83 ppm 0.99 14.41 0.27 26.27 8.84

ally were seen to have higher moisture content than the samples collected in the northern cities. This is attributable to the portable water sachets and variation in climatic conditions. MSW in Nigeria occupies a sizeable amount of land that has not been properly documented. However, in this study, being as this data was not readily available for urban areas, a rough assessment was made of: the total amount of waste placed in all the landlls and large open dumps in the urban area amounting to about an average amount of 900 million kg waste per day (10,800 million metric tons per year), calculated by taking into account the urban populations; waste generation rate per person per year; fraction of waste land lled; and the number of years land lling that has taken place. With the average caloric value of Nigerian MSW, as indicated above, a simple evaluation was carried out to determine the amount of energy that could be recovered if the MSW were to be incinerated. The evaluation was based on the net amount of energy that could be obtained per tonne of MSW. On the basis of an incineration plant operating at a level of 1500 ton of MSW/day from the MSW assessed in this work, about 6,132,000 kWh of electricity can be produced annually. Final remarks The assessment of MSW for power generation in a Nigeria has been presented in the study. MSW can be a good fuel source in Nigeria, even though the amount of organic waste is high. The sampling and sorting by source provided a good understanding of waste characteristics generated in Nigerian cities and its suitability for power generation by incineration. Energy recovery from waste by incineration will be a very good option for Nigeria producing about 6,132,000kWh of electricity annually on the basis on a 1500 ton of MSW/day. Reference
Ogwueleka, T.C., 2009. Municipal solid waste characteristics and management in Nigeria. Iranian Journal of Environmental Health Science & Engineering 6, 173 180.

51.30% Carbon, 6.77% Hydrogen, 1.34% Sulphur and 30.12% Oxygen Content. Moreover, Heavy metals Analysis revealed the compositions of the respective heavy metals as 14.41% Cr, 0.27% Hg, and 0.99% Cd, 26.27% Pb and 8.84% Cl. the order in which the heavy metals varied from the most signicant to the least signicant metals was Pb > Cr > Cl > Cd > Hg. A signicant part of the result is the moisture content which shows that the waste can be very wet. This is due to the fact that Nigeria is a country in the tropics and enjoys adequate rainfall and the water is trapped in the polythene sachet from portable drinking water popularly known as pure water. Most recently, polythene waste from pure water constitutes a signicant proportion of MSW, and this has a caloric value of 14.89MJ/kg which is also highly combustible and will aid incineration. The caloric test was classied into dry and wet, on the basis of their moisture content. A caloric value of 11.38 MJ/kg was obtained for the mixed waste (wet) obtained, which is much lower than the average caloric value of 17.23 MJ/kg for the oven dried MSW. This is attributed to lower ame and the ignition temperatures of the constituent wastes in the timed combustion experiment, to the composition of the waste, the relative percentage of moisture and inert materials which adds to the heat loss, and the size and shape of the constituents. The MSW obtained from the southern cities gener-

Ityona Amber Daniel M. Kulla Nicholas Gukop Department of Mechanical Engineering, Ahmadu Bello University, Zaria, Nigeria